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Cohesion and Performance in Sport: A Meta Analysis
Abstract
Conducted a meta-analytic summary of the cohesion-performance relationship in sport. Other purposes included (1) examining the influence of a number of potential moderator variables and (2) examining the cohesion-performance relationship reported in studies using the Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ). Standard literature searches produced 46 studies containing a total of 164 effect sizes. Overall, a significant moderate to large relationship was found between cohesion and performance. A moderate effect was found in studies that used the GEQ. A larger cohesion-performance effect was found in refereed publications (vs. nonpublished sources) and for female teams. These results have implications for practitioners in terms of the importance of team building to enhance team cohesion, the nature of those team-building programs (e.g., both task- or social-oriented programs should be beneficial), and their target group (e.g., both interdependent and coactive sport teams should profit). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... As one of the most studied team outcomes, cohesion has been of particular interest as it relates to athlete leadership. More specifically, cohesion has historically been viewed as the most important small group variable (Lott and Lott, 1965;Carron et al., 1998), and as such is a construct that athlete leaders would want to foster on their teams since it is related to enhanced performance (Carron et al., 2002). For example, Vincer and Loughead (2010) conducted a study assessing athlete leadership and cohesion in varsity and club level athletes. ...
... The relationship between athlete leadership and cohesion is important for sport teams because both athlete leadership and cohesion are positively associated with performance (Carron et al., 2002;Fransen et al., 2017). The direction of these relationships are reciprocal, such that cohesion improves performance and good performance improves cohesion (Carron et al., 2002). ...
... The relationship between athlete leadership and cohesion is important for sport teams because both athlete leadership and cohesion are positively associated with performance (Carron et al., 2002;Fransen et al., 2017). The direction of these relationships are reciprocal, such that cohesion improves performance and good performance improves cohesion (Carron et al., 2002). This is also the case for the relationship between leadership and performance, as indicated by the Multidimensional Model of Leadership (Chelladurai, 2007), where leadership characteristics positively impact leadership behaviour which in turn improves performance, and improved performance enhances positive leadership behaviours. ...
The study of athlete leadership has gained momentum over the past 15 years and is recognized as a vital component of team performance. Specifically, athlete leadership has been most studied with regards to its impact on the outcome of cohesion. As a result, a current gap in this area of research is the analysis of attribute data, such as tenure and self-reported athlete leadership, and how this attribute data is related to outcomes, such as cohesion. However, much of current research examining this relationship has utilized traditional statistical methods, limiting interpretation of data because team members are inherently interdependent. One approach that considers the interdependence of team members is social network analysis (SNA). SNA facilitates the study of social structures within networks of people, such as a sports team, as well as individual attributes influencing or being influenced by the network. The present study used SNA to examine athlete leadership and cohesion within a sports team of 22 female professional hockey players. Participants self-reported tenure, completed a self-rated athlete leadership questionnaire, and rated each of their team members on network variables of athlete leadership and cohesion. The results showed that high network density and low degree centralization was found for both athlete leadership and cohesion networks, with high indegree centralities for each team member. Further, a strong correlation was found between the athlete leadership and cohesion networks (p < 0.001), indicating a positive relationship between the athlete leadership ties and the cohesion ties. Lastly, significant correlations were found between self-rated athlete leadership and the networks of athlete leadership and cohesion. Together these data suggest that a cohesive team shares leadership responsibilities with many ties between teammates.
... It is widely acknowledged the relevant role that cohesion leads in group formation and consolidation (Evans & Dion, 2012). A large number of studies focused on group processes have identified group cohesion as a key element to achieve/develop optimal collective functioning (Beal et al., 2003;Carron et al., 2002;Evans & Dion, 2012;Gully et al., 1995). Those groups with good social relations between members and who work together could have greater probabilities of achieving the set goals (Braun et al., 2020;Mullen & Copper, 1994). ...
... Based on this multidimensional cohesion theory, Carron et al. (1985) designed and developed the Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ) to assess these four components. Research has supported the GEQ's concurrent, predictive and factorial validity (see Carron et al., 2002), being the scientific accepted instrument to assess cohesion in sport contexts. In addition, the adpatation of this instrument has also been used in many populations, such as military (Ahronson & Cameron, 2007), university work groups (Bosselut et al., 2018), musical groups (Dyce & Cornell, 2010), work teams (Brockman & Morgan, 2006), exercise classes (Estabrooks & Carron, 2000), youth sports teams (Eys et al., 2009), or groups of cancer patients (Midtgaard et al., 2006); and adapted to several languages like Spanish (Leo et al., 2015), Portuguese (Nascimento et al., 2012), French (Heuzé & Fontayne, 2002), German (Ohlert, 2012), or Greek (Ntoumanis & Aggelonidis, 2004). ...
... It could be expected that task cohesion would be associated with academic performance (Galyon et al., 2016), while social cohesion was more related to wellbeing (Blanchard et al., 2009). Traditionally, greater importance has been given to task cohesion in relation to performance, but no conclusive findings have been obtained (Beal et al., 2003;Carron et al., 2002;Evans & Dion, 2012), and to a lesser extent in young people where social groups are crucial, even gender differences have been found (Benson et al., 2016). Furthermore, significative variables for learning, such as trust, motivation, self-efficacy, and resilience could increase thanks to class cohesion (Erikstad et al., 2018;Lent et al., 2006;Leo et al., 2022aLeo et al., , 2022bLeo et al., , 2022cPicazo et al., 2015), and variables increasingly important in current society, such as disruptive behaviors, social exclusion, burnout, and bullying could be reduced (Pacewicz et al., 2020). ...
The aim of this study was to develop and validate a psychometrically-sound instrument to assess students’ perceptions about class cohesion. Two studies were conducted. In Study 1, four steps were established: (1) development of the Class Cohesion Questionnaire (CCQ); (2) item selection; (3) item compression; and (4) exploration of psychometric properties. In Study 2, participants were 1504 students from 21 primary and secondary schools. The aim was to confirm the psychometric properties and to create a short version of the instrument (CCQ-SF). In Study 1, the CCQ showed adequate content and construct validity, with a factorial structure of two first-order factors (task cohesion and social cohesion), and adequate internal consistency. In Study 2, the CCQ and CCQ-SF confirmed adequate factorial structure and reliability, discriminant and nomological validity, and showed invariance by sex and educational stage. The CCQ and the CCQ-SF are valid and reliable instruments to measure class cohesion in educational settings.
... Cohesion is defined as the shared bond or attraction that drives team members to want to work or play together and stay together [17]. Cohesion has task and social dimensions and is critical to effective team functioning [16][17][18]. The interactions between team members give rise to this emergent affective state, which is shaped by the context over time and manifests as a team-level phenomenon [52,53,60]. ...
... As such, cohesion has been linked to better team performance, satisfaction, and members' intention to remain in and return to the team. These findings stem from domains including sports [16,81], defence [6,34], and business [4,19]. ...
... Team cohesion is conceptualised as an affective teamlevel phenomenon defined as the shared bond or attraction that drives team members to want to work together and stay together [7,16,17]. Importantly, as an emergent team-level phenomenon, team cohesion does not exist before a team is formed and comes into existence only after team members have interacted. Cohesion has a task dimension that reflects a team's shared attraction or commitment to the team task or goal, and a social dimension that reflects a team's shared interpersonal attraction or liking to each other. ...
Team cohesion is a widely known predictor of performance and collaborative satisfaction. However, how it develops and can be assessed, especially in fast-paced ad hoc dynamic teams, remains unclear. An unobtrusive and objective behavioural measure of cohesion would help identify determinants of cohesion in these teams. We investigated team communication as a potential measure in a mixed-methods study with 48 teams (n=135) in the digital game League of Legends. We first established that cohesion shows similar performance and satisfaction in League of Legends. teams as in non-game teams and confirmed a positive relationship between communication word frequency and cohesion. Further, we conducted an in-depth exploratory qualitative analysis of the communication sequences in a high-cohesion and a low-cohesion team. High cohesion is associated with sequences of apology->encouragement, suggestion->agree/acknowledge, answer->answer, and answer->question, while low-cohesion is associated with sequences of opinion/analysis->opinion/analysis, disagree->disagree, command->disagree, and frustration->frustration. Our findings also show that cohesion is important to team satisfaction independently of the match outcomes. We highlight that communication sequences are more useful than frequencies to determine team cohesion via player interactions.
... Cohesion is defined as a dynamic process reflected in part by the pursuit of the instrumental goals of a group and / or the tendency to stay and stay together in meeting the emotional needs of members (Carron & Brawley, 2000). We usually see that there is a positive effect of group cohesion on the individual's contribution to the group (Carron et al., 2002b). From the point of view of the athlete, we can understand the importance of the cohesion of the individual to the team with the words of Michael Jordan (2010) "Talent wins games, but teamwork and intelligence win championships." ...
... Cohesion in sports groups conceptualized by Carron et al. (1985) on the basis of task and social cohesion as a four-dimensional, dynamic structure that includes individual (individual attractiveness) and group (group integration) dimensions. Carron et al. (2002b) reported in their last meta-analysis that the study found a significant positive relationship between cohesion and performance, and they reported that task cohesion and social cohesion were mutually related to performance (Carron et al., 2002b). Similarly, Carron et al. (2002a) stated that a strong relationship between task cohesion and team success in team sports was found (Carron et al., 2002a). ...
... Cohesion in sports groups conceptualized by Carron et al. (1985) on the basis of task and social cohesion as a four-dimensional, dynamic structure that includes individual (individual attractiveness) and group (group integration) dimensions. Carron et al. (2002b) reported in their last meta-analysis that the study found a significant positive relationship between cohesion and performance, and they reported that task cohesion and social cohesion were mutually related to performance (Carron et al., 2002b). Similarly, Carron et al. (2002a) stated that a strong relationship between task cohesion and team success in team sports was found (Carron et al., 2002a). ...
The purpose of the study is to evaluate the success ranking of competitive handball teams at the same league level (2nd league) according to the group cohesion level and to determine the relationship between success ranking and group cohesion. Group cohesion was determined according to the Team Environment Questinnaire (GEQ), which was developed by Carron et al. (1985), and adapted to Turkish athletes by Unutmaz et al. (2011). As a result of the research, it was found that the task cohesion level of the teams that came first in the competition and the other teams were similar. It was found that the teams that completed the competition as 1st and 2nd had the lowest social cohesion levels, and the teams that completed the last place had the highest. The task cohesion level of the men's teams was higher than that of the women's teams. In addition, a relationship was determined between social cohesion and team success, and between task cohesion and gender. As a result, it has been concluded that although task cohesion is necessary, it is not enough to achieve top positions, high social cohesion in the teams in the lowest league may cause failure and men exhibit more task cohesion than women in order to win.
