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Toward a Career Psychology of Women: What Do We Know? What Do We Need to Know?
Abstract
Reviews what is presently known in salient areas of theory, knowledge, attitudes, and techniques and outlines the various areas of expertise that should be required of those engaged in career counseling with women. Theories of career choice, career maturity, and achievement motivation are discussed, and socio-psychological information about women and the work world, sex bias in vocational interest inventories, and the reliability and relevance of career information about women are surveyed. Counselor biases and influences of client socialization reflect stereotypic attitudes limiting career choices by women. It is recommended that courses on the special needs of women be included in the training of career counselors and that counselors should actively encourage women to examine their positions and needs and to consider nontraditional careers. The goal of this is that career choice should reflect the client's optimal potential. (4 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... Critical reviews of the literature on women's career development by Betz and Fitzgerald (1987) and Phillips and Imhoff (1997) also concentrated solely on the research that examined within-group differences for women. Many of those studies helped to frame the argument that the context in which women made career and work decisions was so different from that of men that the field needed a separate theory for women's career development (e.g., Betz & Fitzgerald, 1987;Fitzgerald & Crites, 1980). However, there has not been a review of research on how women differ from each other since Phillips and Imhoff's 1997 study ; thus, the debate over whether a separate theory is needed to explain women's career development has not continued. ...
... In response to women's growing participation in the workforce and advocacy for women's freedom of choice in the 1960s and '70s, the field of vocational psychology began arguing that women's career choices and career development were not the same as men's (Fitzgerald & Crites, 1980). Expanding from the societal events impacting women's lives and careers during these decades (e.g., the women's rights movement and introduction of the contraceptive pill), there was advocacy for greater sex equity in education and employment, including reducing sex bias in educational and vocational tests. ...
... Women's career development was predicted to then result in a successful career or marriage, level of achievement, self-exclusion, underutilization of abilities, or social change. Fitzgerald and Crites (1980) agreed with the need for a separate theory, arguing that women had unique career needs. Fitzgerald et al. (1995) continued to advocate for a separate theory, stating that "the study of women's relationship to work is more complicated than men's, requiring the identification and study of concepts and variables previously… ignored" (p. ...
The career development of women has been a longstanding topic of inquiry in vocational psychology. Two previous major reviews in this area consistently identified that women tend to experience more career barriers than men. This major contribution sought to extend this work by providing a third systematic review of the literature on women’s career development. We focused our review explicitly on the experiences of women rather than women compared to men. We seek to answer the question that has been asked for 50 years: Do we need a separate theory of women’s career development? Our findings suggest that women experience several barriers at various stages during the trajectory of their careers. We make the case that perceptions of career barriers are an integral construct to women’s career experiences and theoretical prepositions in vocational psychology should explicitly capture this construct in future investigations. We discuss implications for practice, training, and education.
... According to Perun and Del Vento Bielby (1981) (Astin, 1984;Betz & Fitzgerald, 1987;Farmer, 1985;Fitzgerald & Crites, 1980;Gottfredson, 1981;Hackett & Betz, 1981). ...
... These factors often comprise major barriers to women when they try to access the f u l l scope of existing traditional Betz, 1989;Betz & Fitzgerald, 1987;Borman & Guido-DiBrito, 1986;Fitzgerald & Crites, 1980;Read et al., 1988;Wood, 1989 (Betz, 1989;McGraw, 1982) . ...
... Together, counsellors and clients can work on increasing clients' self-efficacy beliefs, (Hackett & Betz, 1981), feelings of mastery and control over l i f e and career events (Wood, 1989), and levels of assertiveness (Nevill & Schlecker, 1988) . Several authors also stress that counsellors must challenge and alter their own sex-typed attitudes and biases about women and work (e.g., Fitzgerald & Crites, 1980;Nevill & Schlecker). Counsellors can then more effectively help clients confront the limits that women's socialization processes impose on women's career development. ...
... This change in vision has taken place just as the number of business degrees as exploded. Today there are 480 business schools that offer the Master's in Business Administration degree and "business has been the single most common major since 1980-1981" (Desilver, 2014. ...
... Because engineering was a maledominated occupation (Humphreys, 1982;Pfafflin, 1984;National Science Foundation, 1984), the initial research began in the identification of discrepancies between jobs that employed mainly men, including engineering, mathematics, and science (Hackett & Betz, 1981). The initial research was also used to identify areas that women suffer from low self-beliefs about their individual abilities and skills for certain careers (Hackett & Betz, 1981;Fitzgerald & Crites, 1980;Farmer, 1976). Research on career self-efficacy eventually came to include general occupational training and development as well as specific job progress for certain groups (Betz & Hackett, 2006). ...
