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Multifaceted Nature of Intrinsic Motivation: The Theory of 16 Basic Desires
Abstract
R. W. White (1959) proposed that certain motives, such as curiosity, autonomy, and play (called intrinsic motives, or IMs), have common characteristics that distinguish them from drives. The evidence that mastery is common to IMs is anecdotal, not scientific. The assertion that "intrinsic enjoyment" is common to IMs exaggerates the significance of pleasure in human motivation and expresses the hedonistic fallacy of confusing consequence for cause. Nothing has been shown scientifically to be common to IMs that differentiates them from drives. An empirically testable theory of 16 basic desires is put forth based on psychometric research and subsequent behavior validation. The desires are largely unrelated to each other and may have different evolutionary histories. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... peer-reviewed research studies (e.g., Reiss et al. 2001;Havercamp and Reiss 2003;Reiss and Havercamp 1998;Reiss 2004;Reiss and Havercamp 2005;Reiss 2005) and the practical value presented in an increasing number of studies and publications, for example, in the areas of psychology and leadership (Reiss and Wiltz 2004;Olsen and Chapin 2007;Reiss 2008;Mengel 2012;Mayor and Risku 2015;Chudzicka-Czupala and Basek 2019;Morawski and Jabłonowska-Luba 2021). ...
... Another explanation for the low explanatory power is related to Reiss's (2004) theory, which conceptualized human behavior as a function of instincts, drives, needs, and tensions. However, there might be some other factors than motives that influence these aforementioned three aspects (stress, recovery, and sleep), such as physical inactivity, overweight, workload, and work-related stress (Föhr et al. 2016). ...
... Related to light PA, we found that when the need for Physical Activity increased, the amount of light PA decreased. People with an increased need for Physical Activity are typically more interested in vigorous physical exercise that includes sweating and are more effective for growing muscles, staying fit, and being more physical (Reiss 1998(Reiss , 2004(Reiss , 2008. ...
Aim
Teaching is known as a high-stress occupation. Managing fatigue and promoting work engagement, teachers’ expectations and perceptions can impact work-related stress–recovery–balance and physical activity levels. The main objective of the current study was to investigate the relationship between intrinsic motivational factors and the autonomic nervous system, such as heart rate and heart rate variability regulation, sleep, and physical activity levels.
Methods
The research included 66 primary and high school teachers in Tampere, Finland, in 2020–2021. The Reiss Motivation Profile® (RMP) was selected as an instrument to provide a practical approach to understanding people’s intrinsic motivators and the effects of those on the Firstbeat®-measured heart rate and heart rate variability, and accelerometry. Stepwise multiple linear regression models were used to assess whether the RMP motives reflected Firstbeat®-measured outcomes.
Results
Motives such as Acceptance, Eating, Family, Physical Activity, Power, Tranquillity, and Vengeance were found to have a relationship with Firstbeat®-measured outcomes. An increase in the Physical Activity motive was related to lower stress and less light physical activity. Furthermore, an increase in the Physical Activity motive showed a relationship with better recovery and a higher amount of vigorous physical activity. However, the statistical analysis of heart rate and heart rate variability showed only low explanatory power (R ² = 0.111–0.140) for stress, recovery, and sleep. On the contrary, the explanatory power of measurements related to physical activity and sedentary behavior was higher (R ² = 0.171–0.298). In addition, the need for Acceptance as an important intrinsic motive that may prevent people from vigorous physical activity deserves further research.
Conclusion
The results indicated that there are several factors affecting the autonomous nervous system but also behavior. The basic desires explained sedentary and physical activity behavior better than the functioning of the autonomic nervous system. The 16 life motives can serve as a valuable theory for understanding better how to encourage people to have healthier habits.
... If the important needs of the target group are not fulfilled or even frustrated, the UX will not be positive. Besides the set of needs mentioned by Hassenzahl [7] in the scope of UX design, a variety of typologies have been proposed, each consisting of a broad range of different needs [5][6][7][8][9][10][11]. They all focus on creating positive experiences and wellbeing, while varying the number of needs featured in each set. ...
... The needs mentioned by Hassenzahl [7] are based on the ten psychological needs by Sheldon and colleagues [9]. Another topology is defined by Reiss [11], focusing on the aspect of desires that lead to motivation for an interaction. The two aforementioned models have also inspired the creation of other need taxonomies e.g., [5]. ...
... Family Desire to raise own children and make your decisions in their best interest. Adapted from Reiss, 2004 [11] Bonding Having warm, trusting interpersonal relations, characterized by empathy and affection. Ryff, 1989 [29] (need "positive relations with others") ...
Adopting a need-based approach can help companies to create products and services that are preferred by their customers and improve their well-being, thus providing a competitive advantage. To put need-based designs into practice, it would be interesting to know how innovative product and service ideas can address the needs of a specific target group in a specific business domain. This paper presents an approach for (a) identifying such target group-specific need sets based on an online survey and (b) integrating them into the company’s innovation processes as part of a Need-based Creativity Workshop. To illustrate and validate this approach, we present a case study that investigates varying need subsets for two different user groups of future banking products and services in France: adults with and without families. Our study shows that a different set of needs is important for each group and reflects upon the benefits and challenges of a target group-specific, need-based design approach to leverage a company’s potential for innovation.
... Answering this, we seek to contribute to this shortcoming by identifying references to buffer TB in a theory guided manner. For this, we consult the theory of 16 basic desires, which is a motivational theory postulating that the intrinsic desires of power, curiosity, independence, status, social contact, vengeance, honor, idealism, physical exercise, romance, family, order, eating, acceptance, tranquility, saving hold the potential to explain a wide array of individual behaviors [12,13]. Within the context of MOBAs and despite some incomplete attempts [14] the theory of basic desires has never been holistically applied in relation to TB. Building on this, we aim to better understand two different aspects related to the occurrence of TB. ...
... Accordingly, theories and approaches such as Maslow's hierarchy of human needs [16], McClelland's three needs theory [25], and Herzberg's motivation theory [26], have been widely applied. A theory originated from Maslow's [16] hierarchy of human needs and William James' theory of internal desires [27], enjoying less attention up to now due to their datadriven origin and their alternative conceptualization of motivation is the theory of basic desires [12]. However, we argue that the theory of basic desires is a particularly suitable approach within the context of TB because it covers a wide array of potential starting points to curb resulting behaviors such as TB. ...
... However, we argue that the theory of basic desires is a particularly suitable approach within the context of TB because it covers a wide array of potential starting points to curb resulting behaviors such as TB. Opposed to other dualistic motivation theories differentiating intrinsic and extrinsic motivations, the conceptualization of the theory of basic desires postulates a multifaceted theory recognizing a number of genetically distinct motives of individuals [12]. Specifically, the theory states that individuals differ themselves in 16 different basic desires (i.e., power, curiosity, independence, status, social contact, vengeance, honor, idealism, physical exercise, romance, family, order, eating, acceptance, tranquility, and saving). ...
Within the context of multiplayer online battle arena video games (MOBAs) toxic behavior (TB) remains a complex and yet unsolved socio-technological challenge. While significant work has been done recently, there is a lack of theory-guided approaches for curbing TB. In this work, we test the motivational theory of basic desires for explaining the occurrence of TB. For this, we used a survey approach and collected a sample consisting of players of the
successful MOBAs League of Legends and Dota 2 (n = 308). Using a PCA, results indicate two underlying factors of the 16 basic desires (i.e., physiological and social factors). Consequently, both factors hold the potential to explain TB. In addition, the predisposition age showed a significant influence on TB in our sample. These findings highlight the 16 basic desires as a promising frame for understanding the antecedents of TB.
... A similar need for community involvement was also found in other individuals who supported projects to satisfy their desire to support causes or people, to reap rewards, and/or to have social approval [59]. Finally, as demonstrated by [74], one of the main motivations for those who support crowdfunding campaigns is the need to satisfy psychological needs for social contact and to identify with a group of individuals who share the same interests. ...
... A third factor driving backers to support a given project, after the intrinsic motivations and the social reasons, refers to the extrinsic motivations, i.e., the motivations of those who decide to finance a project on the basis of the expectation of receiving a reward or compensation in exchange for their support [30,62,74]. ...
... Comments such as these ones suggest how the company managed to involve the backers, not only in financing the project but also in the development of the game, and of its components. This, in addition to increasing their sense of community, created a greater bond with the product, allowing backers to satisfy their community belonging needs [74]. Finally, giving away prizes to receive unique and personalized components of the product stimulated individual participation in the community. ...
Reward-based crowdfunding has emerged in recent years as an interesting channel business that can leverage to obtain new financial resources outside the traditional ones. In this study, we explore how the creators of a reward-based crowdfunding campaign have engaged the crowd to create value and co-create knowledge to reduce both financial and market risks. Accordingly, we analyze the case study of the Kickstarter Campaign for Pathfinder Arena, a board game created by Giochi Uniti, an Italian Gaming Company. Through the lens of the social identity theory, we show that backers can generate the feedback processes needed to improve the product, when they want to belong in a community and when they want to interact with the creators. This research could have important implications for both researchers and future creators of reward-based crowdfunding projects, showing them the way to implement some instrument for involving the crowd to generate value.
... Thus, making the safety needs function as organizers of behavior (Maslow, 1943, p. 376). Reiss (2004) claims that the needs for safety derives from order, a desire to organize, this includes also a desire for establishing common rituals. For example: the animal behavior behind a cleaning ritual is to promote cleanliness, thus promoting health. ...
... 20). However, this query is being quickly dismantled by Reiss (2004), which argues that freedom and independence are one of the sixteen basic human desires (p. 187). ...
... 381). While Reiss (2004) categorizes the need for belonging as a basic human need, he names the motive as the need for social contact, by having peer companionship, and the intrinsic motivation behind being fun (p. 187). ...