... Research involving sport teams and organizations reveals the need to consider group dynamics in relation to performance, satisfaction, and retention (e.g. Carron et al., 2002). Owing to the nature of sport officials' interdependence, Hancock et al. (2018) conducted interviews to explore ice hockey officials' descriptions of their groups, using a lens aligned with Carron and Eys (2012) characteristics of group membership. ...
... social cohesion). Whereas researchers have established a significant, positive cohesion-performance relationship among athletes (Carron et al., 2002), contextual differences exist between athletes and sport officials. Among athletic teams, social cohesion had a stronger relationship with performance than task cohesion (Carron et al., 2002). ...
... Whereas researchers have established a significant, positive cohesion-performance relationship among athletes (Carron et al., 2002), contextual differences exist between athletes and sport officials. Among athletic teams, social cohesion had a stronger relationship with performance than task cohesion (Carron et al., 2002). Considering sport officials' transience and intra-team competition, developing social cohesion might be more challenging. ...
Since sport officials constitute instrumental groups, their perceptions of, and interactions with, group members likely influence their performance, satisfaction, and retention. This warrants investigation into sport officiating groups. Rationale/Purpose: (1) Examine the relationship between sport officials' cohesion, satisfaction, and performance; (2) Investigate sport officials' perceptions of cohesion across sports; and (3) Explore sport officials' perceptions of group processes. Design/Methodology/Approach: Using a cross-sectional design, participants (N = 228) completed a survey measuring perceptions of cohesion, performance, and satisfaction. Findings: Responses demonstrated consistent positive relationships between cohesion, performance, and satisfaction. Path analysis found that task cohesion predicted performance and satisfaction. Participants rated task cohesion higher than social cohesion, with American football highest and Association football lowest. Practical implications: Officiating organizations can use these results to reconsider assigning practices and develop strategies that improve cohesion, leading to increased performance and retention. Research contribution: Results highlight the need for sustained research to further understand how group processes influence sport officials and their performances. This study is novel as there is a dearth of research on how group dynamics influence sport officials' performances and retention.
... This is the most consistent and widely reported association. In a meta-analysis, Carron, Colman, Stevens and Wheeler (2002) found a moderate to large effect size for the relation between cohesion and team success. Interestingly, this association has been found to be strongest in female sports teams (Carron et al., 2002). ...
... In a meta-analysis, Carron, Colman, Stevens and Wheeler (2002) found a moderate to large effect size for the relation between cohesion and team success. Interestingly, this association has been found to be strongest in female sports teams (Carron et al., 2002). ...
... Cohesion has consistently been linked with performance outcomes (e.g. Carron et al., 2002;Grieve et al., 2000;Salminen & Luhtanen, 1998) but coaches may be unaware o f the degree to which task cohesion can influence players in ways beyond those relating to performance outcomes. ...
This thesis examined the association between peer acceptance in the sport context and psycho-social outcomes for adolescent females.
... Since the competition's success in individual sports depends only on the athlete's performance, physical and physiological parameters seem to be the key to success. togetherness (Carron et al., 2002). This situation increases team cohesion by enabling the athletes to cling to each other more (Beauchamp and Eys, 2014). ...
... There is evidence in the literature that highly cohesive teams show a significant relationship with performance, as interactive sports require a high level of task dependence (Mach et al., 2010;Eys and Kim, 2017;McEwan, 2020). A meta-analysis of team environments found that the relationship between cohesion and performance in sports teams was significantly more vital than in other work teams (Carron et al., 2002). Sports teams are an example of close-knit groups that must work together to succeed. ...
Understanding the psycho-social factors such as communication, empathy, cohesion, etc., that affect successful athletic performance is a high priority and primary focus for applied sports psychology. Detailed examination of the athletes’ psycho-social characteristics is essential in revealing which processes play an active role in achieving optimum performance. Developing these features of the athlete can contribute to coordinating the team, sharing tasks, increasing motivation, preparing team members for a change, and improving performance. For this purpose, the mediating role of communication skills in the relationship between empathy, team cohesion, and competition performance was examined in a sample of 241 curlers competing in 69 teams in the Turkish Curling League in the 2021–2022 season. During the data collection process, Personal Information Form, Empathic Tendency Scale, Scale for Effective Communication in Team Sport, and Group Environment Questionnaire were used. Competition performance was calculated by giving 1 point for each match won by the teams in the competitions in which the single-circuit round-robin system is applied. Structural equation modeling was used in data analysis to determine the direct and indirect predictive effects between variables. The study showed that empathy and team cohesion predict competition performance through communication skills, and communication skills fully mediate this relationship. Based on the research results, it was evaluated that communication skills have a substantial effect on the competitive performance of athletes, and this finding was discussed in the context of the literature.
... This point instills attitudes in athletes that teammates have an obligation to each other, including addressing SRC (Graupensperger et al., 2019), and reinforces team cohesion, which improves a team's performance (Carron et al., 2002;Filho et al., 2014). Cohesion within a team helps athletes feel that (1) their team is unified when achieving tasks on-or off-field, (2) they have the power to make an impact on their team's success, (3) they are socially close to their teammates, and (4) their involvement positively affects the social dynamics of their team (Carron et al., 2002). ...
... This point instills attitudes in athletes that teammates have an obligation to each other, including addressing SRC (Graupensperger et al., 2019), and reinforces team cohesion, which improves a team's performance (Carron et al., 2002;Filho et al., 2014). Cohesion within a team helps athletes feel that (1) their team is unified when achieving tasks on-or off-field, (2) they have the power to make an impact on their team's success, (3) they are socially close to their teammates, and (4) their involvement positively affects the social dynamics of their team (Carron et al., 2002). Thus, this point reinforces cohesion among players by reminding them of their connection and building a shared responsibility to look out for one another. ...
One of The Concussion Legacy Foundation (CLF)’s public health campaigns, the Team Up Speak Up education program was launched in 2016 to address the gap between SRC occurrence and reporting. The three points in Team Up Speak Up are discussed in this article.
... Team building is an effective way of establishing both cohesion, mutual trust and shared goals among virtual team members, as traditional sports team [42], and it has been demonstrated to be an effective way of enhancing both personal and team progression [43,42,44]. And this is a long-term process that is not likely to take effect as a new member just joined a team. ...
... Team building is an effective way of establishing both cohesion, mutual trust and shared goals among virtual team members, as traditional sports team [42], and it has been demonstrated to be an effective way of enhancing both personal and team progression [43,42,44]. And this is a long-term process that is not likely to take effect as a new member just joined a team. ...
How does the team formation relates to team performance in professional video game playing? This study examined one aspect of group dynamics - team switching - and aims to answer how changing a team affects individual and collective performance in eSports tournaments. In this study we test the hypothesis that switching teams can be detrimental to individual and team performance both in short term and in a long run. We collected data from professional tournaments of a popular first-person shooter game {\itshape Counter-Strike: Global Offensive (CS:GO)} and perform two natural experiments. We found that the player's performance was inversely correlated with the number of teams a player had joined. After a player switched to a new team, both the individual and the collective performance dropped initially, and then slowly recovered. The findings in this study can provide insights for understanding group dynamics in eSports team play and eventually emphasize the importance of team cohesion in facilitating team collaboration, coordination, and knowledge sharing in teamwork in general.
... Our second aim was to test the discriminant, convergent, and nomological validity of the TMMI in relation to cohesion and team performance. In other words, given that different team processes exist and influence team performance (Bandura, 1997;Filho, 2019;Filho et al., 2015;Leo et al., 2019), we sought to differentiate the TMMI from cohesion (i.e., discriminant validity), a central construct in team dynamics that has been measured using the Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ; see Carron et al., 2002;Filho et al., 2014), and test its relationship with team performance (i.e., predictive validity). More specifically, to examine the nomological validity of the TMMI we tested a model based on the following tenets: (a) the relationship between cohesion and performance is partially mediated by TMM, and (b) cohesion is a unique predictor of team performance. ...
... We tested this model given that extant previous research suggests that cohesion is the most studied team process in sport psychology and given that extant research supports the notion that TMM predicts team performance (see Filho, 2019). More specifically, the rationale for this model stems from previous research suggesting that (a) cohesion predicts team cognition constructs (e.g., transactive memory systems, SMM, TMM), which in turn predict team performance (see Filho et al., 2015;Leo et al., 2019); and (b) there is a positive relationship between cohesion and team performance (see Carron et al., 2002;Filho et al., 2014). ...
Objectives
To develop and validate a new psychometric tool to measure Shared Mental Models (SMM) and Complementary Mental Models (CMM) in sport settings, namely the Team Mental Models Instrument (TMMI).
Methods
Data from 627 college athletes competing in the European Universities Games 2018 was randomly organized into two sub-samples. Data from Sub-Sample 1 (n = 320) was used to conduct a hierarchical confirmatory factor analysis (H-CFA) to examine the construct validity of the TMMI. Sub-Sample 2 (n = 307) was used to examine the discriminant, convergent, and nomological validity of the TMMI, with respect to social and task cohesion and team performance.
Results
A preliminary TMMI with 60 items, 30 items each for the SMM and CMM sub-dimensions, was subjected to H-CFA based on data from Sub-Sample 1. Results of this analysis confirmed the construct validity of an 11-item TMMI, with the two hypothesized reflective indicators, SMM (four items) and CMM (seven items). Correlational and structural equation modelling analysis was used to analyze data from Sub-Sample 2, with the results confirming the discriminant, convergent, and nomological validity of the TMMI.
Conclusion
Our analysis supports the theorization that the concept of Team Mental Models is underpinned by two dimensions, namely SMM and CMM. This instrument can be used as an applied tool to inform interventions aimed at developing team dynamics in general, and team cognition in particular. Scholars can use the TMMI to study the linkage between TMM and other key team processes.
... For example, at the FIFA World Cup, fairness is measured by the number of yellow and red cards received and is in seventh place in the list of criteria for deciding who advances from the group stage in case of tie points (FIFA, 2021). Besides fairness, positive group dynamics like team cohesion can increase performance, well-being, and motivation (Carron et al., 2002;Hollembeak & Amorose, 2005;Till et al., 2010). There-fore, it seems worthwhile to explicitly and intentionally support the development of interpersonal skills such as team cohesion and fairness. ...
... Social cohesion describes the level of social relatedness and interaction among team members to improve interpersonal relationships; task cohesion describes how committed team members work together and stay united to achieve a shared vision. Two important meta-analyses reported a positive and bidirectional relationship between cohesion and performance (Carron et al., 2002;Filho et al., 2014). A high degree of team cohesion can increase performance; vice versa, a high level of performance can increase team cohesion. ...