How many billions of tax dollars must be spent before public education makes a change? The reality of teaching in today’s classroom is so challenging that up to 50% of the new and inexperienced teachers leave each year. At risk students, low socio-economic students and minority students experience new and inexperienced teachers year and year and fall further and further behind academically. It is a misnomer teachers with over ten years of teaching experience do not lead to greater student achievement. This paper makes argument and recommendation for education leadership to make changes. The achievement and success of students in schools now and the next generation are at stake.
... Attachment behavior is theorized to be a lifelong characteristic that never wanes in its significance (Sroufe, 1995). The relational emphasis of attachment theory appealed to researchers seeking to understand or normalize women's affiliative tendencies and the effect of women's relational preferences on career behavior (FitzGerald & Crites, 1980;Franz & White, 1985;Gilligan, 1982). Blustein (1994) encouraged the convergence of theories that would collectively account for familial and environmental influences. ...
... Questions persisted about the path of female development, especially career behavior, and there was no consensus in psychoanalytic theory about the formation of identity (Fitzgerald & Crites, 1980;McCarthy, 1995). Moreover, more recent theory emphasized that individuation is furthered through secure attachment (Doctors, 2000). ...
... In an early seminal article, Fitzgerald and Crites (1980) argued that women had special career needs that would necessitate a separate theory of women's career development and further called for counselors to have special training to help women consider nontraditional careers. Farmer (1976) proposed a model to explain women's career motivation to help explain why women, found to be equally as intelligent as men, did not rise to the top of occupations as often as men. ...
In the following rejoinder, we respond to Betz, Phillips, Flores, and colleagues’ reactions to Fouad et al.’s major contribution (2023 [this issue]) on women’s career development. Particularly, we respond to comments highlighting the importance of studying individual differences along intersectional lines in explaining vocational behavior. We contend that this level of nuance in understanding people’s career decisions is necessary in order to build a diverse vocational science capable of informing multiple levels of intervention.
... Çalışmaya alınan bir diğer faktör cinsiyettir. Kariyer konusunda literatürde yapılan diğer çalışmalar ele alındığında, 1980-2000 aralığında yapılan bir çok çalışma, kadınların çalışma hayatının birçok alanında var olamadığı, becerilerinin yeteri kadar kullanamadıkları ve daha az ihtimalle terfi alabildiklerini göstermiştir (Fitzgerald & Crites, 1980;Kay & Hagan, 1995;Lyness & Thompson, 1997). Günümüzde halen cinsiyetin kariyeri etkileyen bir faktör olarak öne çıktığı görülmektedir (Mozahem, 2021:13). ...
Bu araştırmanın amacı kariyer kararı verme ve kendini izleme konularında sağlık hizmetleri alanında eğitim gören öğrenciler ile diğer bölümlerde eğitim gören öğrenciler arasındaki farkları ortaya koymaktır. Araştırmaya toplam 670 öğrenci katılmıştır. Çalışmada Ulaş ve Yıldırım (2016) tarafından geliştirilen Kariyer Kararı Verme Yetkinliği Ölçeği ve Gültekin (2015) tarafından kullanılan ‘Kendini İzleme Ölçeği kullanılmıştır. Gruplar arası karşılaştırmalara bakıldığında en fazla farklılaşmaya neden olan demografik değişkenlerin sırasıyla cinsiyet, bölümü isteyerek seçmiş olma, daha önce bir üniversite deneyiminin olması, önlisans veya lisans öğrencisi olmak ve sağlık hizmetleri alanında öğrenim görmek olduğu görülmektedir. Kariyer planlama alanında literatürde çok sayıda kaynak bulunmakla birlikte kendini izleme ile kariyer konusunu bir arada ele alan bir araştırmaya rastlanmamıştır. Buradan hareketle, bu çalışmada öğrencilerin kendini izleme ve kariyer kararı verme açısından aralarındaki farklılıkları ortaya koyarak literatüre katkı sağlamak amaçlanmıştır. Ek olarak, öğrencilerin kariyer planlamalarını etkileyen faktörlerin derinlemesine araştırılması, onları daha doğru kariyer seçimlerine yönlendireceğinden, çalışma sonuçları uygulama açısından da önem taşımaktadır.