This document is concerned with analyzing the current state of the technical diving community. More specifically, the work conducted in the scope of this project focused specifically on the community and the people within it. Furthermore, the effects of changes in the diving world were analyzed in conjunction with, and their effects upon, said community. The technical diving community as part of the scuba world can be viewed as a relatively small group of individuals which take their hobby or even profession to the extreme. However, very little is known about the state of the community as a whole, and the excessive costs connected with the activity, as well as the amount of time investment needed, can lead to the impression that there may be an ongoing decrease in the number of active technical divers, and that the community itself may be heading for a potential crisis. The aim of this dissertation, thus, is to analyze and assert the extent and scope of the aforementioned changes in the community, and to create a clearer picture of the current state it finds itself in. To this end, a qualitative approach was selected, rather than a quantitative one. The quantitative data used in this paper is therefore taken from other sources, and not conducted by the authors. To satisfy the qualitative approach, a series of interviews were conducted, to more directly allow the creation of an understanding of the collected quantitative data. Demographically speaking, a widely spread sample of people were chosen, to allow a 360-degree view of the situation in the community, and to potentially reveal further issues or discrepancies between different groups connected to technical diving. The empirical results of the interviews were finally analyzed using the three main categories of the Unified Human Motivation Model intrapsychic, instrumental, and interpersonal, as well as gender biases according to the Leaky Pipeline Model. This created a detailed understanding of a wide range of factors that influence the motivation of different individuals in their tech diving activities. Furthermore, it allows a roundabout perspective of the community, differentiating the different views of the unique individuals on certain topics. The final recommendations and the conclusion resulting from the work conducted were drawn up, showing that the main issues that confront the tech diving community is security, empowerment and belonging. Divers need to be able to feel safe with their abilities, their equipment, and their instructors in order to feel good about diving. Furthermore, the costs can prevent many people from even considering the hobby, as they cannot afford it.
... The rewards play a crucial part in the development of a successful game. Studying human psychology and intrinsic motivation, researched that various end goals are distinct sources of motivation [23]. ...
... Hedonists distinguished two global categories of goals associated with pleasure enhancement and pain reduction-drives and intrinsic motives [23]. A theory of motivation by [23] discusses fundamental needs, values, and drives that motivate a person [24]. ...
... Hedonists distinguished two global categories of goals associated with pleasure enhancement and pain reduction-drives and intrinsic motives [23]. A theory of motivation by [23] discusses fundamental needs, values, and drives that motivate a person [24]. Rewards like coins, badges, weapons, tools, and upgrades hit a note in the minds of players associated with Reiss's 16 basic desires [25]. ...
We are often asked not to judge a book by its cover. However, based on cognitive science, humans broadly connect the performance of a product and its aesthetic appeal by assuming that visually joyful products must be good enough. It is an amalgamation of new-age wireframe technologies, human psychology, design language, realistic feedback testing, and user-centered design. This paper studies the impacts of the new age interaction design on the game industry and computing systems. Gamification is projected as a motivation rostrum through UX while challenging cognitive abilities and developing gameplay as visual appeal, human psychology, voluntary motivation, and engaging interface. This paper envelopes the concept of game design with correspondence to aesthetics and UX, which deals with human–computer interaction and human psychology. The paper covers different sectors of computing systems that deal with the hardware and software, look, feel, accessibility and usability. Additionally, suggesting the UX design department, which has not been in the limelight yet, needs to clinch more significance. The aftermath of this paper points towards creating a comprehensible, urbane life that reflects in the products we utilize, gamification, and hardware and software computing systems.
... Accordingly, employees could have more than one motive, for example, meeting challenges, discovering new horizons or contributing to a better world (Reiss & Havercamp, 1998;Vroom, 1964). The desired outcomes employees seek to achieve through innovative work behaviour differ widely between individuals (Reiss, 2004;Van Eerde & Thierry, 1996) and are highly context-dependent (Renko et al., 2012;Vroom, 1964). On the one hand, it is important to use an encompassing concept so that the resultant motivational forces cover reality in the best possible way. ...
... On the other hand, the desired outcomes should reflect the context of innovative work behaviour on digital platforms. Using the theory of 16 basic desires (Reiss, 2004), which encompasses the multifaceted nature of intrinsic motivation, as a starting point, we conducted a comprehensive literature review on motivational factors in the context of innovative behaviour (see Table 1). The outcomes converged into four overall motivational factors, comprising 11 of Reiss's (2004) Renko et al. (2012) In addition to these intrinsic motivational forces, employees can be motivated by extrinsic factors as well. ...
... Using the theory of 16 basic desires (Reiss, 2004), which encompasses the multifaceted nature of intrinsic motivation, as a starting point, we conducted a comprehensive literature review on motivational factors in the context of innovative behaviour (see Table 1). The outcomes converged into four overall motivational factors, comprising 11 of Reiss's (2004) Renko et al. (2012) In addition to these intrinsic motivational forces, employees can be motivated by extrinsic factors as well. However, employees tend to value extrinsic motivations less, while social and personal factors are more relevant for participating on online ideation platforms (Birkinshaw et al., 2011). ...
Employees' innovative behaviour becomes increasingly important for organizational success. Companies try to improve their innovation capabilities by supporting and motivating employees to show innovative behaviour. Particularly online ideation platforms become relevant because they create new opportunities for employees to be innovative. This paper investigates how exposure to online ideation platforms' unique capabilities stimulates intrinsic motivation toward innovative behaviour and ultimately the submission of high-quality ideas. Based on expectancy and channel expansion theories, we derive a framework with four intrinsic motivational forces that online ideation platforms can stimulate. A two-study approach empirically tests this framework. The first study uses a multilevel regression on a dataset of 1630 employees nested in 136 departments of a leading international science and technology company. The second study analyses how 279 employees of the same company, who submitted 678 ideas on the company's online ideation platform, continue to be motivated by the platform's inherent characteristics and capabilities and submit high-quality ideas. The results support the core argument that online ideation platforms stimulate certain desires motivating employees to engage in innovative behaviour and ultimately submit high-quality ideas. The detailed results offer several contributions to innovation management literature and beyond.
... Chauhan et al. (2020a) proposed a multitask and multi-modal deep attentive framework for offensive, motivation and sentiment analysis. However, according to 16 basic desires theory (Steven, 2004), motivation and offense cannot be classified as desires. ...
... In order to avoid noisy and irrelevant samples as much as possible, we prefer to set a filtering rule before collecting them. Specially, we set a list of keywords with a strong desire expression based on 16 basic desires theory (Steven, 2004), e.g., curiosity, romance, f amily, vengeance etc. We query the social media platforms with such words, and only crawl the retrieved text-image posts on the first ten pages. ...
... However, there is disagreement among theorists in this field as to whether there is a necessity to provide a clear list of basic human needs in drawing these characteristics or not. The list of needs began with the work of McDougall using the concept of "instinct" in 1908 and then Henry Murray's list of 20 needs in 1938 which were a pathway to longer lists (Reiss, 2004). Despite of all debates, theories of basic psychological needs have always been one of the researchers' answers to human behaviors (Robbins & Judge, 2017). ...
... The economics of the satisfaction of needs Kamenetzky, 1981 Economics 52 1-motion 2-sexual activity 3-excretion 4-sleep 5-nutrition 6-protection 7-shelter 8-clothing 9-recreation 10psychological support 11-knowledge 12-autonomy 13participation 14-communication Reiss, 2004 Psychology 711 1-Power 2-Curiosity 3-Independence 4-Status 5-Social contact 6-Vengeance 7-Honor 8-Idealism 9-Physical exercise 10-Romance 11-Family 12-Order 13-Eating 14-Acceptance 15-Tranquility 16-Saving ...
Background: Theories of human basic psychological needs have been always one of the researchers’ answers to human behaviors. Nowadays, application of existing theories of human basic needs in other domains is being more trended rather than emergence of a new theory; However, lack of comprehensiveness in reviewing and analyzing of these theories has always been a fundamental gap in past research.
Aims: The present study attempts to collect theories of basic psychological needs in first step and then to analyze them with a metatheoretical approach.
Methods: In this study, a systematic review method has been used to collect theories. The statistical population of the study is all related Persian and English researches that have been published in valid scientific databases without time limit. Out of 1152 reviewed studies, 29 valid theories were finally extracted. Then, based on previous studies, the three variables "theory structure", "level of theory analysis" and "provided categories" were used as the basis of meta-theory analysis.
Results: Most of human basic needs theories follow the structure of independent set of needs, so far, the three needs of "hedonism", "survival" and "belonging" have been considered as root needs in three different theories and the hierarchical model has not been repeated in any other theory but Maslow’s. Four theories believe that there are connections between the mentioned components. The level of "psychological needs" analysis is a common feature of all theories, and finally, less than one-third of theories have provided categorization.
Conclusion: Each theory of psychological needs has its own unique structure. Applying these theories to solve various problems inside and outside the field of psychology requires understanding the structural similarities and differences of these theories and the presented needs in them
... Uncertainty reduction refers to the desire to reduce the uncertainty regarding the group operation [8]. Social interaction means the desire for peer companionship and awareness of others [10], being related to socialization [11], and interpersonal connectivity [12]. Social exchange is the desire to exchange resources and practices [9]. ...
... Social exchange is the desire to exchange resources and practices [9]. Acceptance refers to the desire for approval and it is associated to selfconfidence [10] [11]. ...
... Particularly intrinsic motivation is crucial for positive learning effects and sustainable competence development. Intrinsic motivation refers to doing an activity for its inherent satisfaction rather than for some external and thus separable consequence such as a reward, fulfilling a formal requirement, or avoiding punishment (Reiss, 2004). Intrinsic motivation is more sustainable than extrinsic motivation, which is based on rewards provided by others or the avoidance of negative consequences for oneself. ...
