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The Teacher-Student Relationship As a Developmental Context for Children With Internalizing or Externalizing Behavior Problems

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Abstract

Children with significant behavior problems are at risk for poor school adaptation and a host of deleterious school outcomes. Given the time children spend in school, there is a need to better understand the normative contexts and processes within schools that may enhance the positive adaptation of children with significant behavior problems. This study evaluated one such context, the teacher-student relationship, specifically, the degree of closeness and conflict in the relationship, between urban, American elementary schoolchildren with significant externalizing or internalizing behavior problems and their teachers. The results suggest that the qualities of the teacher-student relationship predict children's successful school adjustment. Having a relationship with a teacher characterized by warmth, trust, and low degrees of conflict was associated with positive school outcomes. Some moderation effects were noted, including differential effects for warmth on the reading achievement of children with externalizing distress, and conflict on the school adaptation of children with internalizing problems. Results are discussed in light of theory and school-based intervention and prevention efforts. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The Teacher-Student Relationship As a Developmental Context for
Children With Internalizing or Externalizing Behavior Problems
Jean A. Baker, Sycarah Grant, and Larissa Morlock
Michigan State University
Children with significant behavior problems are at risk for poor school adaptation and
a host of deleterious school outcomes. Given the time children spend in school, there
is a need to better understand the normative contexts and processes within schools that
may enhance the positive adaptation of children with significant behavior problems.
This study evaluated one such context, the teacher-student relationship, specifically, the
degree of closeness and conflict in the relationship, between urban, American elemen-
tary schoolchildren with significant externalizing or internalizing behavior problems
and their teachers. The results suggest that the qualities of the teacher-student relation-
ship predict children’s successful school adjustment. Having a relationship with a
teacher characterized by warmth, trust, and low degrees of conflict was associated with
positive school outcomes. Some moderation effects were noted, including differential
effects for warmth on the reading achievement of children with externalizing distress,
and conflict on the school adaptation of children with internalizing problems. Results
are discussed in light of theory and school-based intervention and prevention efforts.
Keywords:
teacher-child relationship, school, elementary school aged children, behavior
problems
Many schoolchildren experience behavioral
and emotional distress that impedes their devel-
opment. Prevalence estimates indicate that
about 20% of American children and adoles-
cents experience a mental disorder that is at
least mildly impairing of their everyday func-
tioning. Within school settings, 5%–9% of chil-
dren are diagnosed with an emotional distur-
bance that interferes with their educational at-
tainment (U.S. DHHS, 1999). Given that
schools are significant socializing contexts that
influence children’s behavioral development
(Bronfenbrenner, 1979), there is a need to better
understand the normative contexts and pro-
cesses within them that may enhance the posi-
tive adaptation of children with significant be-
havior problems. This study evaluated one such
context, the teacher-student relationship, and
specifically, the school adaptation associated
with the degree of warmth and conflict in the
relationship between children with significant
behavior problems and their teachers.
Social-emotional and behavior problems
have been conceptualized as internalizing or
externalizing in empirically derived classifica-
tions of child behavior (Achenbach & Edel-
brock, 1978). Internalizing problems are char-
acterized by depressive, anxious-like symptoms
and social withdrawal whereas externalizing
problems are indicated by overactive, impul-
sive, or aggressive behaviors. Both of these
domains of dysfunction are associated with im-
paired academic and social development in chil-
dren. Children with significant internalizing and
externalizing behavior problems are at risk for a
number of poor outcomes, including peer rela-
tionship difficulties, underachievement, and
poor personal adjustment (Hinshaw, 1992;
Mash & Barkley, 1996). In the first several
years of school, children who exhibit behavior
problems transition poorly to school and per-
form worse on academic, social, and interper-
sonal indicators of school adjustment than their
Jean A. Baker, Sycarah Grant, and Larissa Morlock,
Department of Counseling, Educational Psychology, and
Special Education, Michigan State University.
Data for this study were collected through Grant
R305T990330 from United States Department of Educa-
tion.
The authors gratefully acknowledge the contributions of
Anne P. Winsor, Randy W. Kamphaus, Arthur M. Horne,
and the A.C.T. Early project staff to this work.
Correspondence concerning this article should be ad-
dressed to Jean A. Baker, 434 Erickson Hall, Michigan
State University, East Lansing, MI, 48864. E-mail:
jbaker@msu.edu
School Psychology Quarterly Copyright 2008 by the American Psychological Association
2008, Vol. 23, No. 1, 3–15 1045-3830/08/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/1045-3830.23.1.3
3
peers without behavioral difficulties (Ladd,
1996; Felner, 1999). These developmental dis-
advantages compound over time such that chil-
dren with early school behavior problems are at
high risk for eventual school drop out, criminal-
ity, and poor adult adaptation (Caspi, Elder, &
Bem, 1987; Loeber, 1990). Given the impairing
effects of significant behavior problems early in
schooling, there is a need to identify the norma-
tive contexts in schools that may influence pos-
itive developmental outcomes for affected chil-
dren.
One such context may be the teacher-child
relationship. The affective quality of children’s
relationships with their teachers is associated
with many positive school outcomes. For exam-
ple, children’s relationships with their kinder-
garten teachers predict grades and standardized
test scores through fourth grade, and children’s
behavioral adaptation, including disciplinary
actions and work habits, through middle school
(Hamre & Pianta, 2001). By adolescence, feel-
ings of relatedness to teachers are associated
with positive school attitudes, including moti-
vation, success expectations, interest and satis-
faction with school, and academic self-efficacy
in addition to more traditional indicators of
school competence, such as grades (Roeser,
Midgley, & Urdan, 1996; Wentzel, 1998).
Positive teacher-student relationships are
characterized by high degrees of warmth and
trust and low negativity (Birch & Ladd, 1997;
Pianta, 1999). Two aspects of negativity, con-
flict and dependence, seem relevant for young
children, whereas conflict is more robustly as-
sociated with school outcomes than dependence
for older students (Hamre & Pianta, 2001). Pos-
itive teacher-student relationships provide chil-
dren with the emotional security necessary to
engage fully in learning activities and scaffold
the development of social, behavioral, and self-
regulatory competencies needed in the school
environment (Pianta, 1999). Successful rela-
tionships with teachers assist children in adapt-
ing to school because of their motivational sig-
nificance. Children are likely to internalize pos-
itive school-related values in a developmental
context characterized by warmth and nurtur-
ance, such as that provided by a positive teach-
er-student relationship (Wentzel, 2002).