... Moreover, most career development theories also assume that individuals are free to choose from among an array of alternatives that are available to all. Thus, researchers have begun to question the relevance of these theories to women and individuals from different cultural, ethnic, and/or socioeconomic backgrounds (Betz & Fitzgerald, 1987;Fitzgerald & Crites, 1980). Many of the assumptions of career development theories ignore the social realities of special groups where career development may be constrained by such factors as prejudice, discrimination, and opportunity availability imposed by the society's socio-political system. ...
Participation of women in the workforce is crucial for any economy to optimally utilize the potential of its full human capital. However, according to the Global Gender Gap Report (2016) by World Economic Forum, no country by now has achieved gender equality. Due to demographic change as well as a stronger focus on service and knowledge-intensive industries, India will face a significant shortage of (qualified) skills in the next decades. To secure qualified labor, it will be of vital importance for large companies to diversify the pool of (potential) employees by gaining better access to the female labor force. When a pool of young women, who are professionally qualified to participate in the workforce and contribute to the country, cannot utilize their true talent, it becomes quite important to know and understand the reasons for that. Career choice and career decisions of women are influenced by a number of social, cultural, familial, and personal factors. The article seeks to identify the reasons of decreased female participation in the Indian workforce from the lenses of career theories and practicalities of career decision-making. It is aimed at a focused target group, that is, young women (between the age of 25 and 45) who have full-time enrollment in university education, are professionally qualified to join the workforce, and are living in an urban setting, yet not contributing in the workforce.
... This research (e.g. Betz, 2005;Fitzgerald, & Crites, 1980) has led gender to be considered a barrier in the professional ambitions of women and in the progression of their careers. ...
En este artículo se estudia una serie de variables vinculadas al desarrollo profesional de trabajadores jóvenes y adultos desde un enfoque de género. Se analizan las percepciones de mujeres y hombres trabajadores respecto al éxito profesional subjetivo de sus carreras, dentro del contexto español, atendiendo a la satisfacción e identificación de patrones de género. Se combina una metodología cuantitativa y cualitativa (enfoque mixto), aplicando un cuestionario a una muestra de 205 trabajadores, así como entrevistas a una submuestra de 32 personas. Los resultados permiten describir una marcada dualidad en la percepción de la progresión de la carrera, la satisfacción laboral y las expectativas de logro, en relación con el género, pero también con la edad. Las barreras percibidas en el desarrollo profesional presentan igualmente patrones diferenciados. Se derivan implicaciones prácticas, a fin de mejorar las estrategias de orientación de las carreras de trabajadoras y trabajadores tomando en cuenta esta realidad.
This paper examines a series of variables related to the profesional development of young and adult workers from a gender perspective. It analyses, within the Spanish context, how working women and men subjectively perceive their professional success, paying attention to the identification and following of gender patterns. Quantitative and qualitative methodologies are combined in a mixed approach that uses a questionnaire (given to a sample of 205 workers) and interviews (with a subsample of 32 individuals). Their results enable us to describe a marked duality in the perception of career progression, job satisfaction and achievement expectations in relation to gender but also age. The barriers perceived in professional development also present differentiated patterns. Practical implications are derived with a view to improve career guidance strategies for working women and men, taking this reality into account.
... Οι νέες γυναίκες σήμερα παντρεύονται σε μεγαλύτερη ηλικία από ότι στο παρελθόν, επιδιώκουν να μορφώνονται περισσότερο, στρέφονται ολοένα και λιγότερο στους λεγόμενους παραδοσιακούς επαγγελματικούς χώρους, ενώ υιοθετούν φιλελεύθερες απόψεις για την οικονομία και την πολιτική (Κασσωτάκης, 2004). Όμως, εξακολουθούν να έχουν μία διάσταση ανάμεσα στις φιλοδοξίες και τις προσδοκίες τους, με αποτέλεσμα το παράδοξο αυτό να οδηγεί σε επιλογή επαγγελμάτων κατώτερων των δεξιοτήτων και των ενδιαφερόντων τους (Fitzgerald & Crites, 1980). Σύμφωνα με τους Spokane & Hawks (1990), οι γυναίκες περιορίζουν τις επαγγελματικές τους επιλογές, καθώς προσανατολίζονται σε επαγγέλματα και κλάδους όπου το γυναικείο φύλο υπερεκπροσωπείται (γραμματειακή υποστήριξη, υπαλληλικά επαγγέλματα, εκπαίδευση), ενώ δίνουν μικρότερη σημασία σε επιστημονικά, μηχανικά και διοικητικά επαγγέλματα. ...