Hands-on and practical learning has been key to cybersecurity education and training success. Cyber Defense Exercises (CDX) are a common approach to training, testing, and verifying technical and soft skills. However, full-scale CDX implementation is also an expensive training event. In order to advance such exercises to the next level, CDX organizers should further focus on educational, psychological, and cross-domain relationships. The paper discusses and proposes a multidimensional approach for CDX that balances cognitive, emotional, and social aspects critical for successful interdisciplin-ary learning. We share our experience incorporating knowledge from well-known psychology theories to CDX. We derive and describe seven elementary ingredients if a CDX is to meet the interdisciplinary and critical thinking needs of defensive cyberspace operations.
... Two theories of motivation have been proposed by psychologists: dualism and multidimensional theory (Reiss, 2004). According to dualism, human motivation is divided into mind-body, approach-avoidance, or intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation. ...
Numerous studies, such as sports, education, and business, conduct extensive research on motivation. Due to the importance of precise measurements for understanding extrinsic and intrinsic motivation, an evaluation of measuring instruments is essential. The objective of this study was to assess the publishing patterns of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation in the Scopus and Web of Science databases using ScientoPy and VOSviewer. This study indicated an upsurge in extrinsic and intrinsic motivation publications, with Web of Science publications outperforming Scopus after 2000. "Psychology" has been the subject of most interest in this research domain. The current study also found that "Frontiers in Psychology" and "Computers in Human Behaviour" have become the distinct foci of extrinsic and intrinsic research. This study found that content analysis based on the examination of authors' keywords focuses principally on "Extrinsic motivation", "Intrinsic motivation", and "Self-determination Theory". Notably, this review found that "Gamification", "Physical activity", and "Self-efficacy" emerged as hot keywords after 2017. This bibliometric research suggests that the publication of research on extrinsic and intrinsic motivation is substantial. In addition, it provides an overview of this research domain, which may be helpful to academics and those interested in gaining a deeper understanding of this topic. Also, researchers can monitor and review studies on extrinsic and intrinsic motivation for future reference as a road map for their work.
... using activity deprivation ranging from 5 hours to 100 (Seward and Seward, 1937), and more recently Taormina & Goa (Taormina and Gao, 320 2013) have been direct in the assertion that physical activity (and exercise) is a primary need and drive. Others have been 321 highly suggestive of the point (Rowland, 1998, Rowland, 1999, Rowland, 2016, Collier, 1970, Feige, 1976, Reiss, 2004 Schultheiss and Wirth, 2008, de Geus and de Moor, 2011, Kalupahana et al., 2011, Tolman, 1932, and it has been partly 323 established above. In short, movement is necessary for instrumental reasons, for play (Rowland, 1998 Butler, 1953). ...
Physical activity, while less necessary for survival in modern times, is still essential for thriving in life, and low levels of movement are related to numerous physical and mental health problems. However, we poorly understand why people move on a day-to-day basis and how to promote greater energy expenditure. Recently, there has been a turn to understand automatic processes with close examination of older theories of behavior. This has co-occurred with new developments in the study of non-exercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT). In this narrative review, it is hypothesized that psycho-physiological drive is important to understand movement in general and NEAT, specifically. Drive, in short, is a motivation state, characterized by arousal and felt tension, energizing the organism to acquire a basic need. Movement is a biological necessity, like food, water, and sleep, but varying across the lifespan and having the greatest impact before adolescence. Movement meets various criteria for a primary drive: a) deprivation of it produces feelings of tension, such as an urge or craving, known as affectively-charged motivation states, and particularly the feelings of being antsy, restless, hyper or cooped up, b) provision of the need quickly reduces tension; one can be satiated, and may even over-consume, c) it can be provoked by qualities of the environment, d) it is under homeostatic control, e) there is an appetite (i.e., appetence) for movement but also aversion, and f) it has a developmental time course. Evidence for drive has mainly come from children and populations with hyperkinetic disorders, such as those with anorexia nervosa, restless legs syndrome, and akathisia. It is also stimulated in conditions of deprivation, such as bed rest, quarantine, flights, and physical restraint. It seems to be lacking in the hypokinetic disorders, such as depression and Parkinson’s. Thus, drive is associated with displeasure and negative reinforcement, subsuming it within the theory of hedonic drive, but it may fit better within new paradigms, such as the WANT model (Wants and Aversions for Neuromuscular Tasks). Recently developed measurement tools, such as the CRAVE scale, may permit the earnest investigation of movement drive, satiation, and motivation states in humans.
... As people value many things and they aim to satisfy everything that matters to them, values fluctuate on a continuum of self-and others-interest (Reiss, 2004). For example, a person may need to spend time alone after spending time in social gathering and having satiated their need to be with other people. ...
There is a consensus that values serve as ideal standards that motivate and influence behavior. Previous research concludes that certain universal values promote well-being and others undermine it. In line with the idea that values behave as a dynamic system and do not influence well-being as independent elements, the present findings indicate that all universal values may contribute to well-being. A new measure assessing the degree 10 universal value domains serve as ideals is administered on an online sample (N = 933) from the United Kingdom. Participants completed three well-being measures. Latent Profile Analysis in a within study cross-validation (Sample 1: n = 468, Sample 2: n = 465) replicates three distinct latent value profiles denoting high, moderate and low levels of value orientation. Analysis of Variance shows that the level of value orientation explains differences in average levels of well-being. A high-level of value orientation is associated with higher average levels of well-being compared to a low-level of value orientation. This evidence suggests that the degree values influence well-being depends on the level they represent people's ideals. In conclusion, the type of value pattern and not the type of prioritized values can systematically explain variability in well-being. Implications are discussed.
... Their results suggest that only positive surprises enhancing goal achievement without distracting or impeding the interaction and goal-directed behaviour were evaluated positively (see also [22]). Several studies examined how fulfilment of psychological needs is associated with satisfaction and positive emotions [14,60,67]. Further research extracted needs with specific relevance for positive user experiences during the interaction with technology [18,24]. ...
... 16 cards were distributed on a table (Figure 2) which depicted 16 basic human desires roughly inspired by Steven Reiss's theory of motivation (Reiss, 2004). Reiss conducted studies that involved more than 6,000 people which resulted in a list of 16 fundamental needs, values and drives that motivate a person. ...
... The findings demonstrate that nurses who are open to experience actively seek fresh information and ideas with a keen intellectual interest and curiosity. They desire and thus make more of an effort to try out new activities and/or behaviors, such as using an EHR, reflecting research results from various other contexts [167][168][169][170][171]. ...
This study examines nurses' Continuance Intention (CI) to use electronic health records (EHRs) through a combination of three conceptual frameworks: the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT), the theory of expectation-confirmation (ECT), and the Five-Factor Model (FFM). A model is developed to examine and predict the determinants of nurses' CI to use EHRs, including top management support (TMS) and the FFM's five personality domains. Data were collected from a survey of 497 nurses, which were analyzed using partial least squares. No significant relationship was found between TMS and CI. The study revealed that performance expectancy significantly mediated the influences of two different hypotheses of two predictors: agreeableness and openness to testing CI. A significant moderating impact of conscientiousness was found on the relationship between performance expectancy and CI and the relationship between social influence and CI. The findings of this study indicated that rigorous attention to the personality of individual nurses and substantial TMS could improve nurses' CI to use EHRs. A literature gap was filled concerning the mediating effects of performance expectancy on the FFM-CI relationship, and the moderation effects of Conscientiousness on UTAUT constructs and CI are another addition to the literature. The results are expected to assist government agencies, health policymakers, and health institutions all over the globe in their attempts to understand the post-adoption use of EHRs.
... The intensity to which they are prioritised by different people is highly individual. (Reiss 2000(Reiss , 2004(Reiss , 2008Mayor & Risku 2015). This creates an individually distinctive motivation profile which can be assessed by a valid and reliable self-assessment survey Reiss Motivation Profile® or RMP (The Science of Motivation, n.d.) ...
This chapter looks at how historical and contemporary education policies pursued by successive governments have led to inequality being structurally designed into education systems in a South American context, with specific focus on its' two largest countries, Brazil and Colombia.
... The need to be successful turns out to be another powerful motive that influences a student's learning motives. The motivation for achievement is interpreted by scholars (REISS, 2004) as a person's desire to achieve certain goals and feel the joy of completion. Students with a low level of achievement motivation usually slow down or stop learning a subject (for example, a foreign language) when they encounter any serious obstacles; however, they attribute their failures to a lack of ability (KUZNETSOVA et al., 2020;GALIZINA et al., 2020). ...
The purpose of the research is to study possible causal links between the introduction of high-level formative assessment and the motivation of students to learn a foreign language. The influence of the formative assessment of low and high levels on the motivation of students to study a foreign language is experimentally traced; effective ways of using formative assessment to increase the level of educational achievements of students are proposed. The materials and conclusions of the study can be used in the practice of teaching a foreign language at university.
... Intrinsic motivation (IM) could be defined as a natural desire or interest in carrying out specific behaviors just for the pleasure and satisfaction derived while performing them, rather than for external rewards or pressures (Ryan and Deci, 2000;Sansone and Harackiewicz, 2000;Oudeyer and Kaplan, 2008;Daddaoua et al., 2016). Exploration, manipulation, curiosity, and play are considered intrinsically motivated behaviors (Ryan and Deci, 2000;Reiss, 2004;Stagnitti, 2004). White (1959) called this psychophysiological need effectance motivation or mastery. ...