The present study employed a quasi-experimental design, in which the experimental group ( n = 13) practiced a loving-kindness meditation (LKM) via a single in-person workshop and via an app, whereas the active control group ( n = 20) practiced progressive muscle relaxation (PMR). Both interventions lasted 1 week and were executed in the respective soccer academy. The groups completed a pre- and posttest measuring compassion, fairness, and team cohesion. In contrast to our hypothesis, we did not find an interaction effect. LKM athletes did not demonstrate greater cohesion, fairness, and compassion after the intervention than the PMR athletes. By comparing user engagement and user rating between LKM and PMR, we conclude that LKM is as accepted as PMR by the study cohort. We suggest implementing future LKM interventions with substantial interaction parts and considering specific person-by-context interactions.
... These two Sub-N metrics, respectively, reflected the abundance and the homogeneity of the entire network, which were not predictive for regular season in this study. Compared to the intense playoffs, the substitution arrangements during the regular season are more likely to realize appropriate load management (Gabbett, 2020) or to develop lineups' familiarities (Carron et al., 2002), rather than being outcome-oriented. The game intensity, pace and match location might have more obvious influence for overall rotation characteristics of regular season, like CC and V-ST. ...
The aim of this exploratory study is (1) to determine the relationship between substitution network (Sub-N) parameters and teams' standings and (2) to find out the key individual performance indicators that differentiated substitution groups of players, and explore the association between players' percentages and team's standing within the obtained substitution groups. A total of 574,214 substitution events during the last 10 NBA seasons were analysed to construct Sub-N for each team observation. Three different player groups were obtained after clustering their playing time, clustering coefficient and vulnerability. Team's clustering coefficient, standard deviation of vulnerability and out-degree centrality of starters exhibited moderate to strong correlations with team's standing during playoffs (r = 0.54-0.76). The regression models showed that defensive win share (beta = 0.54-0.67), turnovers (-0.15 to -0.25) and assists (0.12-0.26) were predictive for all players' net ratings, and the role players who scored more points presented higher net ratings (0.34). Finally, players from top-playoff teams exhibited lower absolute value of vulnerabilities (r = 0.80). The findings demonstrate the feasibility of Sub-N for exploring the association between rotation and competitive performance, and provide quantitative reference for coaching staff to optimize substitution structures and rosters.
... However, these rules are not policies that must be followed in the same way by other teams of the same sport or by athletes in all sports [26]. Carron et al. [27] explained that norms play an important role in sports teams because they are essential for the development and functioning of team members and provide a sense of legitimacy and excellence. ...
Team cohesion is a critical factor in sports, yet few studies have comparatively analyzed individual and team sport athletes in sporting situations. The purpose of this study was to identify the relationship between transformational leadership, social norms, and team cohesion, and to analyze the moderating effects of individual/team sports athletes. In 2022, a total of 196 baseball, judo, soccer, taekwondo, and hockey players registered with the Korean Sport & Olympic Committee completed a questionnaire using transformational leadership, social norms, and team cohesion scales. Transformational leadership had a significant positive effect on social norms and team cohesion. Social norms had a significant positive effect on team cohesion. Transformational leadership and the interaction of individual/team sports athletes had a significant effect on team cohesion. At this time, individual sports athletes appeared to have somewhat higher team cohesion. This study sheds light on the social norms and team cohesion of athletes from a social moral perspective based on transformational leadership theory. It can also help young athletes who are just starting out to learn the culture and sociology of sports.
... Carron, Hausenblas & Mack, 1996), the relationship between group cohesion and sport performance (e.g. Carron, Colman, Wheeler & Stevens, 2002), exercise and cognitive functioning (e.g. Etnier, Salazar, Landers & Petruzzello, 1997), body image in athletic and non-athletic populations (e.g. ...
... Previously, some researchers have used objective measures such as league standings. 15,42 However, this could be problematic as it could ignore the initial objectives of the team or the contextual factors generated during a season (e.g. accumulation of injuries). ...
This research project, composed of two studies, aimed to analyse various antecedents and outcomes of team resilience. Study 1, which involved 394 sports team players ( M age = 20.41, SD = 5.23), cross-sectionally examined the relationship between group cohesion and collective efficacy with team resilience, and the mediating effect of collective efficacy on the cohesion-team resilience relationship, using players’ perceptions assessed through questionnaires. Study 2, which involved 434 players ( M age = 21.53, SD = 5.57) from collective sports, aimed to longitudinally corroborate the relationship between cohesion (Time 1) and collective efficacy (Time 1) with team resilience (Time 2), and to examine perceived team performance (Time 2) as a consequence of team resilience, again evaluated through questionnaires. Results showed that task cohesion, social cohesion and collective efficacy in Studies 1 and 2 were positively related to resilience characteristics. Also, task cohesion was negatively related to vulnerability under pressure in both studies. Collective efficacy was also shown to be an antecedent of vulnerability under pressure in Study 1 and a mediator of the relationship between task cohesion and resilience characteristics in both studies. Lastly, team resilience was a predictor of perceived team performance at the end of the season in Study 2. Thus, the findings provide new empirical evidence of the antecedents and outcomes of team resilience in the field of sports psychology. Coaches and practitioners should develop group cohesion and collective efficacy in training sessions and matches during the season to achieve more resilient and less vulnerable teams.
... Previous studies identified a number of antecedents to collective efficacy, including leadership, [41,42] motivational climate, [43] team cohesion, [44][45][46] previous expectation, [47] and past performance, and group size [48]. These factors related to team cohesiveness could influence members' appraisal of CE levels. ...
Background
Team cohesiveness and collective efficacy have been construed as important characteristics of a high-functioning team. However, the psychological mechanism through which they promote positive outcomes remains unknown. Understanding this psychological process is important to teachers and programme implementers to yield actionable interventions that can be used to craft effective practices for optimizing team outcomes. This is especially true in interprofessional education (IPE) in medical education, where a team-based approach to patient management is promoted. Drawing from the social-cognitive theory, we examined a hypothesized model where team cohesiveness predicts collaboration outcomes (teamwork satisfaction, overall satisfaction with the team experience, and IPE goal attainment) via collective efficacy.
Methods
We used data from Chinese medicine, medicine, nursing, and social work students in Hong Kong (n = 285) who were enrolled in IPE. They were invited to respond to scales in two time points. We performed mediation analysis using structural equations modelling to test the indirect effect model: team cohesiveness → collective efficacy → outcomes.
Results
Results of structural equation modelling revealed that collective efficacy fully mediated the relationships between team cohesiveness and all three team outcomes, providing support for the hypothesised model [RMSEA = 0.08, NFI = 0.90, CFI = 0.93, IFI = 0.93, TLI = 0.93]. Team cohesiveness predicted the achievement of collaboration outcomes via collective efficacy.
Conclusion
The findings demonstrated the important roles of team cohesiveness and collective efficacy in promoting successful team collaboration. Team cohesiveness predicted collective efficacy, and collective efficacy, in turn, predicted collaboration outcomes. This study contributed to theorising the pathways towards successful team collaboration outcomes.
... Such group cohesion is the central factor of Carron and Eys s model [7]. This construct has been defined as "a dynamic process that is reflected in the tendency for a group to stick together and remain united in the pursuit of its instrumental objectives and/or for the satisfaction of member affective needs" [25], and it has been one of the most studied factors that leads to an optimal functioning of the group [5,[26][27][28]. Along with group cohesion, the latest research has incorporated team conflict (defined as "a process in which one party perceives that its interests are being opposed or negatively affected by another party"; [29], p. 517), a concept which can be considered as opposed to cohesion. ...
(1) Background: The aim of this study is to propose a model of the interactions of group dynamics using the conceptual framework to examine sports teams; (2) Methods: The hypothesized model includes measures of group structure (authentic leadership, perceived justice, coaching competency, role clarity/ambiguity, and role conflict), group cohesion (cohesion and team conflict), and group processes (collective efficacy and transactive memory systems). Participants were 581 professional soccer players (M = 24.51, SD = 3.73; 356 males and 225 females) who completed a multisection questionnaire assessing group dynamics variables; (3) Results: The results show that coach leadership predicts coaching competency and perceived justice, and both competency and justice predict role ambiguity and role conflict. Furthermore, role ambiguity and role conflict predict group cohesion and team conflict, whereas group cohesion and team conflict both predict the transactive memory system. Finally, collective efficacy is predicted by the transactive memory system; (4) Conclusions: The results suggest the importance of coach behavior (leadership, justice, and competency) and group processes to improving team functioning in a professional sports context.
... The research literature on the association between group cohesion and the outcome of groups in different contexts is very rich, including therapeutic groups (but not specifically MFT groups): (Burlingame, McClendon and Alonso, 2011;Burlingame, McClendon and Yang, 2018;Crowe and Grenyer, 2008;Deane et al., 2012;Gallagher et al., 2014;Marziali, Monrow-Blum and McCleary, 1997;Schnur and Montgomery, 2010); business (Banwo and Onokala, 2015;Casey-Campbell and Martens, 2009;Chiocchio and Essiembre, 2009;Greene, 1989;Tekleab, et al., 2016); the military (Ahronson and Cameron, 2007;Kanesarajah, Waller, Zheng and Dobson, 2016); music (Dobson and Gaunt, 2015;James and Freed, 1989;Matthews and Kitsantas, 2007); and sports (Carron, 1982;Carron, et al., 2002;Eys, Loughead, Bray and Carron, 2009;Eys and Kim, 2017;McLaren et al., 2017;Ha and Ha, 2015). ...
This study explores how Multifamily therapists create a context for group cohesion between monolingual and multilingual family members and what they might inadvertently do to hinder it. Group cohesion has been found to enable processes of change. I examine the intersection between group cohesion and language which is underrepresented in psychotherapy, MFT process research. Qualitative research methods were used to address the following research questions: 1) What do Multifamily therapists do in dialogue to create a context for horizontal (between multilingual and monolingual families) and vertical (between family members and therapist) group cohesion?; 2) What do Multifamily therapists do in dialogue that inadvertently hinders the horizontal and vertical group cohesion between monolingual and multilingual families?; 3) What is the intersection between Multifamily therapy, group cohesion and language, including interpreters' roles? Two types of analysis, Dialogical Investigations of Happenings of Change (Seikkula, Laitila and Rober, 2012), and Thematic Analysis, were carried out on three data sources– 2 MFT sessions, a focus group with group participants, and an interview with therapists.
... Understanding group dynamics in teams requires cohesiveness [42]. Cohesive teams can foster knowledge sharing [43], enhances team learning [24], demonstrate increased collective efficacy [44], share responsibility for team failure [45], produce better software products than conflict-ridden teams [46], and achieve greater team success [47]. There is a positive relationship between team cohesion and team learning (e.g. ...