Στην παρούσα εργασία εξετάζονται οι έννοιες του φύλου, ο ρόλος τους και τα στερεότυπα του κοινωνικού φύλου στην επιλογή σταδιοδρομίας σε σχέση με θεωρίες στερεοτύπων στην επιλογή επαγγέλματος, τα Μέσα Μαζικής Ενημέρωσης, την επαγγελματική επιλογή, ανάπτυξη και αξιολόγηση. Παρουσιάζονται επιπλέον οι πολιτικές που εφαρμόστηκαν τις τελευταίες δεκαετίες για την αντιμετώπιση των έμφυλων στερεοτύπων στην αγορά εργασίας, τόσο στην Ευρωπαϊκή Ένωση όσο και στην Ελλάδα. Η επίγνωση του παραπάνω κοινωνικού και νομοθετικού πλαισίου θεωρείται απαραίτητο εφόδιο των Συμβούλων Σταδιοδρομίας, προκειμένου να συμβάλλουν στην αποτελεσματικότερη άρση των όποιων έμφυλων διακρίσεων υπάρχουν στην επιλογή σταδιοδρομίας.
... Moreover, most career development theories also assume that individuals are free to choose from among an array of alternatives that are available to all. Thus, researchers have begun to question the relevance of these theories to women and individuals from different cultural, ethnic, and/or socioeconomic backgrounds (Betz & Fitzgerald, 1987;Fitzgerald & Crites, 1980). Many of the assumptions of career development theories ignore the social realities of special groups where career development may be constrained by such factors as prejudice, discrimination, and opportunity availability imposed by the society's socio-political system. ...
Participation of women in the workforce is crucial for any economy to optimally utilize the potential of its full human capital. However, according to the Global Gender Gap Report (2016) by World Economic Forum, no country by now has achieved gender equality. Due to demographic change as well as a stronger focus on service and knowledge-intensive industries, India will face a significant shortage of (qualified) skills in the next decades. To secure qualified labor, it will be of vital importance for large companies to diversify the pool of (potential) employees by gaining better access to the female labor force. When a pool of young women, who are professionally qualified to participate in the workforce and contribute to the country, cannot utilize their true talent, it becomes quite important to know and understand the reasons for that. Career choice and career decisions of women are influenced by a number of social, cultural, familial, and personal factors. The article seeks to identify the reasons of decreased female participation in the Indian workforce from the lenses of career theories and practicalities of career decision-making. It is aimed at a focused target group, that is, young women (between the age of 25 and 45) who have full-time enrollment in university education, are professionally qualified to join the workforce, and are living in an urban setting, yet not contributing in the workforce.
... A major case in point is the changes that have occurred in the career development of women. Recent reviews (Fitzgerald & Crites, 1980;J. Lerner & Galambos, (1985a, 1985b; Osipow, 1983) have noted that current theories of career development are limited in their applicability to women. ...
Chapter 1: Vocational Behavior and Career Development: An
Introduction
Chapter 2: The Concept of Development
Chapter 3: The Context of Career Development
Chapter 4: A Life-Span Developmental Approach to Career
Development
Chapter 5 Career Development: The Sample Case of Adolescence
Chapter 6 Toward a Methodological Agenda for the Study of
Vocational Behavior and Career Development
Chapter 7 The Career Development of Woman
Chapter 8 Career Development and Health
Chapter 9 Intervention in Vocational Behavior & Career Development
... For example, Bandura (1992) confirmed that women are more likely than men to limit their career aspirations because of a lack of belief or confidence in their own abilities. Furthermore, the literature has shown consistently over the years that women's career aspirations and choices tend to be significantly lower than those of their male counterparts (Fitzgerald and O'Crites, 1980;Betz and Fitzgerald, 1987;Gatewood et al., 2002). This lack of self-efficacy has also been found to impact upon entrepreneurial career choices (Wilson et al., 2007) and is consistent across countries (Langowitz and Minnitti, 2007). ...
... In the latter decades of the last century there were not only critiques of mainstream theories of career development and their applicability to women, but there were also attempts at developing theories to specifi cally account for women's career development (Fitzgerald & Crites, 1980; Osipow, 1975). Most of these early attempts at theory development no longer have much currency due to lack of interest and/or research attention devoted to them and the vigor and empirical support for some of their competitors . ...