Understanding the nature and effects of the
teacher-student relationship may be particularly
important for children with developmental
problems. Close relationships with nonfamilial
adults serve a protective function for these chil-
dren, permitting them to construct adaptive be-
liefs about themselves and others and to develop
behavioral and social-emotional competencies
(Lynch & Cicchetti, 1992; Pianta, 1999). Stu-
dents who have a positive relationship with their
teacher may find it easier to elicit the guidance
and support needed for optimal learning; this
may be particularly important for vulnerable
students because these students are often unable
to garner this support (Birch & Ladd, 1997).
Additionally, positive teacher-student relation-
ships motivate teachers to devote additional
time and resources to ensure children’s achieve-
ment (Hamre & Pianta, 2001). Thus, a close
teacher-child relationship may positively influ-
ence the developmental trajectory of school at-
tainment among students at risk of poor school
outcomes.
Two groups of vulnerable children are those
with externalizing or internalizing behavior
problems. Children with both types of problems
tend to have difficulty negotiating social rela-
tionships (Mash & Barkley, 1996); therefore, it
is not surprising that these students also have
poor teacher-student relationship quality (Hen-
ricsson & Rydell, 2004). Children with exter-
nalizing problems are less competent than chil-
dren with internalizing problems (McCo-
naughy, Achenbach, & Gent, 1988) and
externalizing problems also seem more disrup-
tive to teacher-student relationship quality than
internalizing problems (e.g., Birch & Ladd,
1998; Howes, 2000; Hughes, Cavell, & Jack-
son, 1999). Externalizing symptoms including
aggression, hyperactivity, and oppositionality
are strongly associated with negativity in the
teacher-student relationship (Murray & Murray,
2004). Less is known about teacher relation-
ships for children with internalizing problems.
In one study that compared teacher relation-
ships, children with internalizing behavior prob-
lems were less close to their teachers than nor-
mally developing children, but showed few
other differences. Children with externalizing
behavior problems had more negative interac-
tions with teachers than other children, and
these predicted children’s adjustment from first
to third grade (Henricsson & Rydell, 2004). A
strength of this study was its use of empirically
derived groups of schoolchildren experiencing
problem behaviors. However, it used a rela-
4 BAKER, GRANT, AND MORLOCK
tively small Swedish sample, so it may not
apply directly to other schoolchildren. To date,
there are gaps in our knowledge of teacher-
student relationships for children with internal-
izing and externalizing problems.
Predicated on compensatory models of risk and
resilience (Zimmerman & Arunkumar, 1994),
there is some evidence that a positive teacher
relationship may serve a protective function for
children, buffering them from the adverse effects
of risk. For example, a positive teacher-student
relationship is related prospectively to decreases
in externalizing problems among highly aggres-
sive children (Meehan, Hughes, & Cavell, 2003)
and to better behavioral adjustment in middle
school for children who had experienced signifi-
cant behavior problems in kindergarten (Hamre &
Pianta, 2001). However, there are some discrep-
ancies within the extant literature. In some studies
of aggressive children, conflict seems more pre-
dictive of future outcomes than does the aspect of
closeness in their relationships with teachers
(Hamre & Pianta, 2001; Henricsson & Rydell,
2004; Ladd & Burgess, 2001). There is no re-
search comparing closeness and conflict for chil-
dren with significant internalizing distress.
There is also a dearth of research examining
the potentially moderating effects of a positive
teacher relationship on school adaptation for
children with significant behavior problems
during the span of elementary school. It is dur-
ing the elementary period that children develop
and consolidate academic skills and achieve-
ment-related beliefs and attitudes (Alexander &
Entwisle, 1988). Given their emotional, social,
and behavioral difficulties, children who exhibit
internalizing and externalizing symptoms are at
considerable risk for poor school adjustment
during elementary school. During this period,
teachers may act as compensatory resources for
these vulnerable children, helping them to nav-
igate the social world of school and providing
the emotional security necessary for learning
and school adaptation.
This study evaluated the degree to which the
affective qualities of closeness and conflict
within the teacher-student relationship pre-
dicted the school adaptation of elementary
schoolchildren with significant behavior prob-
lems. Further, it tested the potentially moderat-
ing effects of positive teacher relationship on
the association between behavior problems and
school adaptation. It was expected that children
with significant internalizing or externalizing
behavior problems would show poorer school
adjustment than typically developing peers, and
consistent with compensatory models of risk,
that those experiencing a positive teacher rela-
tionship would show improved school function-
ing.
Method
Participants
Children
The sample included 423 kindergarten
through fifth grade students from four elemen-
tary schools in a small city in the Southeastern
United States. It was 55% male and representa-
tive of the racial and ethnic composition of
students in the participating schools (63% Af-
rican American, 21% Caucasian, 4% Other, and
9% Hispanic, with 3% of students missing ra-
cial/ethnic data). The current sample consisted
of students who had participated in a larger
study and were selected for this study based
upon their behavior rating scale scores.
Some children had multiple years of data
because of the longitudinal nature of the study.
When this was the case, we selected one year of
data for each child at random after blocking by
grade.
The participating school district has a large
population of at-risk students with about 70% of
the student body participating in the free- or
reduced-cost lunch program, a large percentage
of each school coming from public housing
units, and less than a 50% on-time graduation
rate from high school. Approximately 54% of
the district is African American, and 35% is
Caucasian. Poverty and race are confounded in
the district with more African American stu-
dents eligible for the free- or reduced-cost lunch
program than students from other racial groups.
Teachers
A total of 68 teachers in the schools partici-
pated for at least one year in the larger 3-year
study. The sample was 96% female, 84% Cau-
casian, and 14% African American. The teach-
ers were experienced in terms of number of
years teaching, with approximately 58% of the
sample having taught for 6 years or more and
5TEACHER-STUDENT RELATIONSHIPS
only 4% in their first year of teaching. Sixty
percent had graduate degrees. The teachers
were similar between the four participating el-
ementary schools with respect to demographic
composition, educational level, and experience.
All teachers provided informed consent and re-
ceived a small remuneration for their participa-
tion.