Biological agents are context-dependent systems that exhibit behavioral flexibility. The internal and external information agents process, their actions, and emotions are all grounded in the context within which they are situated. However, in the field of cognitive robotics, the concept of context is far from being clear with most studies making little to no reference to it. The aim of this paper is to provide an interpretation of the notion of context and its core elements based on different studies in natural agents, and how these core contextual elements have been modeled in cognitive robotics, to introduce a new hypothesis about the interactions between these contextual elements. Here, global context is categorized as agent-related, environmental, and task-related context. The interaction of their core elements, allows agents to first select self-relevant tasks depending on their current needs, or for learning and mastering their environment through exploration. Second, to perform a task and continuously monitor its performance. Third, to abandon a task in case its execution is not going as expected. Here, the monitoring of prediction error, the difference between sensorimotor predictions and incoming sensory information, is at the core of behavioral flexibility during situated action cycles. Additionally, monitoring prediction error dynamics and its comparison with the expected reduction rate should indicate the agent its overall performance on executing the task. Sensitivity to performance evokes emotions that function as the driving element for autonomous behavior which, at the same time, depends on the processing of the interacting core elements. Taking all these into account, an interactionist model of contexts and their core elements is proposed. The model is embodied, affective, and situated, by means of the processing of the agent-related and environmental core contextual elements. Additionally, it is grounded in the processing of the task-related context and the associated situated action cycles during task execution. Finally, the model proposed here aims to guide how artificial agents should process the core contextual elements of the agent-related and environmental context to give rise to the task-related context, allowing agents to autonomously select a task, its planning, execution, and monitoring for behavioral flexibility.
... Items for several sources of enjoyment were adapted from Schaffer's [44] measures of desire fulfillment for digital games based on Reiss and Havercamps's theory of basic human desires, which proposed that 16 basic human desires comprise the underlying motivations for human behavior [18,38,39]. Items for fulfilling a desire for Idealism were used as potential items to measure Task Significance, items for fulfilling a desire for Honor were used as potential items to measure Self-Worth and Integrity, and items for fulfilling a desire for Organization were used as potential items to measure Strategizing, Problem Solving, and Critical Thinking. ...
Building on the sources of enjoyment identified by Schaffer and Fang's card sorting study, we describe the development of two new measures for player experience research, the Enjoyment Questionnaire (EQ) and the Sources of Enjoyment Questionnaire (SoEQ). Among other sources, the EQ and SoEQ draw on flow theory, self-determination theory, and desire fulfillment theory. The EQ assesses digital game enjoyment and the SoEQ assesses 38 sources of enjoyment in digital games, including Humor, Relaxation, Savoring, Optimal Pacing, Optimal Variety, Social Responsibility, Task Significance, and Clear Task Purpose. The scale was validated with a survey of 564 participants. Results demonstrated the EQ and each subscale of the SoEQ have both construct validity and internal consistency. Results also provided evidence for convergent and discriminant validity. The EQ and SoEQ are useful and reliable tools for the study of digital game enjoyment and its sources.
... Dann kommt einem das böse Luhmannsche Wort in den Sinn, die Werte glichen "Ballons, deren Hüllen man aufbewahrt, um sie bei Gelegenheit aufzublasen, besonders bei Festlichkeiten" (Luhmann 1998). Wenn man aber "Gelegenheiten" als konkrete Situationen versteht, in denen sich das Handeln der Menschen an Zielen orientiert; wenn man erkennt, dass hinter diesen Zielen Bedürfnisse stehen, die sich im Sinne von Grundbedürfnissen (Reiss 2004) situationsübergreifend zu Gruppen zusammenfassen lassen; und wenn man dann anerkennt, dass Menschen (kulturell mitgeprägt) in ihrem Selbstbild (ob zu Recht oder Unrecht) verschiedene Bedürfnisse als unterschiedlich wichtig einschätzen bzw. ‚bewerten': dann ist man bei einem relativ klaren deskriptiven Konzept menschlicher Grundwerte. ...
Anlässlich eines hyperpersonalisierten und an den Herausforderungen der Klimakrise vorbeikommunizierenden Bundestagswahlkampfes hat der Medienwissenschaftler Bernhard Pörksen jüngst die inadäquaten "Muster der Realitätsbeschreibung" kritisiert, die seiner Ansicht nach nicht nur in den sozialen Medien, sondern auch im klassischen Journalismus immer noch vorherrschten. Die "radikale Gegenwartsfixierung" und "Spektakelpolarisierung" der dort präsentierten Geschichten, hochgepusht in "Stichflammen" für ein entsprechend aufmerksamkeitsdefizitäres Publikum und bedient durch eine nach Medien wie Publikum dienstfertig sich streckende Politik, verhinderten, dass komplexe und langfristig evolvierende Probleme wie der Klimawandel und ihnen entsprechende Lösungsstrategien sachgerecht thematisiert würden. Was es dafür bräuchte, sei gerade kein "alarmistischer", sondern vielmehr ein "planetarischer" Journalismus, "ein Journalismus, der aus der Adlerperspektive Entwicklungen sortiert, der Nachhaltigkeit als Nachrichtenfaktor begreift, der globale Lösungsmöglichkeiten präsentiert" (Pörksen 24.08. 2021). Mit diesen Bemerkungen zielt Pörksen auf eine Kernproblematik jeder adäquaten sozialökologischen Krisenkommunikation. Um diese Problematik vollständiger zu beschreiben und zu verstehen, bedarf es indes eines Hinausgehens über die bloße Rollenkritik an den Journalistinnen 1 als Akteuren. Zu fragen ist vielmehr auch nach ästhetisch-strukturellen Gründen der "falschen Komplexitätsreduktion" (ebd.), also danach, warum eine sachunangemessene Zuspitzung des Erzählens als rhetorisch effektiv nicht nur erscheinen mag, sondern es tatsächlich auch ist. Diese Gründe, die immer auch solche der fundamentalen Welterschließung sind, möchte ich im ersten Abschnitt dieses Beitrags in aller gebotenen Kürze theoretisch herleiten. Es wird dabei um die Schwierigkeit gehen, unbeabsichtigte Nebenfolgen des Handelns ‚mitzuerzählen', also Handlung von Intention zumindest teilweise zu entkoppeln, aber auch um die Schwierigkeit, sich erzählerisch zu Pörksens globaler "Adlerperspektive" aufzuschwingen, was unter anderem erfordern würde, den Nutznießer des Resultats einer Handlung auf einer andere Erzählebene zu platzieren als die Handelnde selbst. Dass klassische Umweltkommunikation sich diesen strukturellen Herausforderungen nur teilweise zu stellen brauchte bzw. sie mit konventionellen Mitteln noch einigermaßen erfolgreich bewältigen konnte, werde ich im zweiten Abschnitt versuchen, plausibel zu machen. Für die zeitgenössische Krisenkommunikation zu Klimawandel, Artensterben und Pandemie wird der Rückgriff auf jene konventionellen Mittel-nämlich das Ausblenden von Nebenfolgen und das lokalistische Kurzschließen von Akteurin und Adressat-immer problematischer, weil sachunangemessener, bleibt zur narrativen Bindung von Aufmerksamkeit jedoch unentbehrlich. Ich werde dies als ein Dilemma beschreiben, aus dem ich bisher nur unzureichende Auswege erkennen kann. Im dritten Abschnitt diskutiere ich jedoch am Beispiel vor allem des Hambacher Forstes Elemente eines erfolgreichen ‚glokalen' Ineinanderblendens verschiedener Aktantenpositionen bzw. Erzählebenen, die es wert sind, weiter bedacht zu werden. Eine zweite Kernproblematik global orientierter Krisenkommunikation betrifft nicht die Handlungsträgerinnen in Erzählungen, sondern die durch ihre Handlungsziele hindurch erzählten Werte; nicht so sehr die Oberflächen-als vielmehr die Tiefenstruktur von Diskursen also .
... Since the aforementioned downsides focus on social interaction, it can be assumed that they mainly appear when employees have a strong need for affiliation, so they cannot use social skills and feel alone (McClelland, 1985). With reference to the 16 basic desires (Reiss, 2004), it can be explained that especially employees with strong motives for social contact and status (desire for social standing, including desire for attention) may have problems with flexible workplaces. This is one negative consequence of employees no longer working at a facility where they meet colleagues. ...
The demand for more flexible workplaces is on the increase for employees and employers. The aim of this paper is, firstly, to identify and alleviate downsides of alternative workplaces in relation to the performance and motivation of employees that work outside the company's facilities in order to provide a deeper understanding of its consequences, and secondly, to develop a new conceptual framework focusing on workplace flexibility practices in SMEs. A systematic literature review was conducted, 50 relevant articles were identified and analyzed, offering a new conceptual framework which enables researchers and practitioners to combine several occupational, private, social and financial downsides in order to measure to what extent these aspects influence SME performance. Moreover, a research agenda was set up for further examination. Prior to this, no systematic literature review with this focus was conducted and no all-encompassing conceptual framework for SMEs (including all downsides) was identified, underlining the originality and value of this research.
JEL Codes: J10, J61, M12, M50, M54.
... Motivation to maintain a self-consistent perception of the world should go hand-in-hand with the motivation to achieve the goal of a minimal PE. Drawing on classic literature, obtaining a goals hould generate a subjective reward response (Reiss, 2004;Bromberg-Martin and Sharot, 2020). Numerous studies have shown that an event that satisfies an organism's goal triggers subjective feelings of reward as well as activity in neural structures associated with a reward response such as the ventral striatum and the medial prefrontal cortex (O'Doherty, 2004;Delgado, 2007). ...
The predictive processing framework posits that people continuously use predictive principles when interacting with, learning from, and interpreting their surroundings. Here, we suggest that the same framework may help explain how people process self-relevant knowledge and maintain a stable and positive self-concept. Specifically, we recast two prominent self-relevant motivations, self-verification and self-enhancement, in predictive processing (PP) terms. We suggest that these self-relevant motivations interact with the self-concept (i.e., priors) to create strong predictions. These predictions, in turn, influence how people interpret information about themselves. In particular, we argue that these strong self-relevant predictions dictate how prediction error, the deviation from the original prediction, is processed. In contrast to many implementations of the PP framework, we suggest that predictions and priors emanating from stable constructs (such as the self-concept) cultivate belief-maintaining, rather than belief-updating, dynamics. Based on recent findings, we also postulate that evidence supporting a predicted model of the self (or interpreted as such) triggers subjective reward responses, potentially reinforcing existing beliefs. Characterizing the role of rewards in self-belief maintenance and reframing self-relevant motivations and rewards in predictive processing terms offers novel insights into how the self is maintained in neurotypical adults, as well as in pathological populations, potentially pointing to therapeutic implications.