Software development is a team work and largely dependent on open social interaction and continuous learning of individuals. Drawing on well established theoretical concepts proposed by social psychology and organizational science disciplines, we develop a theoretical framework proposing that team climate has a significant influence on team learning and ultimately affects team performance. Our study consists of two goals. First to understand the preconditions of team learning and second to investigate the relationship between team learning, psychological safety, and team performance in large scale agile software development projects. We plan to conduct a survey with software professionals in Sweden from three companies partners in pur large-scale agile research project.
... Social cohesion refers to interpersonal relationships that seek to meet the needs of social belonging, reflecting how much team members like each other (Carron et al. 2002;Eys et al. 2009). On the other side, task cohesion reflects the degree in which team members stay united to reach collective goals related to performance, referring on how much team members work together (Filho et al. 2014;Nascimento-Junior et al. 2016). ...
El propósito de este estudio es analizar las posibles asociaciones de cohesión grupal y estados de ánimo precompetitivos de los atletas jóvenes. Se trata de un estudio transversal y cuantitativo. La muestra estuvo compuesta por 81 deportistas de ambos sexos, que practican deportes de modalidad colectiva, con edad promedio de 15,8 ± 1,0 años. Los datos se recopilaron a través del Group Environment Questionnaire- GEQ y el Inventario POMS - Reducido, en la semana anterior a la participación de los atletas en las competencias estatales. Se utilizaron el coeficiente de correlación de Spearman y la regresión logística binaria para analizar los datos. Los resultados indican correlaciones positivas y significativas de las dimensiones de cohesión grupal (p <0.05) con la dimensión de estado de ánimo vigor, y correlaciones negativas y significativas (p <0.05) con las dimensiones de tensión, depresión, ira, fatiga y confusión. Ambos tipos de cohesión grupal (social y de tareas) predijeron significativamente los perfiles del estado de ánimo. El indicador estadístico predictivo más alto se presentó por cohesión de tareas (OR = 2.481; IC = 1.477-4.167; p <0.001). Los resultados encontrados ofrecen evidencia para confirmar la expectativa previa de que niveles más altos de cohesión grupal están asociados con mejores perfiles de estados de ánimo antes de la competición en atletas jóvenes. Los resultados sugieren que los niveles más altos de cohesión grupal pueden afectar positivamente los estados de ánimo previos a la competición en los atletas jóvenes.
The purpose of this study is to analyze the possible associations of group cohesion and pre-competition mood states of youth athletes. This is a cross-sectional and quantitative study. The sample was composed of 81 athletes from both sexes, who practice collective modality sports, with average of age of 15.8±1.0 years. Data was collected through the Group Environment Questionnaire and POMS Inventory – Reduced, on the week prior to the athletes’ participation in state competitions. Spearman's correlation coefficient and binary logistic regression were used to analyze the data. The results indicate positive and significant correlations of group cohesion dimensions (p<0.05) with the vigor mood dimension, and negative and significant correlations (p<0.05) with tension, depression, anger, fatigue and confusion dimensions. Both group cohesion types (social and task) significantly predicted the mood state profiles. The highest predictive statistical indicator was presented by task cohesion (OR=2.481; IC=1.477-4.167; p<0.001). The results found offer evidence to confirm the prior expectation that higher levels of group cohesion are associated with better pre-competitive mood states profiles in youth athletes. The results suggest that higher group cohesion levels can affect positively the pre-competition mood states in youth athletes.
O objectivo deste estudo é analisar as possíveis associações de coesão de grupo e estados de humor pré-competitivos de jovens atletas. Trata-se de um estudo transversal e quantitativo. A amostra consistiu em 81 atletas de ambos os sexos, que praticam desportos de equipa, com uma média de idade de 15,8 ± 1,0 anos. Os dados foram recolhidos através do Questionário Ambiental do Grupo - GEQ e do Inventário POMS - Reduzido, na semana anterior à participação dos atletas em competições estatais. O coeficiente de correlação do Spearman e a regressão logística binária foram utilizados para analisar os dados. Os resultados indicam correlações positivas e significativas das dimensões da coesão do grupo (p<0,05) com o vigor da dimensão do humor, e correlações negativas e significativas (p<0,05) com as dimensões tensão, depressão, raiva, fadiga e confusão. Ambos os tipos de coesão de grupo (social e de tarefa) previam significativamente os perfis de humor. A estatística preditiva mais elevada foi para a coesão de tarefas (OR = 2,481; CI = 1,477-4,167; p<0,001). Os resultados encontrados fornecem provas para confirmar a expectativa anterior de que níveis mais elevados de coesão do grupo estão associados a melhores perfis de humor pré-competição em jovens atletas. Os resultados sugerem que níveis mais elevados de coesão do grupo podem afectar positivamente os estados de humor pré-competição nos jovens atletas.
... Team cohesiveness drives members to develop conformity and remain part of the team despite the challenges. 39,40 Previous studies identi ed a number of antecedents to collective e cacy, including leadership, 41,42 motivational climate, 43 team cohesion, [44][45][46] previous expectation, 47 and past performance and group size. 48 These factors related to team cohesiveness could in uence members' appraisal of collective e cacy levels. ...
Background
While team cohesiveness and collective efficacy have been construed as important characteristics of a high functioning team, the psychological mechanism through which they promote positive outcomes remains unknown. Yet this mechanism is important to teachers and programme implementers to yield actionable intervention that can be used to craft effective practices for optimizing team outcomes. This is especially true in interprofessional education (IPE) in medical education, where team-based approach in patient management is promoted. Drawing from the social-cognitive theory, we examined a hypothesized model where team cohesiveness predicts collaboration outcomes (teamwork satisfaction, overall satisfaction with the team experience, and IPE goal attainment) via collective efficacy.
Methods
We used data from Chinese medicine, medicine, nursing, and social work students in Hong Kong (n = 285) who were enrolled in IPE. They were invited to respond to scales in two time points. We performed mediation analysis using structural equations modelling to test the hypothesized indirect effect model: team cohesiveness → collective efficacy → outcomes.
Results
Results of structural equation modelling revealed that collective efficacy fully mediated the relationships between team cohesiveness and all three team outcomes, providing support for the hypothesised model [RMSEA = .08, NFI = .90, CFI = .93, IFI = .93, TLI = .93]. Team cohesiveness predicted the achievement of collaboration outcomes via collective efficacy.
Conclusions
The findings demonstrated the important roles of team cohesiveness and collective efficacy in promoting successful team collaboration. Team cohesiveness predicted collective efficacy, and collective efficacy, in turn, predicted collaboration outcomes. This study contributed in theorising the pathways towards successful team collaboration outcomes.
... The aim, in both cases, has been to elucidate the functions of groups, teamwork, and the sense of team solidarity. However, studies that have focused on group cohesiveness have not been able to glean universally valid knowledge and understanding of the relationship between cohesiveness, which is a team-level variable, and team performance (Carron et al., 1998;Carron et al., 2002;Heuze et al., 2006). Collective efficacy has been considered a ''methodological apparatus that can reinforce the improvement of team performance'' (Ikeda and Uchiyama, 2012, p. 679), and has been considered an important factor in the formation of groups by constituent members with mutually dependent skills, as well as in regulating their acts. ...
The purpose of this study was to clarify guidelines for cooperation within an entity known as a “team” that transcend the individual, based on the theory that universal validity criteria and norms that are inherent in them play an important role in team victory. For this purpose, procedures were taken to outline team values and then formulate guidelines that are universally valid by extracting value criteria and normative principles from the analysis. The study results were as follows. 1) It was suggested that criteria allowing distinction between acceptable and nonacceptable actions performed by the team are essential for collaboration among individual athletes, and that conversely, a convergence of various values occurs among athletes. 2) The success or failure of collaborative acts should be based on 2 criteria: “whether or not team performance can be improved,” and “whether or not individual athletes can be satisfied.” In addition, it was clarified that teams and individuals acted in a binary manner, allowing the team to inspire individual athletes, while at the same time individual athletes inspired the team. 3) Finally, it was concluded that team victory is supported and ordered by 2 criteria with a normative principle that “personal assets accumulated through standard value judgments of ‘whether or not personal talents are utilized’ do not reside with the individual as a right of nonaggression, but must be used for the team as a whole in accordance with its needs.” It is anticipated that the present findings will not only help to solve practical problems in team sports, but will also contribute to the debate over athletic capability, which plays an important role in establishing team performance.
... In line with our assumption on the relevance of stress and previous esports research, external factors most frequently related to schedule issues, an unprofessional environment, and external pressure (e.g., audience), while internal factors most frequently related to self-confidence, attention, stress and coping (e.g., anxiety and emotional regulation), and an unhealthy lifestyle (e.g., poor sleep habits; Leis et al., in press, Smith et al., 2019). Similarly, empirical studies from traditional sport have shown that performance is positively impacted by group cohesion (see meta-analysis by Carron et al., 2002), effective emotional regulation (e.g., Wagstaff, 2014), selfconfidence (see meta-analysis by Woodman & Hardy, 2003), and sleep (see review by Fullagar et al., 2015). However, addressing aspects such as an unhealthy lifestyle, coping strategies, and schedule issues seems to be of significant importance in esports due to shortand long-term effects associated with prolonged game play including lower levels of general and mental health (e.g., Credeur et al., 2019;. ...
Driven by the need to inform evidence-based intervention strategies for performance and health promotion in esports, this thesis aimed to provide a starting point for future research on esports and, in particular, psychophysiological stress in esports. To this end, this work began by addressing why and how sport and exercise psychology could research esports. Following this, a systematic review of the literature on stress in non-competitive and competitive esports was performed. The results indicated that playing esports in competitive settings–in contrast to non-competitive settings–seems to be related to psychophysiological stress responses, and also highlighted a number of theoretical and methodological limitations with research in this area. To build on this initial understanding of stress in esports, a qualitative study was conducted that explored the subjective experiences of professional players. Here, a variety of stressors, perceived stress responses, and coping strategies were identified. To complete the work, a different perspective and approach was taken, using an online questionnaire to investigate perceived performance factors and stress management strategies utilized by sport psychologists and performance coaches in esports. Overall, this work provided a number of implications for future research and applied practice that are addressed in this thesis.
... Individuals displaying high-level expertise in sports and the arts usually operate in a performative niche involving multi-leveled layers of reciprocal interaction (Carron et al., 2002). For example, many skilled musicians perform in ensembles, play for an audience, learn music with and through others, and develop important relationships with the cultural norms and narratives sedimented in their social and historical environment. ...
In the present study, we combined first-, second-, and third-person levels of analysis to explore the feeling of being and acting together in the context of collaborative artistic performance. Following participation in an international competition held in Czech Republic in 2018, a team of ten artistic swimmers took part in the study. First, a self-assessment instrument was administered to rate the different aspects of togetherness emerging from their collective activity; second, interviews based on video recordings of their performance were conducted individually with all team members; and third, the performance was evaluated by external artistic swimming experts. By combining these levels of analysis in different ways, we explore how changes in togetherness and lived experience in individual behavior may shape, disrupt, and (re-)stabilize joint performance. Our findings suggest that the experience of being and acting together is transient and changing, often alternating phases of decrease and increase in felt togetherness that can be consistently recognized by swimmers and external raters.