Procedures
Recruiting efforts targeted all children in reg-
ular education Kindergarten through fifth grade
classrooms in the four participating elementary
schools. Teachers sent permission forms home
with students in their native language and col-
lected signed copies at the beginning of the
school year. If students had not returned forms
after several weeks, teachers sent home up to
three reminders. Only students with active pa-
rental permission participated in the study; this
procedure resulted in an over 90% participation
rate at each of the schools. Teacher participants
provided signed informed consent and received
a stipend for their participation.
In the late fall, teachers completed a stan-
dardized behavior rating scale, the Behavior
Assessment System for Children (BASC),
Teacher Rating Scale for Children (Reynolds &
Kamphaus, 1992; see Measures), for each par-
ticipating child in their classroom. For this
study, the authors selected students into one of
three groups based on their standard scores.
Children were eligible for the Average group if
their BASC Internalizing Composite score and
their BASC Externalizing Composite score fell
within one half standard deviation of the mean
(T scores ranging from 45 to 55). A random
sample of 171 children was selected from this
pool, 55% of whom were male. The group was
61% African American and 25% Caucasian
(with only a few students from each of several
other racial or ethnic groups). This group of
children evidenced average scores of 49 on both
the BASC Externalizing and Internalizing
scales (SD 3.12 and SD 3.15, respectively).
Next, the authors selected two groups of stu-
dents experiencing “pure” behavior problems.
Students were included in the Externalizing
group if their BASC Externalizing Composite
score was at least one standard deviation above
the mean (T score of 60 or above) and their
Internalizing Composite score was at or below
average (Internalizing Composite 55). This
group consisted of 172 children, of whom 69%
were male, 81% were African American, and
15% were Caucasian. These children had aver-
age BASC Externalizing Composite scores of
68 (SD 7.68) and Internalizing Composite
scores of 48 (SD 4.41). This level of exter-
nalizing behavior represents significant impair-
ment. For comparison purposes, the average
Externalizing Composite score of children with
clinical diagnoses of conduct disorder was 66.9
and with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
was 60.6 in the validity studies of the BASC-
TRS-C (Reynolds & Kamphaus, 1992). The
authors selected the Internalizing group on the
basis of their Internalizing Composite T scores;
this sample consisted of 80 students with above
average T scores ( 60) and average or below
average Externalizing T scores ( 55). This
group was 36% male, 56% African American,
and 39% Caucasian. These children had average
BASC Internalizing Composite scores of 67
(SD 6.47) and average Externalizing Com-
posite scores of 49 (SD 4.56). Again, for
comparison purposes, the average Internalizing
Composite T score of students receiving clinical
diagnoses of depression was 56.8 in the BASC
validity studies (Reynolds & Kamphaus, 1992).
Within each group, the students were fairly
evenly distributed across grade levels.
Teachers completed other study measures
concurrently with the BASC ratings. The infor-
mation from children’s school records was col-
lected at the end of each school.
Measures
Teacher-Student Relationship Quality
Selected items from the Student-Teacher Re-
lationship Scale (STRS; Pianta & Nimetz,
1991) were used as a measure of teacher-student
relationship quality. This brief measure was
used to reduce the length of the teacher battery
included in the larger study. Nine items, reflect-
ing both close relationships and negative reac-
tivity, were summed such that high scores rep-
resent a positive relationship characterized by
trust, warmth, and low conflict. The total mea-
sure yielded an internal consistency reliability
of .87. A principal components factor analysis
with varimax rotation suggested that the mea-
sure consisted of two factors, one 5-item sub-
6 BAKER, GRANT, AND MORLOCK
scale measuring closeness (␣⫽.80) and a
4-item subscale reflecting conflict (␣⫽.86).
The conflict subscale was reversed so that high
scores indicate high conflict with teachers.
Standardized Behavior Rating Scale
Teachers rated students’ problem and adap-
tive behaviors using the Behavior Assessment
System for Children—Teacher Rating Scales for
Children (BASC TRS-C; Reynolds & Kam-
phaus, 1992). The BASC TRS-C is a nationally
standardized, reliable, and valid measure (San-
doval & Echandia, 1994) that consists of 148
Likert-type items (4-point scale). This measure
includes nine problem behavior scales, four
adaptive skills scales, and summary (composite)
scales, and yields T scores (M 50, SD 10).
For this study, the Externalizing Problems
Composite was used as a measure of children’s
acting-out behavior. It consists of the Aggres-
sion, Hyperactivity, and Conduct Problems sub-
scales and evidenced an internal consistency
reliability of .95. To measure children’s inter-
nalizing behavior, the Internalizing Behavior
Composite (Cronbach’s alpha .91) was used.
It consists of the Anxiety, Depression, and So-
matization subscales of the BASC TRS-C.
There are no overlapping items on the BASC-
TRS-C subscales.
The authors selected three dependent mea-
sures to assess academic and behavioral adap-
tation to the school environment. The set, con-
sisting of academic achievement, positive work
habits, and classroom adjustment, reflects the
perspective that school competence is multifac-
eted and encompasses behavioral and social-
emotional aptitudes in addition to academic
competencies (Wentzel, 2003).
Academic Achievement
Achievement measures were not available for
Kindergarteners in the participating district. Re-
port card grades of reading (for first through
third graders) or language arts performance (for
fourth and fifth graders) were collected from
school records. Grades were reported on either a
4-point scale, for first through third graders, or
a 5-point scale, for fourth and fifth graders,
ranging from 1 (unsatisfactory)to4or5(ex-
cellent). Students’ grades were converted to
standard (Z) scores for the analyses.
Positive Work Habits
The authors summed children’s report card
grades in social development and positive work
habits to measure the degree to which they
manifested positive personal behaviors in the
classroom environment. Teachers rated Kinder-
garten through third grade students on a 5-point
scale, 1 (unsatisfactory)to4or5(excellent),
and fourth and fifth grade students on a 3-point
scale, 1 (unsatisfactory)to3(meets or exceeds
expectations). The content was similar across
the grade levels; sample items are “Uses time
wisely,” and “Gets along well with others.”
Children’s scores were converted to standard
scores (Z scores) for the analyses.