... For measuring explicit motives of participating in the course, the survey included an explorative Motives for Autonomous Learning (MAL) inventory. Since explicit motives are conceptualized to be relatively stable dispositions and "reasons people hold for initiating and performing voluntary behavior" (Reiss, 2004), they are considered well-suited for survey-based research setups (Beckmann and Heckhausen, 2018;Scheffer and Heckhausen, 2018;Schultheiss and Wirth, 2018). Motive questionnaires assess the self-attributed explicit schemata of individuals that direct and select their behavior, usually across situations (Thrash et al., 2012, pp. ...
In this explorative study, we investigated motives of autonomous learners to participate in an online course, and how these motives are related to gameplay motivations, engagement in the course experience, and learning outcomes. The guiding premise for the study has been the idea that learning and game playing carry phenomenal similarities that could be revealed by scrutinizing motives for participating in a massive open online course that does not involve any intentionally game-like features. The research was conducted by analyzing survey data (N = 705) collected from individuals who had voluntarily participated in an open online course about artificial intelligence and its societal impact. The survey included an explorative Motives for Autonomous Learning (MAL) inventory. Exploratory factor analysis suggested that the MAL inventory consisted of six dimensions out of which four were consistent with factors that earlier research has associated with motives to engage with video games. Of the identified factors, the dimension that most clearly described autonomous and playful predispositions was found to be a main precedent for both experienced gamefulness of the learning experience and positive learning outcomes. In all, the results of this study demonstrated that playfulness and autonomy were both prominent and significant factors across the whole learning process.
... 16 cards were distributed on a table (Figure 2) which depicted 16 basic human desires roughly inspired by Steven Reiss's theory of motivation (Reiss, 2004). Reiss conducted studies that involved more than 6,000 people which resulted in a list of 16 fundamental needs, values and drives that motivate a person. ...
... Motivation can be broadly categorized as intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Corporate decisions in support of activities taken to demonstrate mastery over sustainable practices reflect the corporate philosophy of being responsible and the joy of demonstrating that responsibility to its stakeholders is generally based on intrinsic motivation (Reiss 2004). While the motivation to support decisions leading to sustainability might be to build on a reputation for the organization through sustainability of products/services, activities of their value chain, manufacturing processes, etc., other forms of motivation that are more extrinsic can reinforce such decisions. ...
The authors set out to explore the influence of motivation (MO) on achieving energy sustainability (SU) while assessing the mediating influence of decision-making (DM). This study utilizes data from the Business survey questionnaire administered by the ENABLE.EU (2021) team and supported by the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program. The survey data are available for public consumption and have responses from companies that are located across 11 European Union countries including Bulgaria, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Norway, Poland, Serbia, Spain, Ukraine, and the United Kingdom. Cronbach alpha, KMO Bartlett test, and the Andrew Hayes model 4 were used to test the research proposition. A positive relationship between the variables considered for this study was established. The three variables (motivation, decision-making, and sustainability) were found to be related. Motivation to achieve sustainability influences energy sustainability and this relationship has a partially mediated influence on decision-making. This research establishes the relationship between motivation to achieve energy sustainability and sustainability and the mediating influence of decision-making. The potential to achieve greater energy sustainability for corporates depends on understanding the importance of increasing the motivation to achieve energy sustainability while taking the right decisions in support of that motivation to achieve sustainability. This study provides insights into the influence of motivation to achieve sustainability and importantly the mediating influence of decision-making.
... Thus it is that motives and motivations are two subtly different things. For the purposes of this study it is a useful shot-cut to consider motives as being a reason for doing something, but it should be remembered that it is entirely possible to behave in a particular way, visiting a museum for example, and not necessarily be aware of precisely what that reason or motive is (Reiss, 2004). The authors are aware that reported "motives" for visiting the Imperial War Museum cannot be taken as absolute truth. ...
Water stewardship, water stress and availability have become increasingly
important planning and development considerations for the tourism industry
world-wide. Nowadays, Water issues are receiving significant attention from governments,
the private sector, and civil society. Ever-increasing demand for water
coupled with the effects of climate change, is escalating pressure on water resources
in most parts of the world, including in many coastal and island tourism destinations.
This paper discusses the aspects of international efforts to organize the
relationship between tourism and water, concentrating on the expected role of
Egyptian tourism industry in water management through discussing water
resources, consumption in Egypt, especially with the challenges like the Ethiopian
Renaissance Dam.
... Intrinsic factors refer to motivational factors. According to Reiss (2004)such as curiosity, autonomy, and play (called intrinsic motives, or IMs, intrinsic motivation arises from psychological or cognitive processes that involve central nervous activity. In addition, intrinsic motivation is considered a behavior when a person feels competent and engaged in self-determination. ...
Protean careers are understood and measured using different concepts. Apart from being confusing, it also causes divergences that result in limited operationalization of the protean career. O This study aims to develop a more comprehensive tool for measuring protean careers by examining the nomological network of ' new' protean career attitudes. Researchers added a measure of the affective component of love for work, in addition to dimensions driven by self-values and self-directed behavior. The results of the construct validity test through a nomological network involving 160 respondents showed two critical points. First, on the relationship between the dimensions, the dimensions of love for work and self-direction behavior are related to the harmonious passion variable and the proactive work behavior of career initiatives and personal initiatives. Second, the relationship within the dimension shows that the dimensions of love for work, driven by self-values, and self-directed behavior are interrelated. Additional validity tests, such as convergent, discriminant, and predictive validity tests, indicate that the question items are valid. Future research needs to pay more attention to the affective dimensions of love for work and harmonious passion.e. Abstrak Karier Protean dipahami dan diukur menggunakan konsep yang berbeda. Selain membingungkan, juga menimbulkan divergensi yang mengakibatkan bias operasionalisasi karir protean. Studi ini ber-tujuan untuk mengembangkan alat yang lebih komprehensif untuk mengukur karir protean dengan memeriksa jaringan nomologis sikap karir protean 'baru'. Peneliti menambahkan ukuran komponen afektif cinta untuk bekerja, selain dimensi yang didorong oleh nilai diri dan perilaku mengarahkan diri. Hasil uji validitas konstruk melalui jaringan nomologis yang melibatkan 160 responden men-unjukkan dua poin kritis. Pertama, pada hubungan antar dimensi, dimensi love for work dan self-direction behavior berhubungan dengan variable passion harmoni dan perilaku kerja proaktif ini-siatif karir dan inisiatif pribadi. Kedua, hubungan di dalam dimensi tersebut menunjukkan bahwa dimensi cinta terhadap pekerjaan, didorong oleh nilai diri, dan perilaku mengarahkan diri saling berkaitan. Uji validitas tambahan, seperti uji validitas konvergen, diskriminan, dan prediktif men-unjukkan bahwa butir pertanyaan tersebut valid. Penelitian selanjutnya perlu lebih memperhatikan dimensi afektif love for work dan passion yang harmonis. JEL Classification: M14, M54
... It is visually evident in the perceptual map (Figure 1) that a second group (Profile 2) represented by participants with a motivation profile focused on the practice of the extreme conditioning and the functional training program, with the objective of predominantly obtaining pleasure. The intrinsic pleasure in the practice of physical exercise is characterized by individuals who are motivated to engage in activities in which they experience interest, feel competent, and perceive the causal locus for the practice (Reiss, 2004). ...
The identification of the practitioner’s profile regarding their motivation level for physical exercise engagement could be a behavioral strategy to increase exercise adherence. The present study investigates the associations between motivation levels, modalities practiced, and goals concerning the practice of physical exercise among physical exercise practitioners. A total of 100 physical exercise practitioners, of which 67 were women, took part in this study. The participants were engaged in extreme fitness program, strength training, fight training, Pilates, and functional training. Motivation level (BREQ-3) and expectations regarding regular physical exercise (IMPRAF-54) were assessed. A multiple correspondence analysis demonstrates preferential relationships between descriptive and non-inferential variables. Strength training and fight training practitioners seek these modalities with the goals of “Health” and “Aesthetics,” demonstrating low autonomy in relation to the behavior for the practice of physical exercise. Extreme conditioning program and functional training practitioners have as goal “Pleasure,” demonstrating medium and high levels of autonomy for such practice and Pilates practitioners have the goal of “Stress Control.” To promote and encourage the regular practice of physical exercise, this strategy could be used to take actions that increase the public’s intention to start or continue in a physical exercise program.
... Yet while exploring the world is often intrinsically motivated, not all exploration is intrinsically motivated and not all intrinsically motivated activities involve exploration (Harrison & Dossinger 2017;Reiss 2004). So, for example, taking a red-eye flight might not feel like an intrinsically motivated activity even if the purpose is to explore the world. ...
Intrinsic motivation (IM) is key for persistence at work. When they are intrinsically motivated, people experience work activities as an end in itself, such that the activity and its goal collide. The result is increased interest and enjoyment of work activities. In this article, we review the current state of knowledge on IM, including studies within organizational, cognitive, and social psychology. We distinguish our structural perspective, which defines IM as the overlap between means and ends (e.g., the means-ends fusion model), from content-based approaches to study IM. We specifically discuss three questions: ( a) What is IM and why does it matter, ( b) how can individuals and organizations increase IM, and ( c) what biases and misconceptions do employees and managers hold about IM?
Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, Volume 9 is January 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
... • Beware of undermining effects. Extrinsic motivators can undermine initial intrinsic motivators after time and weaken the motivation effect (Reiss, 2004). • Be aware that behavioral outcomes have not yet been researched well. ...