... Further, each of these categories can then be divided into either task or social aspects leading to a four-factor model of group cohesion. A meta-analytic review including 46 studies examining the relationship between group cohesion and performance in sport found a moderate to large effect size such that increased group cohesion is associated with increased performance outcomes (Carron et al., 2002). ...
... Interestingly, although norms have been conceptualized as leading to group cohesion (Eys et al., 2020), only a few studies have examined the norm-cohesion relationship within sport. Further, the lack of studies that have examined how norms relate to performance is somewhat surprising, particularly given the established positive link between team cohesiveness and sport performance (Carron et al., 2002). Team sports are often purported to contain individuals with a common goal (i.e. ...
The influence of a ‘group’ is often posited as a key factor that influences behavior. This is relevant in sports, where the presence of norms develops through interactions with important others. As such, an athlete’s perception of what is normative may have a significant role in how that athlete thinks and behaves. The present study undertakes a scoping review of research on norms in sports, specifically to describe the extent, scope and range of research conducted to date. Six online databases were searched to identify research published up to January 2021, from which 124 met inclusion criteria. To be included, articles were published peer-reviewed articles, written in English and evaluated norms within an athlete sample. The results suggest that the use of theoretical frameworks and conceptualizations of norms varied considerably and were used inconsistently. Most studies included in this review used a cross-sectional research design, were conducted within North America, and focused on adult athlete populations. This study identified that the concept of ‘norms’ has been examined extensively in sport, with an opportunity to explore norms in a wider range of samples and with advanced research methodologies to progress our understanding of norms in sport.
The present study examined the associations of transformational leadership behaviors and team cohesion with the psychological health (life satisfaction, positive and negative affect, and burnout) of athletes and the mediating role of basic psychological needs. The sample consisted of 252 (boys) players aged between 13 and 15. The model data fit was also verified. The results demonstrated that the transformational leadership behaviors of coaches were indirectly related to athletes’ psychological health. Team cohesion was related to athletes’ psychological health both directly and indirectly. Basic psychological needs were a significant mediating variable in these relationships. Transformational leadership and team cohesion have important implications for the healthy development of young people.
Gender, the non-physiological aspects of being male and female, is engrained in the expectations that society holds for us. It helps us understand how and why behavior and experiences in sport may vary. As a female athlete, the psychology of sport is heavily influenced by socially driven gender expectations. It is important that these gender perspectives are understood because their influences can ultimately impact sport performance. In the case of a female athlete, the influence of gender in sport is more often negative than positive. This chapter examines the nuances of the psychology of the female athlete from a gender perspective. It covers the gender differences often observed in the levels of self-confidence and the management of competitive state anxiety. The chapter goes on to discusses the research underpinning the gender differences in motivation to engage in and excel in sport and the distinctiveness of the cohesion–performance relationship in all-female teams. An assessment is made of sport-related stressors specific to the female athlete and common approaches to coping, including the increasingly important role of self-compassion. In addition, the high-risk status of female athletes in regard to weight pressures, body dissatisfaction, and disordered eating is addressed, including the influential role of the coach in this equation. Coaching, coach behaviors, and the coach–female athlete relationship are examined alongside the deleterious role of microaggressions that single out gender as the identifying characteristic of the female athlete—not her strength, dedication, or performance. Overall, this chapter will provide the background necessary to understand the psychology of female sport performance, from a gender perspective.
Las condiciones psicológicas son aspectos determinantes para el rendimiento del deportista, sin embargo, en Latinoamérica, y especialmente en Colombia la investigación es limitada, en torno a las características psicológicas y sus diferencias por variables demográficas y del deporte. Por esto, el objetivo fue determinar la relación entre las características psicológicas asociadas al rendimiento deportivo y variables demográficas y del deporte. Se realizó un estudio transversal y de alcance correlacional, se contó con una muestra de 317 deportistas colombianos pertenecientes a diferentes modalidades deportivas, a quienes se les aplicó el Cuestionario de Características Psicológicas Relacionadas con el Rendimiento Deportivo CPRD. Se halló que los deportistas varones presentaron mayores puntuaciones en habilidad mental. En la división de deportes por interacción motriz, quienes se encontraban en el grupo de cooperación con compañeros, y en cooperación y oposición, presentaron una mayor cohesión de equipo que los de oposición contra adversarios. Según los tipos de deporte (con participación simultánea o alternativa, con espacio común o separado, sociomotriz o psicomotriz), no se hallan diferencias. En las comparaciones por deporte, que los jugadores de rugby tenían un mayor nivel de habilidad mental que los jugadores de fútbol, y un mayor control del estrés de los practicantes de porras en comparación con los jugadores de baloncesto. Sobre los niveles de competición, se hallaron menores puntajes en la influencia de la evaluación del rendimiento en deportistas universitarios en comparación con aficionados y semiprofesionales. Finalmente, no existió relación entre cada una de las escalas y el número de años que de forma continua han venido practicando el deporte, ni la edad.
Compared to the performance of individuals, groups and teams perform surprisingly well in some situations and surprisingly poorly in others. Therefore, this chapter aims to clarify under which circumstances one or the other applies and which phenomena and processes play a role in sport contexts. First, important definitions and theories concerning the area of groups and teams are presented. Second, the phenomenon of social loafing, which leads to a loss of performance within groups, is discussed. In contrast, the focus of the third section is performance gains in groups, followed by theoretical explanations regarding both aspects. Fourth, group-related phenomena that have a scientifically supported effect on group performance are presented. Finally, validated instruments are demonstrated, which can be used to measure important group-related constructs.KeywordsTeam performanceDyadGroup tasksSocial loafingSocial compensationMotivational climateEmpowering climateLeadershipTeam rolesSocial identityTeam identificationGroup cohesionCollective efficacyTeam trustTeam diagnostics
Leonie Schwertmann, Nike Lorenz, Timo Boll, Joshua Kimmich, Leon Draisaitl, Uwe Gensheimer oder Angelique Kerber gelingt es scheinbar mühelos, ungewöhnliche, aber auch technisch-taktische Bestlösungen auf dem Spielfeld zu generieren, ganz nach dem Motto: „Just do it!“ Nicht allen Sportlern, unabhängig von ihrem Leistungsniveau, gelingt es aber, optimale motorische Entscheidungshandlungen unter höchstem Zeit-, Präzisions-, Variabilitäts- Belastungs- und Gegnerdruck zu treffen. Hier stellt sich für viele Lehrer und Trainer die Aufgabe, Fehlerquellen angemessen zu analysieren, sie vergleichend zu diagnostizieren und sie abschließend effektiv durch Training zu beheben.
Welche Wahrnehmungsprozesse laufen in einem Sportspiel wie ab? Wie und wann fällt z. B. die Entscheidung für Passen oder Torschuss? Wie entsteht Angst im Turnunterricht, und wie lässt sie sich abbauen? Wie kann man erreichen, dass sich Menschen einen bewegungsaktiveren Lebensstil aneignen? Fördert Schulsport die Persönlichkeitsentwicklung von Kindern und Jugendlichen? Welche Persönlichkeitsmerkmale weisen erfolgreiche Sportler auf? Auf welche Art und Weise gelingt es dem Menschen, Neues zu lernen? Wie verändert sich der Mensch im Lebenslauf, wie lassen sich diese Veränderungen erklären, und welche Rolle spielen dabei sportliche Aktivitäten? Wie muss ein Fußballteam zusammengestellt werden, damit es möglichst erfolgreich ist? – Mit Fragen dieser Art befasst sich die Sportpsychologie. Das vorliegende Kapitel gibt einen Überblick über die wichtigsten Grundlagen der Sportpsychologie.
Research Question
This paper seeks to contribute to the theoretical understanding of team cohesion in sport. While a robust foundation of research on team cohesion in sport exists, there is a dearth of research examining the role of physical proximity. With physical group exercise temporarily suspended due to COVID-19, herein lies an opportunity to examine team cohesion throughout different stages of physical distancing.
Research Methods
A single case mixed method study was employed comprised of semi-structured interviews (19 total) conducted at three different time points (September 2019; March 2020; June 2020) and a baseline/post administration of the GEQ Survey (September 2019 (N = 26); August 2020 (N = 27)). Qualitative data were analysed in NVivo 12, and survey data were analysed via paired t-tests.
Results and Findings
Levels of team cohesion remained stable throughout the season and during physical distancing on all three cohesion sub-scales (i.e. ATG-T, GI-S, GI-T). Three qualitative themes emerged: task and collective loyalty, resilience through social cohesion, and digital engagement.
Implications
Digital communication can temporarily fill the void of face-to-face interaction but cannot replace it long-term to build team cohesion. Adding physical proximity to the theoretical conceptualization of team cohesion makes the model more contemporary and especially relevant during times of physical distancing (e.g. pandemic, off-season, remote teams).
This Study was conducted to know the present Flow State of the Indian Universities Badminton team which was going to participate in 26th Summer Universiade at Shenzen, China. And to know the relation between the flow and its dimensions based on the Flow State Scale -2 (Jackson & Eklund, 2004). For this study both the boys and girls teams were selected which consists of six members each. It was a survey designed study and Flow State Scale-2 (Jackson & Eklund, 2004) was used to gather data to calculate overall Flow and its dimensions. The information was gathered during the training camp before the team left for China. In both the teams the present flow state was at a significant level 4.23 (Girls) & 4.17 (Boys) and Overall flow and other dimensions yielded a significant positive correlation, for girls team flow yielded a significant positive correlation Merging (r = .76), Concentration (r = .85), Time (r = .89), Autotelic (r = .77). For boys team flow yielded a significant positive correlation Merging (r = 89), Goals (r = .74), Control (r = .82). So it can be concluded that both the teams are in a better Flow State when they left for the championship and above said dimensions are highly correlated with overall flow state of the players in both boys and girls.Keywords: Flow, Badminton players, Badminton
PURPOSE This study aimed to develop a team building program for a middle school soccer team in order to verify its effects. METHODS A total of 50 middle school soccer players participated in the needs analysis, and 10 middle school soccer players participated the preliminary program. In addition, a total of 37 ‘S’ middle school soccer players and 2 coaches participated the final team building program to identify its effects. The team building program was developed through the following sequence: program goal setting, organization of program activities, and the pretest. Three types of questionnaires and a self-report were utilized to verify the effects of the team building program. RESULTS The team building program was developed based on interpersonal relationships, goal setting, and communication. The level of team cohesion, team communication, and coach-athletes interaction significantly increased through this program. Furthermore, the effects of stress relief and self-improvement were revealed through the self-report. CONCLUSIONS The team building program was determined to be effective and has various benefits. It is expected to contribute to the growth of middle school soccer players if coaches actively participate in the program with their athletes.