This chapter reviews the literature on feminist vocational/career theory and practice. In particular, it reviews the theory and research on the major career development theories focused on career choice and critiques their applicability for understanding women's vocational behavior. Major theories reviewed include Holland's person-environment theory, Super's developmental career theory, and social cognitive career theory. Coverage of career development theories that were developed specifically to account for women's vocational behavior and that influence the dominant theories of today are also included, namely, Gottfredson's theory of circumscription and compromise, as well as models proposed by Farmer, Astin, Betz & Fitzgerald, and Fassinger. Research on the applicability of the various theories with respect to diverse groups of women is addressed; issues in the extant empirical literature are explored; and limitations of the theories are discussed. The heuristic value of the various theories for guiding career interventions is discussed.
... For example, Bandura (1992) confirmed that women are more likely than men to limit their career aspirations because of a lack of belief or confidence in their own abilities. Furthermore, the literature has shown consistently over the years that women's career aspirations and choices tend to be significantly lower than those of their male counterparts (Fitzgerald and O'Crites, 1980;Betz and Fitzgerald, 1987;Gatewood et al., 2002). This lack of self-efficacy has also been found to impact upon entrepreneurial career choices (Wilson et al., 2007) and is consistent across countries (Langowitz and Minnitti, 2007). ...
... According to the research studies (i.e., Fitzgerald & Crites, 1980), there is a need for increased understanding of women's career development. Most research in this area has focused on the applicability of the theories of career development to women (i.e., Holland, 1973). ...
... The collection of papers in this special issue offer the practitioner seeking to evaluate a school-or industry-based career-development program a wealth of strategies and considerations for the design and impie-mentation of the evaluation. Here and elsewhere, innumerable suggestions have been offered regarding criteria that should be considered when evaluating such programs (see Feldman, 1988;Greenhaus, 1987). In the case of career-development programs designed specifically for women, if one accepts the proposition that women's career development differs from men's, and that programs designed for women should, therefore, focus on issues that are of particular relevance to women, then the evaluations of such programs must ask: Did this women's careerdevelopment program target and meet objectives (goals) that a program aimed specifically at women should ? ...
... Stein and Bailey (1973), upon reviewing available literature on achievement motivation in females, concluded that child-rearing practices in North America generally reinforced traditional feminine sex typing and deemphasized "achievement-oriented" behaviour. Similarly, Fitzgerald and Crites (1980) concluded that counsellors working with female clients were influenced considerably by outdated, stereotypic conceptions about "acceptable" female roles and behaviour, and also that counsellors had poorly developed notions about female clients' cognitions and future aspirations. ...
... Maccoby & Jacklin, 1974; Atkinson, 1978). Einige Autorinnen (Milton, 1959; McClelland, 1964; Stein & Bailey, 1975) fanden, daß viele Frauen Leistungsmotivation nur in als feminin definierten Gebieten ausdrücken (z.B. eine gute Mutter sein; eine gute Köchin sein, etc.); andere (Birnbaum, 1975; Tangri, 1975, Levitin & Quinn, 1973; Fitzgerald & Crites, 1980; Kraak & Nord-Rüdiger, 1984; O'Leary, 1974). Frauen arbeiten demnach nur, um Geld "dazu zu verdienen" oder weil sie durch wirtschaftliche Gründe dazu "gezwungen" werden; ihnen sind die sozio-emotionalen Aspekte der Arbeit (Kontakte zu anderen, sich sozial nützlich machen ) wichtiger als Leistung, Erfolg, Prestige und Bezahlung; sie sind weniger als Männer daran interessiert, sich über die Arbeit selbst zu verwirklichen ("that they view their work as just a job, rather than as a career" (Crowley et al. 1973); sie sind eher mit intellektuell wenig fordernden Tätigkeiten zufrieden als Männer, und sie sind weniger an einem beruflichen Aufstieg interessiert. ...
Investigates psychological barriers in the career development of women, based on the example of female medical students. Samples of 104 female medical students at the beginning of their studies and 119 at the end of their studies, and comparison groups of 117 and 110 male medical students were assessed with the help of specially developed and already existing methods concerning career concept, self-concept, self-esteem, sex-role orientation, attitude toward the female role and career motivation. It was found that at the beginning of medical school female students were more achievement- and career-oriented than male students; the case was just the opposite at the end of medical school. The most important psychological barriers were found to be a discrepancy between career concept and self-concept and a feminine sex-role orientation.