The dynamically growing research area of gamification is loaded with a lack of consensus on definitions, a variety of non-validated frameworks, and few practical insights. Hence, we conducted a literature review to explore current best practices in applying gamification for integration in a practical use case. Instead, we found a narrow focus on theoretical discussions. For a stronger representation of practical research, standards need to be established for transferring gamification concepts to practical application. To fill this research gap, we designed a process and tools for a practical, human-centered, and context-related gamification application. We derived the process and tools from insights of our literature review as well as the realization of a gamification use case on a German online comparison platform. In addition, we incorporated standards such as the Human-Centered Design Process to maintain the established quality level of the field of user experience. In this paper, we present the Human-Centered Gamification Process (HCGP) and provide tools as practical guidance to lower the barrier for researchers and professionals to conduct theoretical and practical gamification projects.
Human beings vary in their endowments or talents. Diverse genetic and environmental factors give rise to unique strengths, interests, and preferences that are responsible for a broad spectrum of human variability. Consequently, humans have “jagged profiles” of abilities, skills, attitudes, social-emotional qualities, and even physical attributes (Rose, The end of average: How we succeed in a world that values sameness (1st ed.). HarperOne, 2016). Although jagged profiles are immensely useful for fostering ingenuity and technological achievement, not all talents, attitudes, and qualities are equally valued in a society. Some talents are considered more desirable and thus worthy of investment, while others are considered undesirable, to be suppressed, corrected, or normalized.Schools play a significant role in developing the desirable and correcting the undesirable according to socially accepted definitions of desirable and useful. When students differ from what is considered “normal”, they are placed in systems to support the desirable. Both gifted and special education programs represent polar ends of the education system. Gifted education is intent on accelerating or expanding, whereas special education is intent on remediating, correcting, and replacing deficient behaviors and skills. However, society has changed. What was previously deemed desirable may actually be less desirable or obsolete and what used to be undervalued has gained more value.In this article, we discuss the need to change education to focus on individual talent, strengths, interests, and preferences. We provide examples of the changes and discuss how education should treat all education the same and promote a talent-based transformational gifted education for all students.KeywordsLearner diversityTalent developmentTransformative giftednessSpecial educationGifted and talented education
This chapter explores the concept of binge drinking through a global lens. It will suggest that binge drinking is more than a measure of units within a period of time but a potential insight that binge drinking is a ‘continuum of harm’. We need to recognise that for some individuals and some ‘at-risk’ populations, we have identified that binge drinking can be the starting point for developing a severe and enduring dependence on alcohol. We also provide some ideas around assessment and brief interventions to support those who binge drink as a way of life.KeywordsBinge drinkingDiversityFamiliesAssessmentInterventions
Tässä artikkelissa tarkastellaan etätyötä erityisesti tuottavuuden kautta. Sosiaali- ja terveyspalveluiden tapauksessa tuottavuus on tiiviisti kytköksissä asiakas- ja työntekijäkokemukseen ja sen kehittämistä on tarkasteltava suhteessa palveluiden laatuun ja vaikuttavuuteen. Artikkelin tavoitteena on osoittaa, että etätyö ei ole irrallinen, yksinomaan pandemian esiin nostama ilmiö, vaan osa pidempiaikaista teknologian mahdollistamaa ja yhteiskunnallisen kehityksen ajamaa muutosta, ja muutoksen yhtenä ajurina toimii tarve tuottavuuden kehittämiselle. Samalla tarkoitus on palauttaa lukijan mieleen muutamia tärkeitä tuottavuuden kehittämisen ohjenuoria, jotka on hyvä pitää mielessä myös puhuttaessa etätyöstä ja sen johtamisesta sosiaali- ja terveyspalveluissa.
Panic attacks are prevalent; almost one in three people will experience a panic attack in their lifetime. The occurrence of a panic attack is not sufficient for panic disorder diagnosis and can be added as a specifier to other disorders. DSM-5 separated the diagnoses panic disorder and agoraphobia. Various comorbidities with panic disorder and/or agoraphobia are summarized. Genes implicated in the etiology of PD are discussed including genes related to COMT, adenosine, MAO, GABA, and CRHR. Epigenetic factors such as methylation across different genes and G × E interactions are considered. Learning theory’s account of how panic disorder/agoraphobia develop is reviewed. The chapter offers a detailed explanation of the involvement of anxiety sensitivity trait in the development and maintenance of the disorder. Various cognitive models including Barlow’s, Clark’s, and Reiss’ expectancy model and integrative attempts are discussed. Gorman’s seminal neuroanatomical model of the disorder and its updates are examined considering functional connectivity, structural, and functional MRI studies. Finally, neurochemical hypotheses related to serotonergic and opioidergic deficits are explained.
This project investigates the tradeoffs and decision conflicts associated with pursuing connected autonomy in a later-life context. Based on the analysis of two thousand social media communications captured from Reddit's historical archives of posts and comments, the chapter examines the tensions that emerge in retirement travel decisions and the advice given to manage those tensions. The results delineate the challenges older adults face when travelling alone, along with commercial and interpersonal enablers that sustain individuals’ travel pursuits. Recommendations advocate for ways businesses can better support the pursuit of travel lifestyles in retirement. The path forward involves enhancing service delivery connections (facilities, employees, technologies, and other consumers) to foster optimal individual and group autonomy levels for older adults.
To advance the academic debates and respond to the recent “calls from practice” (see Chap. 2), in this section I develop a theoretical framework that provides a systematic perspective on the causal pillars that are constitutive for the Need Knowledge-Driven Organization, that is, an organization that leverages knowledge about stakeholder needs in order to yield responsible behavior and sustainable outcomes. To provide a profound understanding of its defining pillars, the framework is informed by both theoretical insights from reviews of the relevant bodies of literature and empirical findings from an interview study with top-level and senior managers in Central Europe.
The global COVID-19 pandemic has led educational institutions to shut down and adopt e-learning practices through computer-mediated communication. An unanticipated switch of online classes from face-to-face classes isolates students from social groups and teachers, causing online disinhibition. Therefore, this paper investigates factors influencing university students’ toxic disinhibition behavior in online classrooms, WhatsApp groups, and Telegram groups. Also, social isolation has been used as a moderating variable to identify whether social isolation strengthens or weakens the proposed association. The research holds the basis of “Social Cognitive Theory” and “Theory of Planned Behavior.” The data from 506 university students have been collected for analysis. The proposed framework and research hypotheses have been assessed via PLS-SEM using Smart PLS software. Findings from the study show that toxic behavior victimization, attitude, subjective norms, and behavioral control are factors that positively & significantly affect toxic disinhibition online. Furthermore, motives and self-efficacy showed an insignificant influence on toxic disinhibition. Additionally, toxic disinhibition significantly & positively affects toxic behavior. At last, social isolation is likely to have a moderation effect on the variables. Hence, the research yields guidance on reducing toxic disinhibition online. Further, implications and recommendations are discussed at the end of the study.
Story generation has emerged as an interesting yet challenging NLP task in recent years. Some existing studies aim at generating fluent and coherent stories from keywords and outlines; while others attempt to control the global features of the story, such as emotion, style and topic. However, these works focus on coarse-grained control on the story, neglecting control on the details of the story, which is also crucial for the task. To fill the gap, this paper proposes a model for fine-grained control on the story, which allows the generation of customized stories with characters, corresponding actions and emotions arbitrarily assigned. Extensive experimental results on both automatic and human manual evaluations show the superiority of our method. It has strong controllability to generate stories according to the fine-grained personalized guidance, unveiling the effectiveness of our methodology. Our code is available at https://github.com/victorup/CHAE.
Workforce that was considered as merely one of the inputs of the production system in the initial stages of the industrial revolution has evolved into the most critical resource for any organisation today. Work provides products and services, which represent the basis for a company's success, but it is also an important and highly central aspect in the lives of individuals. The study of employee's behaviour, their motivation, and factor motivating them to work hard and work smart has become a great challenge to the professional engaged in the management of business organisation. There is tremendous pressure on organisations to maintain employee motivation and enhance work performance in today's recession-hit business environment. Organisations especially small-scale enterprises need to motivate employees and perform better to remain competitive. The present study has been taken up with the objectives of identifying the factor affecting motivation of the employees working in various industries in Uttarakhand state. Another objective is to identify the factors that motivate employees to leave his present organisation. On the basis of review of literature, a null hypothesis was also formulated. It was hypothesized that Factors influencing employees to remain with present organisation are not associated with their demographic characteristics. To attain these objectives and test the hypothesis, a random survey of 166 respondents located in Uttarakhand state were administered. Analysis indicates that Opportunities for self-development, Affiliation and recognition, Bonuses, Medical facilities and social securities like insurance, are most important factor which management should give consideration to retain employees. At the same time superior's behaviour, denial of a promotion or a transfer, fear of losing job, low salary, low participation in decision making, bad behaviour of fellow workers etc., are some of the factor which compels the employees to leave his present organisation.
Este artigo buscou uma visão geral das teorias das necessidades e as discutimos no contexto do consumismo, consumo e oportunidades para as empresas. Este estudo examina desenvolvimento da teoria das necessidades hierárquicas de Abraham H. Maslow (incluindo as atualizações nos níveis da sua Pirâmide), estudando autores e suas visões sobre o tema, com intenção de identificar melhor as necessidades dos consumidores. Autores fornecem uma visão geral das teorias de necessidades semeadas através da teoria motivacional, também com objetivo de descobrir as diferenças e serem necessidades (às vezes conhecidas como necessidades de crescimento) em seguida, vinculá-las a estratégias empresariais, um melhor entendimento do consumidor e melhor exploração do mercado. A metodologia utilizada neste artigo foi a de pesquisa acadêmica qualitativa exploratória. Realizou-se uma pesquisa bibliográfica em fontes primárias, visando a coleta de dados em publicações adequadas e direcionadas de autores diversos, teorizando sobre um mesmo assunto. Buscando fundamentar as hipóteses. Percebeu-se na realização da pesquisa e nas leituras para a execução do artigo, que embora as necessidades tenham grau de importância diferente da estrutura por Maslow, nos anos 50, que o homem possui necessidades vitais e de acordo com a sua experiência familiar, seus grupos sociais, fase da vida, podem definir prioridades diferentes. Com a realização dessa pesquisa foi possível compreender melhor o processo de tomada de decisão do consumidor permite que os profissionais de marketing desenvolvam estratégias mais eficientes e eficazes para ajudar os consumidores no processo a uma resolução que seja mutuamente benéfica.