Classroom Adjustment
The authors used the School-Appropriate Be-
haviors subscale of the Teachable Pupil Survey
(TPS; Kornblau, 1982) to measure the degree to
which children were adjusted to the norms, rou-
tines, and expectations of the classroom envi-
ronment. It is a 9-item measure completed by
teachers using a 5-point Likert-type scale. Sam-
ple items are “This student is alert and attentive
to classroom proceedings,” and “This student
willingly participates in classroom activities.”
Items are summed to create a total score and are
keyed such that high scores indicate good class-
room adjustment. Internal consistency reliabil-
ity (Cronbach’s alpha) was .96.
Data Analysis
We conducted a multivariate multiple regres-
sion using general linear modeling (GLM) to
examine the substantive questions of interest in
the study. Because teachers rated multiple chil-
dren within their classrooms, we used GLM to
correct for possible correlations among the re-
siduals attributable to the nested nature of the
data (Cohen, Cohen, West, & Aiken, 2003). For
the analysis, the continuous independent vari-
ables (Closeness and Conflict) were mean cen-
tered and dummy codes were used to denote
behavior problem group status (externalizing,
internalizing, or average). The group with aver-
age behavior served as the reference group.
Interactions between the relationship quality
variables and behavior problem group member-
ship to determine possible moderation effects
7TEACHER-STUDENT RELATIONSHIPS
(Aiken & West, 1991; Baron & Kenny, 1986).
The regression coefficients were entered simul-
taneously; the classroom teacher was entered as
a fixed factor.
Our approach to understanding group differ-
ences was guided by bioecological perspectives
on development and psychopathology (Bronfen-
brenner & Ceci, 1994; Sameroff, 1995). Consis-
tent with this theoretical approach, meaningful
group differences were retained because we were
interested in studying extant groups within natu-
rally occurring developmental settings (Steinberg,
Darling & Fletcher, 2001). Despite gender differ-
ences between the groups, gender was not con-
trolled in the analyses because it is meaningfully
associated with the group selection criteria. Girls
are more likely to experience internalizing disor-
ders than boys, and boys are consistently overrep-
resented among children with conduct problems
(Mash & Barkley, 1996). Also, a race difference
existed between the groups, with African Ameri-
can boys overrepresented in the externalizing
group. This sample characteristic is consistent
with others in studies of behavioral adjustment
among urban, African American children
(McLloyd, 1990). Additionally, controlling for
race in this sample would misrepresent effects that
may be attributable to a third factor, such as pov-
erty. Race and poverty are confounded in the
district, and we were precluded from collecting
indicators of poverty (eligibility for the free or
reduced cost lunch program) by several of the
schools during the course of the study. Therefore,
we were unable to disaggregate poverty, which is
consistently associated with poor school achieve-
ment, (Duncan & Brooks-Gunn, 1997), from race
in our analyses. Therefore, our results should be
interpreted relative to these extant group charac-
teristics of children in urban schools.
Results
Descriptive statistics and correlations among
the study measures are presented in Table 1.
The associations were mostly moderate and in
the expected directions. Results for the multi-
variate multiple regression are presented in Ta-
ble 2. The presented values indicate the associ-
ation between the predictor variable and the
response variable after controlling for the other
main and interaction effects in the model. A
significant value for the Teacher variable re-
flects differences between classrooms on the
response variable(s). Presented in Part A of
Table 2 are the multivariate tests of association
between each independent variable and the set
of dependent variables reflecting positive
school adjustment. One’s classroom teacher
makes the largest contribution to positive
school adjustment of the variables considered
(
p
2
.27). Having significant externalizing
behavior problems accounts for about 10% of
the variance in the set of school outcomes and is
associated with poorer school adaptation for
this group of children. Also, both closeness and
conflict in the teacher-student relationship are
associated with school adaptation and each ac-
count for an additional 5% of the variance.
Teacher-student relationships characterized by
trust and warmth are positively associated with
school adaptation while teacher-student rela-
tionships dominated by conflict are negatively
associated with school adaptation.
Only one interaction was noted in the multi-
variate test such that students with internalizing
problems and high degrees of conflict showed
poorer school adaptation than similarly affected
students with less conflicted relationships with
teachers.
Table 1
Descriptive Statistics and Correlations Among Study Variables
Variables
Descriptive statistics Correlations
M SD 1 2 3 4
1. Closeness 20.84 3.94
2. Conflict 5.12 4.50 .49
**
3. Reading grades .26 1.01 .18
**
.24
**
4. Positive work habits .25 1.01 .25 .47
**
.41
**
5. Classroom adjustment 32.33 8.60 .46
**
.47
**
.54
**
.30
**
**
p .001.
8 BAKER, GRANT, AND MORLOCK
Presented in Part B of Table 2 are the results
predicting each response variable within the
multivariate set from the predictor variables. In
each of the three models, a significant class-
room effect was noted and accounted for the
largest amount of variance of the variables con-
sidered. Regarding reading grades, the predictor
variables accounted for 18% of the variance
with closeness and externalizing behavior prob-
lems making significant but small independent
contributions. One significant interaction was
found, indicating that children who demon-
strated externalizing behavior problems and a
close relationship with their teacher had better
achievement in reading than did similarly af-
fected students with less warm relationships
with teachers. Again, the effect size of this
finding was small.
Forty-six percent of children’s positive be-
havior grades were accounted for in the second
model. Again, individual differences among
classroom teachers made the largest contribu-
tion to that finding. Having significant external-
izing behavior problems accounted for the next
largest portion of the variance in positive be-
havior grades, with the degree of conflict in
the teacher-child relationship evidencing a
smaller effect size. In this regression, the
significant interaction indicates that children
with internalizing behavior problems and
conflicted relationships with their teachers
had poorer positive work habits than similarly
affected peers with more positive teacher re-
lationships.
In the final regression, 42% of the variance in
children’s classroom adjustment was accounted
for. In this model both aspects of teacher rela-
tionship quality, closeness and conflict, made
independent contributions to the outcome; al-
though their effect sizes were small.
Having internalizing problems was nega-
tively associated with classroom adjustment and
accounted for an additional small proportion of
the variance. An interaction with conflict was
noted for these students similar to that found for
positive work habits. Interestingly, having ex-
ternalizing problems did not affect classroom
adjustment after the relationship variables were
controlled.
Table 2
Multivariate Multiple Regression Results
Model
Adj.