... Women are underrepresented in many occupational fields and as a gender, enter low-paying, lower-status occupations, keeping themselves economically disadvantaged and managing multiple role demands (Betz & Fitzgerald, 1987;Herz & Wootton, 1996). In contrast with men, women's intellectual capacities and talents are often mismatched with the caliber of occupation that they pursue (Fitzgerald & Crites, 1980;Herz & Wootton, 1996). Despite similar intellectual ability, women are employed primarily in traditionally female occupations, and are over-represented in lower-level, lowerstatus, and lower-paying occupations (Betz & Fitzgerald, 1987;U.S. Census Bureau, 2001). ...
This chapter aims firstly at examining the impact of gender stereotypes on choosing vocational education or profession. Secondly, the relevant policies of European Union and Greece, in particular, are presented and commented upon. For this purpose, relevant data have been collected from four related surveys conducted in the years 2008, 2010, 2014, and 2017, mainly in the high schools of Attica (Greece). The results from these four surveys only partially confirm the original hypothesis, namely that the gender stereotypes influence the decision-making process of choosing a field of vocational study or profession, but also indicate that there are significant correlations between specific occupations per gender identity and stereotypical perceptions. Finally, the harmonious coexistence of the sexes requires the development of self-knowledge and critical thinking. This can be achieved only by raising the awareness of teachers, who are called to improve the critical self-knowledge and social knowledge of individuals through the implementation of policies regarding school and local society.
В данной статье представлен историко-теоретический обзор моделей и подходов различных ученых к вопросу карьерного развития индивидов. Теоретический обзор рассматривал специфичность данного феномена для различных групп индивидов, с учетом поло-возростных, культурно-религиозных, расово-этнических особенностей. Данный обзор был проведен с целью выявления наиболее значимых теорий, для современных практик карьерного развития студентов. На основе проделанного анализа в дальнейшем планируется разработка модели сопровождения развития карьерной идентичности и карьерного самоопределения студентов выпускных курсов бакалавриата. В статье так же обсуждаются различные подходы к рассмотрению карьерного развития таких групп студентов как девушки/женщины, представители этнических меньшинств и т.д. Статья затрагивает идею о том, что карьерное развития не является обособленной частью, а затрагивает жизнь человека и его личность целиком. В частности Super предложил подход Life-Career Rainbow (Радуга карьера-жизнь) это такая попытка рассмотреть жизнь индивида и его карьеру как целостную структуру.
RESUMENSon bien conocidos los condicionantes vocacionales que influyen en los estudiantes universitarios en función de características como el sexo, nivel socioeconómico o grupo vocacional al que se adscriben. Sin embargo, poco se conoce de las características vocacionales de estos estudiantes cuando están afectados por una discapacidad. La aproximación cualitativa, a través de entrevistas semiestructuradas, es la vía que permite conocer con detenimiento las necesidades y características de estos estudiantes para establecer un asesoramiento de calidad. Esta metodología nos muestra que dicho asesoramiento debe centrarse, básicamente, en tres campos: el socio-personal, el de autonomía e independencia personal, y el propiamente vocacional a través de servicios ofertados por la institución universitaria, como el llevado a cabo en la Universitat de València; pero sin restringir la actuación a este momento educativo. Este trabajo trata de realizar una primera prospección que sirva de base para establecer servicios especializados en la atención a estudiantes con discapacidad visual.ABSTRACTVocational characteristics related to sex, socioeconomic status or vocational group influencing higher education students´ vocational behaviour are well known. However, the vocational characteristics of students that suffer from some kind of dissability have been less studied. The qualitative apporach with it use of semi-structured interviews is the best way to find out the needs and unique characteristics of these students in order to deliver quality counseling services. Qualitative methodology shows us that vocational and career counseling should be based on three domains: the socio-personal domain, the personal autonomy domain, and the vocational domain. An example of counseling directed to the vocational domain could be the use of University-based counseling services, but should not be restricted to this educational level. This research attempts is a first step to develop specialized counseling services for students with some kind of visual impairment.