Participatory smartphone apps empower citizens to interact with the city's administration. The purpose of this case study is to investigate the current state of participatory apps in Germany. Within this study, we examined 248 applications aimed at strengthening citizen participation. These apps were found in Google Playstore and Apple Appstore using search terms extracted from the relevant literature. Many of the apps give users the opportunity to report problems within their cities, such as broken street lamps or potholes. The information created and disseminated by the citizens through the app mainly includes the topics “mobility” and “environment.” Information provided by the city itself is much more diverse. Topics such as “Points of Interest,” “News and Events,” “Government” or “City Services” can be identified here. In the southern part of Germany, there is a significantly larger number of municipalities which have a citizen participation app. None of the apps examined uses gamification, although the use of game elements is very promising to foster the engagement and motivation of citizens.
The goal of executive education programs is to prepare the leaders to act in swiftly changing business and social environment. However, various research show that the program completion may not induce the expected change unless it has more transformational nature. In other words, the program curriculum should put more emphasis on soft skills development and incorporation of experiential learning methods. Therefore, the quantitative, longitudinal research was conducted among participants of executive education program at a highly ranked university which met the criteria of transformational education program. The study aimed to measure the change at the level of basic motivators among 71 Executive MBA students that occurred during 2 years of studies at the executive program using REISS Motivation Profile®. There were discovered significant changes in 5 motivators: Acceptance, Social Contact, Status, Order and Tranquility. The results indicate that the program participants become leaders that are more oriented towards collaboration with others and value more planning and balanced approach to management. The results bring valuable indication for both university management and educators calling for changes in the executive education curriculum. Keywords: executive education, leadership development, RMP®, quantitative research
In diesem Kapitel lernen Sie, mit welchen Frameworks Sie die nötigen Ideen und Hypothesen für A/B-Tests generieren können und welche Rolle die Psychologie dabei spielt. Wir beschäftigen uns mit den Auswirkungen der beiden menschlichen Denksysteme und klären, welche Auswirkungen diese Erkenntnisse auf Ihre Experimente haben. Die gängigsten 20 Behavior Patterns bringen Ihnen über Jahrtausende gelernte Verhaltensmuster näher, die sie gewinnbringend für Conversion-Optimierung im Rahmen des A/B-Testing nutzen können. Den Abschluss des Kapitels bildete ein Leitfaden zur Analyse von Testergebnissen, der Ihnen die wichtigsten testbezogenen Kennzahlen und deren Interpretationsrahmen erläutert.
This paper presents a theory of potentially universal aspects in the content of human values. Ten types of values are distinguished by their motivational goals. The theory also postulates a structure of relations among the value types, based on the conflicts and compatibilities experienced when pursuing them. This structure permits one to relate systems of value priorities, as an integrated whole, to other variables. A new values instrument, based on the theory and suitable for cross-cultural research, is described. Evidence relevant for assessing the theory, from 97 samples in 44 countries, is summarized. Relations of this approach to Rokeach's work on values and to other theories and research on value dimensions are discussed. Application of the approach to social issues is exemplified in the domains of politics and intergroup relations.
Two instruments were developed to provide a comprehensive assessment of the strength of a person's fundamental end goals and motivational sensitivities. One instrument was a self-report inventory for adolescents and adults in general, and the other was an informant-rating scale for adolescents and adults with mental retardation and development disabilities. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses and test-retest reliabilities are reported in 7 studies, with independent samples of participants from diverse geographical areas, occupations, and social groups,
N = 2,548. Each instrument was found to have a 15-factor solution, and the 2 solutions were similar to one another. Because the factors assess universal motives that are also seen in animals, a genetics-behavior-cognitive model of fundamental motivation is suggested. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This article presents a theory of potentially universal aspects in the content of human values. Ten types of values are distinguished by their motivational goals. The theory also postulates a structure of relations among the value types, based on the conflicts and compatibilities experienced when pursuing them. This structure permits one to relate systems of value priorities, as an integrated whole, to other variables. A new values instrument, based on the theory and suitable for cross-cultural research, is described. Evidence relevant for assessing the theory, from 97 samples in 44 countries, is summarized. Relations of this approach to Rokeach's work on values and to other theories and research on value dimensions are discussed. Application of the approach to social issues is exemplified in the domains of politics and intergroup relations.
This paper summarizes the results from a series of studies designed to test the hypothesis that making learning more fun will produce corresponding increases both in learning and retention and in subsequent interest in the subject matter itself. Each study examined the effects of two or more versions of an educational activity, each designed to involve identical instructional content, but to differ in motivational appeal. The data from the studies presented provide good general support for the hypothesized cognitive and motivational benefits of appropriately designed motivational embellishments of educational activities. Exceptions to this rule, however, and a more general theoretical analysis of the conditions under which such positive effects are (and are not) expected to occur, are also discussed.
This study of two different samples (245 bank employees and 362 teachers) tested a theoretically derived pattern of specific relationships between work stressors and outcome variables. The research model proposes four central domains of the work situation: work content, working conditions, social and labour relations, and conditions of employment. In addition, the research model proposes three important outcome variables: intrinsic work motivation, emotional exhaustion, and turnover intention. More specifically, it was hypothesized that: (1) intrinsic work motivation is primarily predicted by task characteristics; (2) emotional exhaustion is primarily predicted by both workload and lack of social support; (3) turnover intention is primarily predicted by unmet career expectations; and (4) the proposed pattern of relationships holds over different groups. In order to test these hypotheses, a multi-sample analysis was performed using structural equation modelling. The results showed that the proposed pattern of relationships was largely supported by the data and that it was invariant across two samples. Furthermore, several additional relationships were found in each sample, one of which was common for both samples. Several explanations regarding these findings are discussed.
Based on seemingly overwhelming empirical evidence of the decremental effects of reward on intrinsic task interest and creativity, the use of reward to alter human behavior has been challenged in literature reviews, textbooks, and the popular media. An analysis of a quarter century of research on intrinsic task interest and creativity revealed, however, that (a) detrimental effects of reward occur under highly restricted, easily avoidable conditions; (b) mechanisms of instrumental and classical conditioning are basic for understanding incremental and decremental effects of reward on task motivation; and (c) positive effects of reward on generalized creativity are easily attainable using procedures derived from behavior theory.
A meta-analysis of 128 studies examined the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. As predicted, engagement-contingent, completion-contingent, and performance-contingent rewards significantly undermined free-choice intrinsic motivation (d = -0.40, -0.36, and -0.28, respectively), as did all rewards, all tangible rewards, and all expected rewards. Engagement-contingent and completion-contingent rewards also significantly undermined self-reported interest (d = -0.15, and -0.17), as did all tangible rewards and all expected rewards. Positive feedback enhanced both free-choice behavior (d = 0.33) and self-reported interest (d = 0.31). Tangible rewards tended to be more detrimental for children than college students, and verbal rewards tended to be less enhancing for children than college students. The authors review 4 previous meta-analyses of this literature and detail how this study's methods, analyses, and results differed from the previous ones.
I: Background.- 1. An Introduction.- 2. Conceptualizations of Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination.- II: Self-Determination Theory.- 3. Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Perceived Causality and Perceived Competence.- 4. Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Interpersonal Communication and Intrapersonal Regulation.- 5. Toward an Organismic Integration Theory: Motivation and Development.- 6. Causality Orientations Theory: Personality Influences on Motivation.- III: Alternative Approaches.- 7. Operant and Attributional Theories.- 8. Information-Processing Theories.- IV: Applications and Implications.- 9. Education.- 10. Psychotherapy.- 11. Work.- 12. Sports.- References.- Author Index.