R
2
Close Conflict Ext Int
Clo
Ext
Con
Ext
Clo
Int
Con
Int Teacher
A. Multivariate tests of
the contribution of
the independent
variables to the set
of dependent
variables
F 5.09
*
4.78
*
10.01
*
1.97 1.62 .54 .72 3.41
*
2.09
*
Partial eta
2
.05 .05 .10 .02 .02 .01 .01 .04 .27
B. Between-subjects
tests of the
contribution of the
independent
variables to each
dependent variable
Reading grades .18
F 4.88
*
.10 4.42
*
.03 4.19
*
1.17 1.36 .43 1.65
*
Partial eta
2
.02 .00 .02 .00 .02 .00 .01 .00 .23
Positive habits .46
F .14 6.07
*
29.04
*
.17 .01 .05 1.41 5.63
*
2.39
*
Partial eta
2
.00 .02 .10 .00 .00 .00 .01 .02 .30
Class adjustment .42
F 14.30
*
6.55
*
.98 4.11
*
.26 .00 .93 6.50
*
2.26
*
Partial eta
2
.05 .02 .00 .02 .00 .00 .00 .02 .29
*
p .01.
9TEACHER-STUDENT RELATIONSHIPS
Discussion
The teacher-student relationship holds prom-
ise as a developmental context that may affect
positive school adaptation for urban, elementa-
ry-aged children. In this study, both the degree
of closeness and the negativity in that relation-
ship predicted children’s successful school ad-
justment. Having a teacher relationship charac-
terized by warmth, trust, and low degrees of
conflict was associated with positive school out-
comes. The relatively small effect sizes for
these findings suggest that teacher-student rela-
tionship quality is only a small piece of the
school adaptation puzzle. However, these find-
ings have implications for theories of teacher-
student relationships and prevention and inter-
vention efforts in schools.
The results of this study extend previous
work that used early teacher relationships to
predict children’s school adjustment prospec-
tively (e.g., Hamre & Pianta, 2001). In that
work, relational negativity was the only salient
aspect of the kindergarten teacher-student rela-
tionship to predict school outcomes in later el-
ementary and middle school. In this study, re-
lationship quality and child performance were
measured concurrently across the entire period
of elementary school. Using these methods,
both closeness and relational negativity made
independent contributions to the set of positive
school outcomes. Closeness was associated
with two of the three indices of school adjust-
ment in the individual models. This finding is
consistent with studies of younger children that
find closeness associated with concurrent
school adjustment (e.g., Birch & Ladd, 1997;
Howes & Hamilton, 1993). Warmth with each
teacher is important in that it provides a secure
interpersonal context in which the work of
schooling can transpire effectively (Wentzel,
2002). This effect may be most pronounced
when the specific classroom context is refer-
enced, as is the case in concurrent ratings. Ad-
ditionally, the ability to form close relationships
with nonfamilial adults may also reflect chil-
dren’s underlying social competence which is
associated with good school performance (Ca-
para, Barbaranelli, Pastorelli, Bandura, & Zim-
bardo, 2000). In contrast, conflict with teachers
may reflect aberrations in social development
and in the normative processes of adjusting to
school. Children with early behavior problems
are at increased risk of declining school adap-
tation across time (Caspi et al., 1987); relational
negativity with teachers early in schooling may
signal social-emotional and self-regulatory dif-
ficulties that forecast later school problems.
Whereas conflict may be a more salient predic-
tor across time, affective warmth with one’s
teacher seems relevant to children’s adaptation
within each classroom of elementary school.
The effect sizes found in this study, with con-
flict and closeness each accounting for 5% of
the variance in school adjustment, was compa-
rable to those found in some studies (e.g., Birch
& Ladd, 1997) but smaller than those in others
(e.g., Hamre & Pianta, 2001; Meehen et al.,
2003). Despite their relatively small effect sizes,
both aspects of the relationship process may
warrant further exploration in studies of chil-
dren at the elementary school level.
Another important finding from this study is
that aspects of the teacher-student relationship
made significant contributions to children’s
school success after controlling for the shared
variance attributable to teachers rating multiple
children within their classrooms. The finding
that conflict and closeness accounted for addi-
tional variance lends support to the idea that the
teacher-child relationship is a unique interper-
sonal context negotiated between the individual
child and his or her teacher (Howes & Hamil-
ton, 1993). Developmental theory posits that
children’s growth trajectories are individualized
in part due to the effects of nonshared contexts
within normative developmental settings (Bron-
fenbrenner & Ceci, 1994). That is, a child’s
transactions with others, objects, and events in
their immediate environment are individualized
and shape the developmental course for each
child uniquely, despite their occurrence in a
larger shared context, such as a classroom. One
of these proximal processes is the unique char-
acteristics of the child’s relationship with his or
her teacher. This framework is consistent with
attachment theoretical perspectives on teacher-
child relationships (e.g., Pianta, 1999). One im-
plication of this finding is that the unique rela-
tionship between a child with behavior prob-
lems and his or her teacher may be a valuable
focus for intervention. Increasing warmth and
decreasing conflict at the child, teacher, or
classroom level may influence the child’s de-
velopmental trajectory and enhance their posi-
tive adaptation (Hamre & Pianta, 2001). The
10 BAKER, GRANT, AND MORLOCK
teacher-student relationship is affected by the
relationship histories and competencies of both
the child and the teacher, and the interpersonal
interactions specific to the classroom context
(Bowlby, 1982; Kesner, 2000). Classroom-
based interventions for children with behavior
problems should include attention to these rela-
tional processes between students and teachers.
The findings from this study are consistent
with a large body of research documenting the
poor school adaptation of children with exter-
nalizing behavior problems (e.g., Hinshaw,
1992). In this study, membership in the exter-
nalizing behavior problem group was nega-
tively associated with school adaptation. These
children are disadvantaged in their academic
achievement and in their behavioral adaptation
to the classroom setting relative to peers without
such problems. The only moderation effect
noted for the externalizing group related to
closeness in the prediction of reading grades;
children with warm relationships with teachers
achieved significantly better in reading than
peers with comparable behavior problems and
poor quality relationships. Closeness within the
teacher relationship has been shown to moder-
ate the language development of children of
color, and the acquisition of reading skills for
children from less advantageous family back-
grounds early in schooling (Burchinal, Peisner-
Feinberg, Pianta, & Howes, 2002). Children in
our externalizing group had these characteris-
tics, so our findings may be an extension of the
results shown by Burchinal and her colleagues
(2002) to older students.