This study examined the experiences of an international-level co-acting sport team (four males, three females) following a six-month intervention designed to facilitate task and social cohesion. The intervention was embedded within four training camps, included personal and electronic-mail support, as well as a series of online learning modules. The overall philosophy of the intervention was grounded in a Jungian (Jung, 1921/1971) preference framework (cf. Beauchamp et al., 2005) which suggests that in order to effectively interact with one’s team-mates, one must first develop an acute understanding of self and others. The effectiveness of the intervention was evaluated through a series of semi-structured in-depth interviews. Results revealed that the intervention served to build intra-squad trust, facilitated group cohesion, and provided an important basis to support individual performance. Results are discussed in relation to future group dynamics interventions involving personality preferences and intra-team communication.
Shared understanding can be defined as two or more people thinking similarly in specific situations. Team members who share similar thoughts are positively related to an effective performance. Within team sports like football, shared understanding between team members facilitates a more coordinated performance. For example, shared understanding between team members is crucial to defending an opposition corner kick, with each team member requiring an understanding of all team roles and likely actions, rather than just their own. Williamson, Cox, Gershgoren et al. emphasise the importance of shared understanding that underpins a team's ability to perform effectively together. This would give the team the best chance of defending the corner (e.g. performing effectively together) and not conceding a goal. Having shared understanding between team members is an important component of an effective team; however, shared understanding between team members is not instantaneous. Due to its complex nature, there are several factors that contribute to the development of shared understanding between team members, with some of these being considered previously in different team sports - such as tennis doubles, field hockey and basketball. The focus of this study is therefore to outline how the different contributing factors interact to develop shared understanding between team members within football.
Sportif performansta fizyolojik, teknik ve taktik özellikler öne çıkarken, psikolojik özellikler dikkate alınmamaktadır. Bu araştırma voleybol antrenörleri gözünden psikolojik becerilerin sportif performansa etkisini değerlendirmek amacıyla yapılmıştır. Araştırma, nitel araştırma modellerinden olgu bilim (fenomenoloji) deseni kullanılarak; veri toplama yöntemlerinden görüşme (mülakat) yöntemi ile gerçekleştirilmiştir. Katılımcılar amaçlı örnekleme yöntemlerinden ölçüt örnekleme ve kolayda örnekleme yöntemleri ile belirlenmiş olup 1-30 Ocak 2022 tarihlerinde AXA Sigorta Efeler Ligi, Misli.com Sultanlar Ligi ve Sigorta Shop Kadınlar 1. Liginde yer alan baş antrenörler ve yardımcı antrenörlerden oluşan 12 voleybol antrenörü ile görüşmeler yapılmıştır. Veriler içerik analizi tekniği kullanılarak analiz edilmiştir. Araştırma sonucunda psikolojik becerilerin sportif performansa etkisi, antrenör görüşleri doğrultusunda “Spor Başarısına Etki Eden Etmenler”, “Psikolojik Beceriler ve Spor Performansı”, “Psikolojik Beceri Antrenmanı” ve “Spor Psikolojisi Uzmanlarına Bakış Açısı” temaları içerisinde analiz edilmiştir. Psikolojik becerilerin sportif performansa etkisi antrenör gözünden değerlendirildiğinde, antrenörlerin sporcuların performansını etkileyen parametreler arasında psikolojinin de etkisi vurgulanmaktadır. Psikolojik becerilerin sportif performans üzerindeki etkisinin antrenörler tarafından kabul edildiği görülmektedir.
Although mindfulness has been suggested as a means to improve athletes’ performance, few studies have connected changes in mindfulness with improved performance. The purpose of this study was to explore the effect of an exploratory mindfulness intervention (MI) on performance using a mixed methods design. Thirty-four female National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) soccer athletes participated in a 12-week MI. Using the Mindfulness Inventory for Sport, athletic performance and self-perceived ability during the first three games of the season compared to the final three games of the season (August–November 2019) were analyzed using paired t tests. Postintervention focus groups explored athletes’ perceptions of the MI on performance. Mindfulness, shots per game, and self-perceived athletic ability increased after the MI. Six themes emerged from the focus groups: awareness, increased focus, letting-go mentality, skill acquisition, self-compassion, and team cohesion. Coaches and sport psychology practitioners may consider implementing similar MI to improve performance and overall athletic experiences.
PURPOSE This study aimed to apply a team-building program for preparing the national archery team for competition in the Olympics. METHODS To achieve the purpose of this study, six national archers (three men and three women) were included. The team-building program was applied for a total 6 sessions (one session per week). Group cohesion and efficacy were measured three times before, after, and at a later application of the program. The collected data were analyzed with the Friedman and Wilcoxon signed-rank tests, which are nonparametric statistical techniques for data analysis. In addition, an in-depth interview for qualitative data was conducted for each archer to explore the effects and changes resulting from participation in the program. RESULTS The results of the study are as follows: first, the levels of team cohesion and efficacy in the national archery team increased after the implementation of the program compared to those in the pre-implementation state. Furthermore, high levels of team cohesion and efficacy were maintained at the follow-up measurement. Second, the archers recognized that closeness and faith in one another increased more between team members. Furthermore, there were positive changes in team communication, atmosphere, cohesion, and efficacy during team matches. CONCLUSIONS The team-building program applied in this study was found to have a positive effect on various factors related to team cohesion, such as team communication and team atmosphere. Therefore, future studies should consider developing a team-building program that can contribute to improving team sport performance for different sports and the effects of the program should be examined using various methods.
In this case study, we report the experiences and reflections of a female trainee sport and exercise psychologist who navigated the dismissal of a management team and COVID-19 in a professional football club. The trainee delivered an educational intervention to a group of 10 players transitioning from a youth academy to the first team at a professional football club. This formed part of a larger organizational intervention to integrate sport psychology into the club. During the delivery, her mode of working changed from face to face to online support (because of the COVID-19 pandemic), and the management team, except the first author, were dismissed from their duties after lockdown. We discuss the challenges of integrating and working within an organization, experiencing the dismissal of the management team, the effect of the practitioner’s gender as a female working in a male-dominated sport, and the unrelenting football culture and how we, as practitioners, may choose to navigate it. We supplement personal reflections and notes from client work with learning logs and supervision as part of coursework components of a doctorate in sport and exercise psychology. This case study contributes to the literature by presenting and reflecting on challenges that novice practitioners might face working within a professional football organization.
The aim of this study was to explore the perspectives of elite professional football coaches when their team has experienced a “losing streak” of at least three consecutive matches. Semistructured interviews were conducted with 12 elite coaches from the National Rugby League, Australian Football League, and Super Rugby or international-level Rugby Union. Reflexive thematic analysis resulted in the development of six themes, which were organized under a practical three-phase framework. The “pre” phase included (a) team environment; the “during” phase included (b) context of the streak influences strategy, (c) coach approach with the team, (d) disruption in the team dynamic, (e) the coaches’ personal response; and the “post” phase included (f) poststreak reflection. These coaches encountered complex multifactorial contextual situations, which required them to accurately assess the underlying issues that were causing failure and decide on a leadership approach that would reverse underperformance. Overall, these findings contribute to a deeper understanding of the temporal dimension of coaches’ approaches to losing streaks and highlight the critical process involved in establishing a team environment capable of responding with positive individual and collective cognitive and behavioral responses following successive losses.
This study examines women’s engagement-participation and inclusion-integration in the
Armed Forces in Greece, a traditionally male-dominated social space. Social inclusion and
integration issues are complex and multifaceted, the reason researchers in the social
sciences use a variety of theories to formulate a theoretical framework. Accordingly, this
study uses additional-supplementary theoretical perspectives on social inclusion to focus
on sport activity, which is characterized by many researchers as a means of inclusion for
diverse social groups and individuals in relation to gender, ethnicity, race, sexual
orientation and so forth (Patsantaras, 2006, 2015, 2020; Kamberidou, 2007; Kamberidou
& Chroni, 2017; Kamberidou & Pascall, 2020; Nuciari, 2007, 2015). Following a literature
review on gender and the military (Karabelias 2009, 2013), it spotlights women’s
participation in all three sectors of the Hellenic Armed Forces—administrative and
institutional posts—as opposed to their past engagement in secondary, subordinate or
unofficial roles, i.e. war nurses and volunteers (Kamberidou 2017, 2020a). Despite
women’s entry into the Hellenic Armed Forces in the last three decades, research indicates that women continue to experience gender discrimination in many areas of the male-centric and hierarchal structures (Karabelias, 2009). Ιn this study the research method consists of: (a) a theoretical analysis and designation of the research question and (b) a statistical analysis. The study combines qualitative and quantitative approaches (mixed method) for a better understanding of how women and men identify or perceive the meaning of their joint sport participation. Initially, twelve Greek women, all active officers in the Armed Forces, took part in semi-structured interviews and subsequently a total of 120 active officers of both genders responded to the "Group Environment Questionnaire" (Angelonidis, 1995). From a total of eighteen questions 9 were selected to examine gender integration through sport. On this basis, the main research question is whether sport in military academies contributes to gender integration-inclusion as perceived and understood by the participants themselves (meaning female and male officers). In particular, inclusion-integration, in accordance with the questionnaire, is a process involving non-isolation, namely acceptance of the gender subject (the military student regardless of his/her gender) into the team, as opposed to his/her exclusion, and as a result the union-unity of all the subjects (the military students of both genders) in a sport team. The first part of this process is called "individual integration to group-social (ATGS)" and the second is called "group integration-social (GIS)" (Carron, Brawley & Widmeyer, 1985). The statistical package SPSSv.24 is used to analyze the data; the Cronbach Alpha to check reliability; and the Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) which takes into account multiple continuous dependent variables. The results indicate that there is a statistically significant interaction between the variables 'joint participation of men and women in sports' and 'integration of women' in the Hellenic Higher Military Training Institutions. The results of this study indicate that military sport programs contribute to gender integration in the Hellenic Higher Military Training Institutions, in addition to promoting "gender-neutral" perceptions or "gender neutrality" (Kamberidou, 2019, 2007, 2004), meaning equality and inclusion regardless of gender, equal opportunities for both women and men. Other than strengthening students’ physical capacity, the results confirm that co-ed sport participation activities contribute to eliminating or reducing gender discrimination while strengthening interpersonal communication and cooperation skills. Furthermore, the creation of an athletic military space reinforced "individual integration to group-social (ATGS)" and "group integration-social (GIS)", which enhances gender integration and especially women’s integration in the Hellenic Higher Military Training Institutions.