Replies to comments by D. Belle et al (see record 2000-02781-018 ), S. Reiss (see record 2000-02781-019 ), T. B. Smith (see record 2000-02781-020 ), and J. R. Sink (see record 2000-02781-021 ) on the article by M. Csikszentmihalyi (see record 1999-11644-003 ) on materialism and the flow experience as an explanation of happiness. Csikszentmihalyi addresses the concerns of each author. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The overjustification hypothesis proposes that expectation of reward for an inherently interesting activity produces less interest in the activity when reward is subsequently unavailable. 2 experiments, with a total of 41 kindergarten and 1st-grade Ss, designed to test this hypothesis are reported. Exp I replicated previous findings that a single trial of noncontingent, promised reward undermines young children's interest in the rewarded play activity (see record
1974-10498-001). Exp II disconfirmed the overjustification hypothesis by demonstrating that a multiple-trial, contingent reinforcement procedure did not produce an overjustification effect. Findings are understandable in terms of a competing response hypothesis but not in terms of overjustification. Accordingly, previous findings of an overjustification effect are reinterpreted as having demonstrated that curiosity in a novel play activity can be undermined by presentation of distracting stimuli. The following additional conclusions are drawn: (a) The overjustification hypothesis is conceptually vague. (b) Self-perception theory seems to have been concerned with variables relatively unimportant for understanding effects of tangible reward procedures on overt behavior. (c) Recent criticisms that token economies undermine intrinsic interest were based on a failure to appreciate differences between single-trial, noncontingent reward and multiple-trial, contingent reinforcement procedures. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Two major aims have served as guideposts throughout the writing of this book. The more important of these has been to develop a tightly reasoned, systematic analysis of the concept of motivation, with special emphasis upon its relative utility as an explanatory component of general behavior theory. The lesser goal has been to formulate the analysis in such a manner as to make it intelligible to the advanced undergraduate or beginning graduate student in psychology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Describes a learning orientation scale in which 5 dimensions are defined by an intrinsic and an extrinsic pole: preference for challenge vs preference for easy work, curiosity/interest vs teacher approval, independent mastery attempts vs dependence on the teacher, independent judgment vs reliance on the teacher's judgment, and internal vs external criteria for success/failure. The reliability and factorial validity of the scale have been adequately demonstrated. Additional validity studies with a total of 2,925 Ss in Grades 3–9 are reported. Higher-order factoring yielded 2 distinct clusters of subscales: The 1st 3 dimensions form 1 factor and are interpreted as more motivational in nature; the remaining 2 are viewed as more cognitive–informational in nature. Developmental data show that across Grades 3–9 there was a shift from intrinsic to extrinsic on the 1st motivational cluster. Conversely, there was a dramatic developmental shift from extrinsic to intrinsic on the cognitive–informational cluster. Interpretations for these developmental differences are advanced, and the educational implications are explored. The discussion focuses on the need to be precise in conceptualizing and operationalizing the term "intrinsic motivation." (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This is the third revision of the original set of thematic pictures. There are 4 sets of pictures divided according to sex and age: one each for boys and girls under 14, and a set each for males and females over 14. Each set consists of 19 pictures plus one blank card. In an accompanying manual the purpose, utility, and rationale of the test are presented. The administration is divided into two sessions in the first of which 10 cards are presented with the direction "to make up as dramatic a story as you can for each." In the second session 10 additional cards are presented with the instruction to "disregard the commonplace realities and let your imagination have its way, as in a myth, fairy story, or allegory." Additional directions for children, for adults of little education or intelligence, and for psychotics are given. The use of a subsequent interview is discussed. The method of content analysis is that of analyzing each successive event into forces emanating from the hero (central character) and the environment. Criteria for distinguishing the central character and the complications arising from double or more identifications are outlined. Murray gives his own method of analysis in terms of needs, press, simple and complex thema. A way of quantifying "the strength of each variety of need and of each variety of emotion" by means of a 5-point scale is discussed and illustrated. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This book constitutes a report of co-ordinated research over a 2½-year period on 51 male subjects of college age done by 28 investigators variously trained in psychology, medicine and psychoanalysis. The book is divided into 8 chapters: introduction (33 pages); proposals for a theory of personality (106 pages); variables of personality (101 pages); judgments of personality (39 pages); the genetical investigation of personality: childhood events (115 pages). The 6th chapter, on procedures (207 pages), discusses in detail the following measures: conference, autobiography; family relations and childhood memories; sexual development; present dilemmas; conversations; predictions and sentiments tests; questionnaires; abilities test; aesthetic appreciation test; hypnotic test; level of aspiration test; the experimental study of repression; (a) memory for failures test; violation of prohibitions; (b) ethical standards test; observations and post-experimental interviews; sensorimotor learning test; emotional conditioning test; galvanic skin response; tremor responses; thematic apperception tests; imaginal productivity tests; musical reverie test; dramatic productions test; Rorschach test; miscellaneous procedures; reactions to frustration; social interaction. Chapter 7 (99 pages) is entitled "Case History: Case of Earnst," and the last chapter (40 pages) lists the conclusions reached, with a critical discussion of each point made. The book has an 8-page glossary and an 11-page index. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This is an easy-to-read introduction to Steven Reiss' 16 basic desires, which is only taxonomy of human needs to be empirically derived and scientifically verified. The highly original analysis of human relationships has given this work broad practical impact, stimulating "Reiss profile" institutes in Europe and Asia. This books aims to help: parents comprehend their children's needs and behavior, couples understand each other better, employers motivate their employees, employees become more effective in their work, and readers achieve greater satisfaction and happiness in life. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
"An objective, detailed examination of the validity, methodological problems, and consistency of results of projective techniques with particular reference to the Rorschach and the TAT." The virtues as well as the short-comings of these techniques are discussed. The contents include: The Challenge of Projective Techniques; Perception: An Approach to Personality? Part I and Part II; The Rorschach Technique: Some Historical Perspectives, Current Status, Methodological Problems; The Rorschach Technique as a Psychological Experiment; A Psychometric Approach to the Rorschach Technique: Formal Factors; A Psychometric Approach to the Rorschach Technique: Content Factors; Derivatives of the Rorschach Technique; The TAT: Some Historical Perspectives, Current Status, Methodological Problems; Derivatives of the TAT and Cognate Techniques; The TAT as a Psychological Experiment; A Psychometric Approach to the TAT; and Epilogue. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The chapter headings are as follows: the problem; the energetics of activity; animal drives; drive and purpose; direction and regulation; positive and negative behavior; psychological hedonism; social motivation; emotion and motivation; the dynamic interplay of motives. Under each heading a representative sampling of the more significant work is described. The author maintains the hypothesis of a physical mind, i.e. physical monism with recognition of the individual (i.e. mental) aspects of experience. A selected bibliography closes each chapter, and questions and exercises and author and subject indexes are presented at the end of the book. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
• This work, a second edition of which has very kindly been requested, was followed by La Construction du réel chez l'enfant and was to have been completed by a study of the genesis of imitation in the child. The latter piece of research, whose publication we have postponed because it is so closely connected with the analysis of play and representational symbolism, appeared in 1945, inserted in a third work, La formation du symbole chez l'enfant. Together these three works form one entity dedicated to the beginnings of intelligence, that is to say, to the various manifestations of sensorimotor intelligence and to the most elementary forms of expression. The theses developed in this volume, which concern in particular the formation of the sensorimotor schemata and the mechanism of mental assimilation, have given rise to much discussion which pleases us and prompts us to thank both our opponents and our sympathizers for their kind interest in our work. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The Reiss Profile of Fundamental Goals and Motivational Sensitivities, a standardized psychological measure that assesses 15 fundamental desires, was administered to college students (n= 214) and to mental retardation service providers (n = 344), total N = 558, who rated themselves as “very,”“somewhat,” and “not” religious. How religious a person rated himself, call dereligiosity, was associated with high desire scores for honor and family, and with low desire scores for vengeanceand independence. The investigation provided evidence that the desire for dependence on God is unrelated to any desire for psychological weakness (submission to another person or political leader.)
Two approaches for studying sports motivation — personality theory and motivation theory — were combined in a novel way that permitted an assessment of individual differences in 15 motivational traits. The Reiss Profile of Fundamental Goals and Motivational Sensitivities was administered to college students (n=415) who had participated in zero, one, or two or more varsity sports at high school or college levels. How many sports a student participated in, called athleticism, was found to be associated with motivational traits for physical exercise (P<0.001), social contact (P<0.01), family life/raising children (P<0.001), vengeance/competition (P<0.06), power/achievement (P<0.04), and with low curiosity (P<0.01). The results supported the relevance of Reiss’s motives for studying sports motivation.
The classic view of traits as dispositions was examined and a number of ambiguities noted. When clarified, implications for predicting social behaviors from personality variables were derived. Two types of behavioral criterion were delineated, and it was argued that personality measures should be systematically related to multiple act criteria, but not necessarily to single act criteria. It was suggested that behaviors could be treated as items on a behavioral measure of personality and that standard scaling criteria be applied in identifying behaviors that should be related to a given trait dimension. In attempting to identify behaviors which are linearly related to a personality trait, the application of Bayes theorem was shown to be of theoretical interest. Two indices, a validity index and a linearity index, were derived from Bayes theorem and it was shown that validity is a necessary but not sufficient condition for linearity.
Presents the view that motives are cognitive representations of a goal with no necessary relation to either action or affect. It is suggested that resolution of uncertainty, hostility, and mastery are primary motives that can lead to similar classes of secondary motives and phenotypically identical goal-related behaviors. A developmental scheme for motive organization is discussed, based on the view that changing modes of uncertainty control the hierarchical position of secondary motives. (58 ref.)
Sensitivity theory holds that people differ in both the types of reinforcement they desire and in the amounts of reinforcement they need to satiate. People who crave too much love, too much attention, too much acceptance, too much companionship, or too much of some other fundamental reinforcer are at risk for aberrant behavior because normative behavior does not produce the desired amounts of reinforcement. People who are intolerant of even everyday amounts of anxiety or frustration also are at risk for aberrant behavior. Individual differences in desired amounts of particular reinforcers may predict person-environment interactions, risk factors for psychopathology, and the occurrence of generalized and durable therapy effects versus the occurrence of relapses. Parallel predictions are made for individual differences in tolerance of aversive stimuli. Implications are discussed for applied behavior analysis, the development of psychopathology, and treatment strategies.
Reiss and Havercamp (1997) recently suggested that sensitivity theory offers a basis from which to assess and treat challenging behavior exhibited by people with developmental disabilities. They contended that this approach would lead to more effective and durable interventions than would reliance on functional assessment. We respond to their claim that functional assessment is "not enough." After briefly reviewing and critiquing sensitivity theory, we outline the basic tenets of behavior analysis and describe literature on the development and use of functional assessment methodologies with individuals with developmental disabilities exhibiting challenging behavior, responding to several of Reiss and Havercamp's comments about the utility of this approach. Finally, we discuss several limitations of behavior analysis and functional assessment, providing examples of how these limitations are being addressed.
Despite behavioral differences, individuals with Williams or Prader-Willi syndrome share a proneness to certain personality characteristics. We hypothesized that there are qualitative differences in these shared personality features. Personality-motivation (measured using the Reiss Profiles) was compared for equal numbers of age- and gender-matched individuals with Williams or Prader-Willi syndrome or mental retardation due to nonspecific causes. Each syndrome featured aberrant motivational profiles, and similarities were found across groups in various domains. Significant differences emerged in the specific stimuli that motivated behavior in several Reiss Profile domains. Implications are discussed for the "classic" sociable personality in Williams syndrome and for compulsivity in Prader-Willi syndrome. Recommendations are made for treatment and more refined phenotypic research.