Our results may also suggest something
about appropriate interpersonal contexts that
support the reading achievement of children
with externalizing problems. It may be that
closeness within the teacher relationship scaf-
folds children’s school adaptation through at-
tachment-like processes (Pianta, 1999). Social
engagement with teachers influences patterns of
behavior, expectations, and beliefs about social
interactions that then become stabilized within
the context of that relationship. Children be-
come socialized to the norms and expectations
of school-like behavior within the context of
these interpersonal relationships. Additionally,
teachers provide an important source of emo-
tional security that permits children to engage in
actively in the trial-and-error approach to tasks
necessary for school learning. Teachers also
actively shape children’s capacity for self-
regulation or the ability to moderate arousal and
effectively integrate cognition, emotion, and be-
havior, through explicit teaching, modeling, and
provision of effective feedback. All of these
transactional processes may provide the com-
pensatory support necessary for children with
externalizing behavior problems to read better.
This model is supported by the literature on the
effects of parental warmth on children’s devel-
opmental outcomes. For example, recent work
by Eisenberg and her colleagues (2005) sug-
gests parental warmth acts to decrease external-
izing problems over time through the mediating
effect of increasing emotional self-regulation
among elementary schoolchildren. Teacher
warmth may provide this kind of scaffolding in
the classroom.
Alternately, it may be that warmth signals the
provision of more effective and developmen-
tally appropriate pedagogy and curricula within
some teacher-student pairings. Engaged aca-
demic time is associated with increased school
achievement (Gettinger, 1984) and develop-
mentally appropriate classroom pedagogy is as-
sociated with decreased conflict (Mantzicopou-
los, 2005) and high levels of warmth (Connor,
Son, Hindman & Morrison, 2005) within the
teacher-student relationship. It may be that
warmth signals a successful academic partner-
ship between a teacher and student with signif-
icant externalizing problems. It is likely that
these two vectors interact such that teachers and
students with close relationships are more mo-
tivated to, and more likely to successfully en-
gage in, specific curricular activities that sup-
port learning (Grusec & Goodnow, 1994). This
protective effect is consistent with compensa-
tory models of risk. Although the effect size
was small, future research should investigate
the specific processes by which a warm rela-
tionship with one’s teacher advantages children
with externalizing behavior problems in the
classroom.
The one interesting exception to the general
finding of externalizing problems being associ-
ated with poor school functioning was related to
classroom adjustment. In that model, external-
izing behavior problem group membership did
not predict adjustment after the other variables
in the model were controlled. This may be an
artifact of the oppositionality typical of this
group of children. Using direct observations,
11TEACHER-STUDENT RELATIONSHIPS
Henricsson and Rydell (2004) documented that
these children engage in more classroom defi-
ance and receive more corrections for disruptive
behavior than did other groups of children.
They also had more conflicted relationships
with their teachers. In this study, the problems
that children with externalizing problems have
adhering to classroom norms and routines may
be reflected in the conflict ratings rather than in
their group membership per se. Conflict with
teachers is a robust predictor of children’s suc-
cess (Hamre & Pianta, 2001; Mantzicopoulos,
2005) and may be one mechanism through
which school adaptation is affected.
It was expected that aspects of the teacher-
student relationship might moderate the school
adjustment of the vulnerable children consid-
ered in this study, those with significant exter-
nalizing or internalizing problems. This was
generally not the case; the only moderating ef-
fect on the set of school adaptation variables
related to conflict for children with internalizing
problems. In this study, conflict was particularly
disruptive for students with internalizing prob-
lems. These children were differentially af-
fected by negativity in relationships with their
teachers. In the multivariate model, and in two
of the three individual models, children with
internalizing behavior problems and conflicted
relationships with teachers showed poorer ad-
justment than similarly affected peers with low
degrees of conflict. This may be attributable to
several factors. Internalizing problems are asso-
ciated with disruptions within the child’s rela-
tional network (Hammen, 1999), and thus, these
children may come to school without sufficient
social support resources. Social support protects
children from internalizing problems (Kotchick,
Summers, Forehand, & Steeles, 1997; Anan &
Barnett, 1999; Hagen & Myer, 2003). Also,
warmth and support within the therapeutic rela-
tionship has been shown empirically to reduce
one type of internalizing problem, depression,
among adolescents (Mufson & Dorta, 2003).
The teacher relationship may provide a similar
context for support within the classroom setting.
Children who experience relationship problems
with teachers may be at compounded disadvan-
tage and thus show poorer school adaptation
than their peers who are able to negotiate po-
tentially compensatory relationships with adults
at school. Children with internalizing problems
without this supportive classroom context may
be particularly disadvantaged.
On the other hand, the interaction between
conflict and adjustment for children with inter-
nalizing problems may reflect the nature of their
distress. Henricsson and Rydell’s study (2004)
noted that children with internalizing problems
were mostly overlooked by teachers but that
those who frequently attempted social initia-
tions experienced more conflict with teachers.
Internalizing problems are often characterized
by cognitive distortions, including negative ex-
pectations of social discourse, irritability, and
poor social skills, which may negatively affect
social relationships (Hammen, 1999). The sig-
nificant interaction in this study may suggest
that some children were more deleteriously af-
fected by this negative interpersonal style than
others. High conflict with teachers may signal
that some children interacted more frequently
than others in this negatively biased way. Fur-
ther research that accounts for specific cognitive
or interpersonal styles is needed to explicate this
finding for children with internalizing problems.
Of significant interest in the study of teacher
relationships is the large teacher effect in each
model. This finding suggests that important
variability in school adjustment lies at the
teacher or classroom level. Teacher-student re-
lationships are affected by the individual char-
acteristics of teachers, including their personal-
ity, experience, and personal relationship his-
tory (Kesner, 2000). Additionally, important
distinctions at the classroom level include its
social climate, the teacher’s classroom manage-
ment skills, their ability to maintain a clear
academic focus and to promote student engage-
ment in learning (Good & Brophy, 2002). It
may be that these variables meaningfully affect
the degree to which positive relationships can
be negotiated within the classroom. This vari-
ability should be explored in further studies
examining teacher or classroom-level effects
using hierarchical modeling approaches.