Key words: Women, gender, gender neutrality, gender-neutral, integration, sport, sport
activities, Armed Forces
In dieser Arbeit geht es um Teamentwicklung im Mannschaftssport. Als theoretische Fundamente für die Entwicklung geeigneter Teamentwicklungs-Maßnahmen wird einerseits die Synergetik - als Wissenschaft der Selbstorganisation - und andererseits die Theorie Sozialer Systeme von Luhman herangezogen. Darauf basierend wird ausführlich argumentiert, dass es sich bei den relevanten kollekiven Eigenschaften von Sportteams - wie z.B. Kohäsion, Selbstwirksamkeit oder kollektive Identität - um das Resultat kommunikativer Selbstorganisationprozesse handelt. Insbesondere der kollektiven Identität als kommunikativ konstruierter Gegnerschaft wird dabei als übergeordneter Ordnungsparameter eine entscheidende Bedeutung für die Entwicklung von Teams beigemessen.
Playing together with other people can be an extremely fun aspect of taking part in sports. It can also be challenging when some people are not team players. This article focuses on the topic of group cohesion, which we describe as the glue that helps teammates to stick together. We might also define cohesion as the amount of unity or harmony in a team. Sport teams can be cohesive in terms of how well they play together during practices and games (i.e., task cohesion) as well as how well they get along away from their sport (i.e., social cohesion). Both types of cohesion are important because they lead to better individual and team performance, and athletes are more likely to be happy with playing on the team and to continue taking part. We suggest simple strategies that you and your coaches can use to help your team become more cohesive over time.
Sportlich aktive Menschen treiben Sport überwiegend in Gruppen – sei es in gesundheits- und fitnessorientierten Sportgruppen oder leistungsorientierten Sportmannschaften. Insbesondere bei letzteren geht es immer wieder um die Frage, wie die Leistung der Gruppe optimiert und maximiert werden kann. In diesem Kapitel wird geklärt, welche Ansammlungen von Personen typischerweise als Gruppe bezeichnet werden, und es werden Modelle beschrieben, die die Entstehung und Entwicklung von Gruppen beschreiben. Es wird ein konzeptioneller Rahmen zur Erforschung von Sportgruppen vorgestellt, anhand dessen empirische Befunde zur Gruppenproduktivität präsentiert werden. Es wird darauf eingegangen, welchen Einfluss die Gruppengröße, die Gruppenzusammensetzung und der Gruppenzusammenhalt haben. Zusätzlich werden einschlägige Messinstrumente und Interventionsmöglichkeiten präsentiert.
This study investigated the potential moderating effects of productivity norms and identifiability of effort on the cohesion-performance relationship in team sports. The design was a 2 (high cohesion, low cohesion)×2 (high productivity norm, low productivity norm)×2 (high identifiability of an individual’s effort, low identifiability of an individual’s effort) factorial. Each participant (n = 324) read one of eight scenarios, with cohesion, norms, and identifiability systematically rotated, and indicated the probability that the individual would train during the off-season. An ANOVA showed a main effect for cohesion, F(1, 316) = 113.44, p < .0001, and norms, F(1, 316) = 19.61, p < .0001), and an interaction between cohesion and norms, F(1, 316) = 7.35, p = .007. The probability of off-season training was significantly higher for the high-cohesion-high-norms scenario than for the high-cohesion-low-norms scenario, with no differences under conditions of low cohesion. Directions for future research are discussed.
Although many organization researchers regard group cohesiveness as a key variable in their theorizing, the presumed importance of the cohesiveness construct has not always been accompanied by a corresponding emphasis on theoretical and empirical advances. This paper focuses primarily on the difficulties associated with the measurement of group cohesiveness, particularly as they pertain to the contentious relationship between group cohesiveness and productivity. Little is known for certain about this relationship in spite of four decades of investigation. One possible explanation for the inconclusive findings which characterize this literature is that no two studies reviewed here operationalized cohesiveness in exactly the same way. An emphasis on consistent and uniform measurement, and on the use of multiple measures of cohesiveness, should greatly improve the quality of future research.
Self-reports figure prominently in organizational and management research, but there are several problems associated with their use. This article identifies six categories of self-reports and discusses such problems as common method variance, the consistency motif, and social desirability. Statistical and post hoc remedies and some procedural methods for dealing with artifactual bias are presented and evaluated. Recommendations for future research are also offered.
Meta-analysis is a set of procedures used to quantify, integrate, and analyze the findings of a large number of research studies. It offers the advantage of quantifying effects from individual studies in addition to specifying the procedures the authors followed when reviewing the literature. Although meta-analysis has been demonstrated as a useful technique in exercise and sport research, and new and more appropriate statistical techniques for use in meta-analysis have been developed, these procedures are not widely used. This tutorial describes these advances and provides an example of their application to data from gender differences in throwing velocity during childhood and adolescence.
The main aim of this study was to examine the relationship between task cohesiveness and team success in elite teams using composite team estimates of cohesion. A secondary aim was to determine statistically the consistency (i.e. 'groupness') present in team members' perceptions of cohesion. Elite university basketball teams (n = 18) and club soccer teams (n = 9) were assessed for cohesiveness and winning percentages. Measures were recorded towards the end of each team's competitive season. Our results indicate that cohesiveness is a shared perception, thereby providing statistical support for the use of composite team scores. Further analyses indicated a strong relationship between cohesion and success (r = 0.55-0.67). Further research using multi-level statistical techniques is recommended.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the immediate influence of a competitive outcome on perceptions of cohesion in rugby and swimming teams. Sixty male rugby players and 60 male swimmers completed Widmeyer, Brawley, and Carron's (1985) Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ) immediately before and after rugby matches or dual swim meets. Analyses revealed that only the two task dimensions of the GEQ changed significantly from pre to post competition. The performance outcome had a significant influence on perceptions of the group's task related integration (GI-T) and this influence was moderated by spȯrt type. The mean GI-T score for rugby players increased slightly following a win, but decreased significantly following a loss. The swimmers' mean GI-T as score increased significantly from pre to post meet for both winners and losers. The competitive outcome did not influence the perceived attraction to the group-task (ATG-T). For both sports, the mean ATG-T scores increased significantly from pre to post event regardless of the outcome. These results were discussed in terms of Carron, Widmeyer, and Brawley (1985) conceptual model of cohesion and the differences in the amount of interdependence among team members required for performance in the two sports.
Although group size has been one of the most frequently examined small-group variables, it has rarely been studied in sport. In Study 1 the effects of number of team members on cohesion and performance were examined. Teams of 3, 6, and 9 members participated in a 3-on-3 basketball league. Discriminant function analyses indicated that team size was related to pre-and postseason task cohesion and postseason social cohesion. Study 2 determined effects of action-unit size (number from one team on the field of action) on enjoyment and cohesion. Relationships between these outcomes and five more immediate outcomes were also investigated. As predicted, enjoyment and cohesion decreased as size increased. This decrease was also observed for the more immediate outcomes of exercise/fatigue, influence/responsibility, and organization/strategy whereas feelings of crowding increased with size. The best predictor of enjoyment was exercise/fatigue in smaller units and reduced influence/responsibility in large units. Orga...
Based upon the structural characteristics associated with interacting teams, two hypotheses were tested. Hypothesis I predicted that both players and coaches of successful volleyball teams would perceive greater team cohesion. Hypothesis II, which was derived from Fiedler's (2) contingency model for leadership effectiveness, proposed that successful teams would be coached by leaders perceived to be task-oriented in style. Data analysis consisted of a 2 × 2 × 2 (respondents × team success × level of skill) multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) for the dependent variables of cohesion and leadership. Final sample was comprised of winning and losing players (n = 71) and head coaches (n = 8) within the two most highly competitive divisions of the Southern California Women's Intercollegiate Athletic Conference volleyball league. Both players and coaches responded to the same assessment instruments, Fiedler's (2) Group Atmosphere Scale and Least Preferred Co-worker Scale. Hypothesis I was confirmed. Hypothesis II received partial support. Perception of coaches' leadership style within successful teams varied according to the skill level of the teams. Results were discussed in terms of variations in player motivation and structural changes which may occur within teams as a consequence of player skill level.
The purpose of the study was to examine the direction of causality of both cohesion and participation motivation with performance in intercollegiate hockey. The results supported the conclusion that successful performance results in in creased team cohesiveness; team cohesiveness does not produce more successful performance. The findings for participation motivation were equivocal. There was no indication that high self, task and/or affiliation motivation led to more successful performance or that successful performance increased the level of self, task and/or affiliation motivation.
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The factors influencing the effects that cohesiveness has upon performance success in athletic situations were examined. Two principal issues were discussed: the nature of the sport task (i.e., inherent differences among various sports in terms of task demands influence the type of coordinative activity required of group mem bers and this, in turn, is related to cohesiveness); and, the construct of cohesiveness itself with specific reference to those factors which contribute to improved coor dinative activity. It was proposed that only in those sports which are comprised of tasks characterized by interactive dependence (where maximum coordination can only be obtained through mutual adjustment by individual team members) that cohesiveness is related to team success. It was also proposed that cohesiveness, as a multidimensional construct, is comprised of three general categories of forces: normative, task and social. The normative forces (which arise as a result of tra ditional, cultural and practical considerations) prevent group dissolution and/or maintain individual participation within the team. Since these normative forces are constant across teams, they are unrelated to performance effectiveness. Task forces (resulting from task and self needs) lead to the development of coalitions while the social forces (arising from affiliative needs) are manifested in clique formation. The enhanced coordination contributing to performance success is a result of coalitions formed on the basis of maximum resources.
Carron has suggested that within sports groups' performance, the attitudes shared among members about the level of performance to be achieved and group cohesiveness, which is defined as the total field of forces that act on members to remain in the group, are interrelated. The present purpose was to confirm quantitatively the relation of teams' performance norms and their cohesiveness, so 1972 subjects from 114 Japanese high school athletic teams were administered questionnaires on their performance norms and cohesiveness. Pearson rs for performance norms were significantly correlated (.27, .35, .65, and .26) with 4 measures of cohesiveness, thereby supporting Carron's suggestion.
This study examined the effects of membership in a personal growth group on group cohesiveness within a women's gymnastics team. 15 gymnasts were randomly assigned to either a treatment or control group. The treatment group ( n = 8) met weekly for 15 1-hr. sessions while the control group ( n = 7) received additional practice. Prior to the start of the season (and again at the conclusion) subjects were administered the Group Environment Questionnaire, the Multidimensional Sport Cohesive Instrument, and the Team Climate Questionnaire. Analysis of covariance and binomial expansion showed a significant increase in cohesiveness within the treated group.