Limitations
This study has several limitations. First, as
with many other studies of teacher-student re-
lationship quality, there may be a method effect
that influenced the results. There is shared
source variance between the measure of rela-
tionship quality and the outcome measures.
12 BAKER, GRANT, AND MORLOCK
However, teacher-assigned grades are well-
established, socially valid markers of school
adaptation. Further, longitudinal research sug-
gests that teacher ratings are efficient and valid
indicators of children’s competence (e.g., Ver-
hulst, Koot, & Van der Ende, 1994). Still, mul-
tiple methods and raters should be included in
future studies to ensure that a method-effect is
not responsible for these findings. Second, it is
important to note that the direction of effects
cannot be determined given the correlational
methods used in this study. It may be that teach-
ers are better able to form relationships with
children who demonstrate more school compe-
tence, and that the positive associations with
school outcomes reflect this advantage. Future
research exploring the processes underlying
these relationships and the directionality of their
effects is warranted. Third, the empirical dis-
tinctions of internalizing versus externalizing
behavior may underrepresent the behavioral
variability characteristic of elementary class-
rooms (Baker, Kamphaus, Horne, & Winsor,
2006). Further evaluation of the effects of
teacher relationships on school outcomes
among other subgroups of students is necessary.
Additional consideration also should be made
to the effects of gender and race on children’s
school adjustment and teacher relationship
characteristics. Both gender and race effects
have been noted in some research on teacher-
student relationships (e.g., Hamre & Pianta,
2001; Meehan et al., 2003). These were not
controlled in this study for several reasons. As
others have persuasively argued, once a signif-
icant characteristic is partialed in an attempt to
create demographically comparable groups, the
fundamental ecological validity of the sample is
compromised (Steinberg et al., 2001). Addition-
ally, gender and race may both be proxies for
other variables that might more appropriately
explain the observed relationships, such as sex
role socialization or an orientation toward rela-
tional modes of interaction in the case of gender
(Brown & Gilligan, 1992), or the child’s re-
sponse to the cultural alignment of the curricu-
lum in the case of race (Gay, 2000). Addition-
ally, our inability to account for the effects of
poverty independent of race in our study pro-
vided another reason to maintain our extant
groups. Measures more sensitive than those
used in this study are required to understand
possible gender and race effects on relationship
processes, especially in urban schools.
Children’s school adaptation is affected by
the degree of warmth and the amount of conflict
in their relationships with teachers. There are
some areas in which aspects of the teacher re-
lationship moderate the relationships between
significant behavior problems and school func-
tioning. Warmth in the relationship between
students with externalizing problems and their
teachers differentially affects reading achieve-
ment for these students and conflict in this re-
lationship seems especially pertinent for chil-
dren with internalizing problems across several
school outcomes. Although their effect sizes are
small, these findings suggest that the teacher-
relationship is one developmental context that
contributes to children’s school success.
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15TEACHER-STUDENT RELATIONSHIPS
... Teachers play important role in the development of children throughout the formal schooling experience, (Baker, Grant & Morlock, 2008). Although most research regarding teacher-student relationships investigate the elementary years of schooling, teachers also have the unique opportunity to support children's academic and social development at all levels of schooling (Baker et al., 2008;Bronfenbrenner, 1979;Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1998). ...
... Teachers play important role in the development of children throughout the formal schooling experience, (Baker, Grant & Morlock, 2008). Although most research regarding teacher-student relationships investigate the elementary years of schooling, teachers also have the unique opportunity to support children's academic and social development at all levels of schooling (Baker et al., 2008;Bronfenbrenner, 1979;Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1998). Aligned with attachment theory (Ainsworth, 1982;Bowlby, 1969), positive teacher-pupil relationships enable children to feel safe and secure in their learning environments and provide support for important social and academic skills, (Baker et al., 2008;O'Connor, Dearing & Collins, 2011;Silver, Measelle, Armstron, & Essex, 2005). ...
... Although most research regarding teacher-student relationships investigate the elementary years of schooling, teachers also have the unique opportunity to support children's academic and social development at all levels of schooling (Baker et al., 2008;Bronfenbrenner, 1979;Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1998). Aligned with attachment theory (Ainsworth, 1982;Bowlby, 1969), positive teacher-pupil relationships enable children to feel safe and secure in their learning environments and provide support for important social and academic skills, (Baker et al., 2008;O'Connor, Dearing & Collins, 2011;Silver, Measelle, Armstron, & Essex, 2005). According to Thompson (1998), the most powerful weapon available to teachers who want to foster a favourable learning climate is a positive relationship with children. ...
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This study investigated parent-child and teacher-pupil relationship as predictors of academic motivation and achievement among school children. Participants were 299 Primary 5 and 6 school pupils. They were randomly selected from two primary schools in southeast Nigeria. Their ages ranged from 7-12 years, with a mean age of 10.06 years. Three instruments were used to elicit information from respondents. They include Parent as a Social Context Questionnaire (Child Report Version), Teacher as a Social Context Questionnaire (Child Report Version), and the adapted version of Herman's Questionnaire Measure of Need Achievement. The students' cumulative results were assessed from the official school record to determine their academic achievements. The study tested four hypotheses and the results of the regression analyses showed that parent-child relationship was a significant predictor of academic achievement. Teacher-pupil relationship also significantly predicted academic achievement and academic motivation, whereas parent-child relationship did not predict academic motivation. Implications and limitations of the study were discussed and suggestions were made for further studies.
... School and academic factors, encompassing peer relationships, teacher support, and academic stress, form another crucial domain. Adolescents who experience peer rejection [16,23], receive lower teacher support [24], or face higher academic stress [25] show increased probability of developing internalizing behaviors. The significance of peer and teacher relationships is particularly pronounced during adolescence, as students spend substantial time in school environments. ...
... Morales et al. [16] and other researchers [23] have documented the substantial impact of peer relationships on both internalizing and externalizing behavior levels. While many studies indicate that higher teacher support correlates with lower problem behaviors [24], some research suggests that teacher support may not significantly affect adolescents' psychological and psychopathological factors [26]. Högberg et al.'s research revealed a strong negative association between academic achievement and internalizing disorders, with low-achieving students showing disproportionately high risks of anxiety and mood disorders. ...
... Human behavior is motivated and regulated by both internal personal factors and external environmental factors [79,80,82]. The TSR is particularly significant among these external factors [83], and positive relationships can lead to beneficial changes in students' behaviors [84,85]. BJW serves a crucial trust function, enabling individuals to trust others and have confidence in a just fate [86]. ...
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The belief in a just world (BJW) is perceived as an individual trait that aids in coping with challenges. This study employed Mplus8.0 and HLM6.08 to analyze 346 questionnaire responses, leading to the following conclusions: (1) BJW shows a positive correlation with academic engagement among college art majors; (2) Academic resilience mediates the relationship between BJW and academic engagement for college art majors; (3) The teacher-student relationship (TSR) exhibits a positive correlation with academic engagement among college art majors; (4) TSR functions as a moderator in the relationship between BJW and academic engagement among college art majors. These findings provide valuable insights for enhancing learning efficiency and talent development in art schools, thereby contributing to the overall quality of education for art students.
... Regarding school outcomes, interpersonal relationships between teachers and children with special educational needs are related to school attachment, school liking and avoidance, academic selfconcept, participation in learning activities, work habits, orientation towards learning projects, and implementation of teacher guidelines and classroom rules (Tsai & Cheney, 2012;Baker et al., 2009;Baker et al., 2008;Baker, 2006;Murray & Greenberg, 2000). ...
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This paper focuses on the teacher-student relationship with or without special educational needs and more generally on the relationship of the pedagogical couple. The teacher is the main responsible for maintaining harmonious relationships with his students and implementing special education programs. The effectiveness of the programs and the harmonious relationship also depends on the students and their cooperation with the teachers. To do the above, we will analyze the roles of the two cooperation factors and we will refer to whether it is confirmed that a very good relationship of the pedagogical couple helps first the students, then the teachers and finally their harmonious cooperation mainly in teaching. Each member has his own role in this relationship, always guided by the happiness of the child first and foremost. The teacher's cooperation, his willingness to help, but also his leadership ability, that is, the way he maintains discipline in the classroom (degree of teacher dominance), the strictness he demonstrates to the extent necessary, the provision of freedom of movement and the strengthening of students' responsibility positively affect children's behaviors, self-confidence, pleasure and the effort that students make and the way they perceive the learning process, while the opposite happens when teachers are uncertain, dissatisfied and scold students. The role of the student, therefore, is just as important as that of the teacher and is not simply a spectator in the teaching process. On the contrary, he must participate "body and soul" in order to understand what has been learned and apply it in practice. Furthermore, there are four points on which the creation of a strong relationship between the teacher and the student and, at the same time, the success of the teaching work is based. a) Teacher-student relationships. b) Teacher-student communication c) Conversation with children. d) Negotiations with children. However, difficulties exist and both participants in the relationship are called upon to overcome them. Finally, the findings of our work were encouraging since they showed that if the teacher-student relationship with or without special educational needs is at a very good level, it will be distinguished from this relationship that the children feel safe first and then the teacher. Keywords: teacher, student, relationship, roles
... The essence of educational communication lies in establishing strong relationships, serving as the bedrock for practical instruction, and facilitating students' learning journeys (Meng, 2021). According to Baker et al. (2008), numerous beneficial educational outcomes are linked to the affective quality of children's relationships with their teachers. Klem (2004) found that students who experience nurturing and encouraging interpersonal relationships at school report higher academic satisfaction and good attitudes and values. ...
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This study aims to investigate the levels of teacher-student relationships (TSR) and student engagement (SE) within an English as a Foreign Language (EFL) context among general English (GE) level students enrolled in an English course at a private language school in Indonesia. This study also seeks to examine the correlation between TSR and SE in EFL classes. In finding the correlation between TSR and SE in EFL classes, this study attempts to fill a gap in the existing literature by employing a quantitative method, specifically a survey-based approach, to systematically collect and analyze data from a diverse pool of participants. The choice of quantitative method is grounded in the need for standardized data collection and analysis to determine the degree of relationship between TSR and SE among GE-level students. By administering surveys to GE-level students, this study seeks to gain insights into their perceptions of TSR and its impact on their engagement in EFL classes. This study found that the TSR and the SE levels were high. Moreover, this study found a statistically significant positive correlation between TSR and SE. The findings of this research endeavor to provide valuable insights into how TSR can catalyze SE and subsequently enhance language proficiency among EFL learners in Indonesia, with implications for both theory and practice in EFL education.
... The essence of educational communication lies in establishing strong relationships, serving as the bedrock for practical instruction, and facilitating students' learning journeys (Meng, 2021). According to Baker et al. (2008), numerous beneficial educational outcomes are linked to the affective quality of children's relationships with their teachers. Klem (2004) found that students who experience nurturing and encouraging interpersonal relationships at school report higher academic satisfaction and good attitudes and values. ...
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This is the second issue of the Cambodian Journal of Educational and Social Sciences (CJESS) in 2024. This issue has eight articles, including one editorial article, three review articles, three original research articles, and one book review article. All of the articles are about educational fields, English language education, and social sciences. CJESS welcomes original research articles, review articles, and book reviews. CJESS publishes two issues a year in June and December, and the authors are welcome to submit their articles year-round. However, they must notice that each article needs at least three months from submission to publication. Authors need to register and follow the instructions to submit articles to CJESS, or if they are not familiar with the open journal system (OJS), they may submit their papers directly to cjessjournal555@gmail.com along with the full name(s), affiliation(s), short bio(s), and email address(es). However, since OJS is more standardized and internationalized for article processing, we still encourage authors to learn and use it to submit their articles.
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We used a five-year longitudinal study of children's teacher-child relationships and social-emotional competence to examine the relative contributions of preschool social-emotional climate and early individual child-teacher relationships and behavior problems in predicting second grade social competence with peers. Three hundred and seven children (152 girls) had complete second grade data on peer social competence. We used the Peer Play Scale to measure the climate of peer social competence in preschool classrooms. We used the Classroom Behavior Inventory to measure behavior problems and the Student-Teacher Relationship Scale to measure child-teacher relationship quality at both the classroom and individual level. Children's second grade social competence with peers could be predicted by preschool classroom social-emotional climate, four-year-old behavior problems and child-teacher relationship quality, and contemporary child-teacher relationship quality. The particular pattern of these predictors differed by aspect of social competence with peers.
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