Team building is an ongoing, multifaceted process where group members learn how to work together for a common goal, and share pertinent information regarding the quality of team functioning for the purpose of establishing more effective ways of operating. This article describes a “hands on” approach to conducting team building interventions in sport. Drawing on reserurh from organizational development and group dynamic theory in sport, as well as information derived from interviews with coaches and athletes, key principles associated with successful team building interventions are presented and discussed. Core components to consider in building a successful team include having a shared vision and unity of purpose, collaborative and synergistic teamwork, individual and mutual accountability, an identity as a team, a positive team culture and cohesive group atmosphere. open and honest communication processes, peer helping and social support, and trust at all levels. Recommendations for conducting effective team building interventions are offered, along with miscellaneous team building activities, and suggestions for coaches that can impact the team building process.
Little is known about how team goal setting contributes to the products of the team building process-team cohesion and team performance. This article outlines (a) the nature and extent of group goal setting that occurs within and outside of sport, (b) why team goal setting can enhance team cohesion and team performance, (c) the findings of research into the team goal-team cohesion and the team goal-team performance relationships, and (d) factors which modify these relationships. Based upon the research presented, it is proposed that when implementing a team goal setting program, sport psychologists should (a) establish long-term goals first, (b) establish clear paths to long-term goals, (c) involve all team members in establishing team goals. (d) monitor team progress toward team goals, (e) reward team progress toward team goals, and (f) foster collective efficacy concerning the accomplishment of team goals. The paper concludes with recommendations for future research on team goal setting.
This study experimentally examined the cohesion-performance relationship. Undergraduate male volunteers were randomly assigned to 3-man basketball teams and teams were randomly assigned to receive either a cohesion-producing or a cohesion-reducing manipulation before competing. Level of cohesion and individual as well as team performance variables were assessed prior to and after each game. The manipulation successfully created teams higher and lower in cohesion. The results indicate that cohesion had a negligible impact on team performance. A stronger effect was found for the impact of performance on cohesion with winning teams having higher levels of cohesion than losing teams. These findings are consistent with previous literature and lend experimental support to the conclusion that performance has more impact on cohesion than cohesion has on performance.
Past research examining group cohesion and performance was reviewed using metaanalysis. The results indicated a positive relationship with the average cohesive group performing 18 percentile points above the average noncohesive group. Given the nature of the studies used here (all studies had been previously published), caution is suggested in generalizing these results to "real" work groups.
Investigated the relations among team cohesion, identifiability (i.e., the extent to which an athlete's performance is made known to self and others), and individual and relay swimming performance times. 16 male and 14 female collegiate swimmers competed in individual and relay events under conditions of either high or low identifiability, and measures of group cohesion were obtained. It was hypothesized that a social loafing effect would be observed in the low identifiability condition and that the opposite would occur in the high identifiability condition and that team cohesiveness would be negatively related to social loafing. Team cohesion predicted differences between the individual and group (relay) performance of women; cohesion and social loafing were negatively related. For men, there was no significant relation between team cohesion and social loafing. (French, Spanish, German & Italian abstracts) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Responds to J. Keyton's (see record
1992-42921-001) comments on C. R. Evans and K. L. Dion's (see record
1991-27308-001) meta-analysis of group cohesion and performance studies. It is argued that the cohesiveness construct is too important for understanding groups to discard casually, despite challenges arising from ambiguous, original definitions and suboptimal measurement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Presents a brief history of the development of meta-analysis, which is quickly establishing itself as a useful tool for the social sciences. Five approaches to meta-analytic method are distinguished: Glassian meta-analysis, study effect meta-analysis, the combined probability method, approximate data pooling with tests of homogeneity, and approximate data pooling with sampling error correction. It is concluded that the systematic differences in meta-analysis should not be taken as evidence of some inherent weakness of meta-analysis but as a reflection of the natural evolution of a new scientific tool. (80 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Developed a valid and reliable group cohesion instrument that measures both task- and social-related forces that are presumed to exist in interacting sport groups. 95 male and 101 female intercollegiate basketball players completed a 41-item sport cohesion instrument. Results from 2 factor analytical techniques revealed 4 robust common factors that accounted for greater than 80% of the variance of the total common factor structure. The 4 derived common factors were labeled Attraction to the Group, Unity of Purpose, Quality of Teamwork, and Valued Roles. Also, the internal consistency of the adjusted 22-item sport cohesion instrument was high, yielding a .93 alpha reliability coefficient. Findings suggest that group cohesion in intercollegiate basketball teams is multidimensional in nature, consisting of common goals, valued roles, teamwork that is complimentary to the goals the group is striving to achieve, and feelings of satisfaction and/or identification with group membership. (45 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study determined whether the measure of cohesion employed and the ability level, participation motivation, and sex of team members mediated the cohesion-performance outcome relationship in sport. The basketball ability of 117 male and 81 female university student volunteers was assessed and three-person teams of equal ability were formed within each of three ability levels for each sex. Following two practice sessions, self-report measures of participation motivation and cohesion were taken. Teams played two half-hour games weekly for 5 weeks. Multiple regression analyses revealed that when cohesion was directly assessed through players' ratings of their team's closeness and the team's overall attraction, 18% of the variance in performance outcome was accounted for by cohesion. When cohesion was assessed by summing individuals' evaluations of their teammates' contributions to the task and the group's enjoyment, only .7% of performance outcome was predicted. Knowing a member's self-motivation improved cohesion's prediction of performance outcome 7%. The task motivation, affiliation motivation, ability level, or sex of the players did not improve cohesion's prediction of performance outcome. Thus, the cohesion measure used influenced cohesion's prediction of performance outcome more than did the ability level, participation motivation, and sex of the team members.
The main purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between members' perceptions of group cohesion and starting status in elite volleyball teams. The results of the study revealed that the form of the cohesion-starting status relationship was moderated by the variable of success. The results for less successful teams revealed that differences did emerge between specific measures of cohesion endorsed by starters and non-starters. No such differences in cohesion emerged when the starters and non-starters on successful teams were compared. These results provide initial support for the suggestion that the most successful teams are the ones where the perceptions of cohesiveness by starters and non-starters are similar. A secondary purpose of the study was to determine whether those teams that were the most successful and similar in their members' perceptions of cohesiveness, were also the teams whose members have the most positive outcome expectancy. The results supported this prediction.
Twenty-one university, intramural, basketball teams completed a pretournament questionnaire designed to measure the group structural variables, status consensus and cohesion. Won-lost percents were correlated with multiple measures of each variable. The won-lost percents of teams ranked highest and lowest on each of the structural variables were also statistically compared. The results showed that team performance was not significantly related to either status consensus or cohesion. Several methodological problems that face the small group researcher interested in the relationship between group social structure and group success were discussed.
This exploratory study determined if the responses of male varsity basketball players to six factors influencing cohesion were a function of level of competitive intensity and/or the importance of the players to their team. Players on intact teams from five levels of competition – elementary school, junior high school, senior high school, small college and large college–responded to a cohesion questionnaire at the end of the season. Coaches designated five players with the most game playing time as “starters” and five players with the least game playing time as “reserves.” A team factor score for Team Performance Satisfaction, Self Performance Satisfaction, Task Cohesion, Affiliation Cohesion, Desire for Recognition and Value of Membership was calculated. Each team factor score served as the dependent variable in a 2 (player status) × 5 (level of competition) analysis ofcovariance design, with teams nested in the second factor. The won-loss record served as the covariate. Results indicated that “starters” were more satisfied with their own performance, were more task conscious, had a greater affiliation desire, and valued their membership on the team to a greater degree than the “reserves.” The elementary and junior high school team members were significantly more satisfied with the team's performance, were more satisfied with their own self performance, were more affiliation conscious, and valued their team membership to a greater degree than did college team members. The interaction between player status and level of competition was not significant for any of the factor scores.
The purpose of this descriptive study was to confirm the presence of cohesiveness factors in male varsity basketball players representing different levels of competition. A secondary purpose was to determine the reliability of the cohesiveness items. A total of 515 players divided among the elementary school (n = 92), junior high school (n = 116), senior high school (n = 110), small college (n = 115), and large college (n = 82) levels of competition responded to a 13 item cohesiveness questionnaire prior to a team practice session. The intraclass reliability coefficient for all items was calculated for two groups. The correlations were all positive and significant ranging from .73 to .94 in junior high players and from .80 to .98 in small college players. A principal factor analysis with iteration was performed on each correlation matrix that represented a level of competition. Oblique rotation to simple structure of each factor matrix was achieved. Six factors were identified. Two factors, namely, team performance satisfaction and task cohesion appeared in all 5 levels. Affiliation cohesion appeared in all levels except senior high. Self-performance satisfaction was identified in the elementary, junior high, and large college levels. Desire for recognition was identified in the elementary, senior high, and small college levels. The last factor, named value of membership, appeared in the junior high and senior high players. A number of the factors were correlated in all levels.
The objective of this study was to assess, using the Group Environment Questionnaire, whether team cohesion in university-level field hockey was a cause for, or an effect of, successful performance. A quasi-experimental longitudinal design with cross-lagged correlational analysis was adopted and measures of cohesion and performance were taken midway and later in the season. The results of the synchronous correlations showed a positive relationship (with good stationarity) between team cohesion and performance outcome. Although non-significant cross-lagged differentials indicated a circular relationship, the magnitudes of both the cross-lagged correlations and the partial correlations, together with multiple-regression analyses, revealed that the stronger flow was from cohesion to performance. The socially oriented aspects of cohesion, in particular, had significant associations with performance. The results imply that cohesion-performance relationships should be examined within a circular model, in which cohesion and performance are interdependent.
This study examined the relationship between cohesion measured by the Group Environment Questionnaire and success measured by winning percentage with over 200 junior ice hockey players. The cohesion explained 29% of the variance of the success. Scores on task cohesion were better predictors of success than social cohesion.
In answering the call for empirical documentation of the effect of ropes and challenge course participation on the psychosocial function and sport performance of athletes and teams, exploratory studies have identified postcourse changes in group cohesion and approaches to sport competition. The purpose of the current study was to utilize a pretest-posttest comparison group design to expand knowledge in this area. 35 members of a girls' high school tennis team participated. The 16 individuals who participated in a preseason program and the 19 individuals who did not comprised the treatment and comparison groups, respectively. Team members completed the Group Environment Questionnaire and the Sport Orientation Questionnaire four days prior to and two days after the course experience. A series of 2 x 2 analyses of variance, (group x time) run on each of the scales, gave a significant group x time interaction on one social cohesion scale but none for scores on the Sport Orientation Questionnaire. The findings are discussed in relation to research and the implementation of these programs with athletes.
The present investigations test the hypothesis that group effectiveness is related to the interpersonal perceptions which members of the group have toward one another. Interpersonal perceptions were measured by correlating identical questionnaires which subjects were instructed to fill out (a) describing themselves, (b) predicting the responses of their preferred co-worker, and (c) predicting the responses of their rejected co-worker." The assumed similarity score of the team's most preferred work companion was found to be negatively correlated with a criterion of team effectiveness.