This chapter aims firstly at examining the impact of gender stereotypes on choosing vocational education or profession. Secondly, the relevant policies of European Union and Greece, in particular, are presented and commented upon. For this purpose, relevant data have been collected from four related surveys conducted in the years 2008, 2010, 2014, and 2017, mainly in the high schools of Attica (Greece). The results from these four surveys only partially confirm the original hypothesis, namely that the gender stereotypes influence the decision-making process of choosing a field of vocational study or profession, but also indicate that there are significant correlations between specific occupations per gender identity and stereotypical perceptions. Finally, the harmonious coexistence of the sexes requires the development of self-knowledge and critical thinking. This can be achieved only by raising the awareness of teachers, who are called to improve the critical self-knowledge and social knowledge of individuals through the implementation of policies regarding school and local society.
Nach wie vor gilt, dass Frauen auf der Stufe der Professuren stark untervertreten sind: Die Frauenanteile variieren in der Schweiz zwischen 6% in den technischen Wissenschaften und 23% in den Geistes- und Sozialwissenschaften (Bundesamt für Statistik, 2006c). Die vorliegende Studie untersucht auf dem Hintergrund der Social Cognitive Career Theory (Lent, Brown & Hackett, 1994) die akademische Laufbahnentwicklung von Doktorierenden der Sozial- und Geisteswissenschaften. Anhand eines Modells zur Vorhersage der Laufbahnintention (t1) wurde überprüft, inwiefern sozial-kognitive Variablen sowie Lernerfahrungen, Kontextfaktoren und individuelle Merkmale zur Vorhersage der Absicht dazu beitragen, nach Abschluss des Doktorats die akademische Laufbahn fortzusetzen. Ein Jahr später (t2) wurden die in der Zwischenzeit promovierten Nachwuchskräfte zu ihrem akademischen Laufbahnverhalten befragt und geprüft, inwiefern die Variablen der Erstbefragung das Laufbahnverhalten zu erklären vermögen. Bei der Vorhersage der Laufbahnintention zeigte sich, dass der stärkste direkte Effekt vom Interesse sowie von der akademischen Laufbahnselbstwirksamkeit und der stärkste indirekte Effekt von der Einbettung in die Scientific Community ausgeht. Die Modell- variablen vermögen 70% der Varianz in der Laufbahnintention zu erklären. Die Ergebnisse zur Vorhersage des akademischen Laufbahnverhaltens bestätigen die Annahme eines direkten Einflusses der akademischen Laufbahnintention (t1) auf das Laufbahnverhalten (t2). Nicht bestätigt hat sich der indirekte Einfluss des Interesses auf das Laufbahnverhalten, und ebenso muss die Annahme eines direkten sowie eines indirekten, über das Interesse vermittelten Einflusses der Selbstwirksamkeitserwartung beziehungsweise der Einstellung auf das Laufbahn- verhalten verworfen werden. Die Modellvariablen erklären rund 40% der Varianz im ein Jahr später erhobenen Laufbahnverhalten. Von den vermuteten Geschlechtsunterschieden bestätigten sich das geringere Ausmass laufbahnbezogener Selbstwirksamkeitserwartung und direkter Lernerfahrungen von Frauen sowie deren höhere Einschätzung der privaten Kosten einer akademischen Laufbahn. Die Annahme, Frauen würden in der Abschlussphase des Doktorats eine geringere Absicht äussern, ihre akademische Laufbahn fortsetzen zu wollen, hat sich ebenso wenig bestätigt wie die Vermutung eines geringeren akademischen Laufbahnverhaltens ein Jahr nach Abschluss des Doktorats. English summary In Switzerland, the percentage of women professors varies from 6% in the Technical Sciences to 23% in the Social Sciences and Humanities (Bundesamt für Statistik, 2006c). Building on the Social Cognitive Career Theory (Lent, Brown & Hackett, 1994) the present study investigated the academic career development of Social Science and Humanities doctoral students. It focused on identifying key predictors of academic career intention at the point in time after submitting the thesis for defence (t1) and, respectively, on identifying key predictors of academic career behaviour one year later (t2). It then tested to what extent socio-cognitive variables, learning experience, contextual factors and individual characteristics accounted for the prediction of the intention to pursue an academic career after the submission of the thesis for defence (t1). One year later (t2), the former doctoral students were questioned about their academic career activities. Finally, the SCCT model was used to test to what extent the variables of the initial survey on career intention explained career behaviour one year later. Interest and academic career selfefficacy yielded the strongest direct effect for the prediction of career intention, whereas embeddedness in the scientific community yielded the strongest indirect effect. The variables of the model accounted for 70% of the variance in career intention. The results of the analysis for predicting the academic career behaviour one year after the submission of the thesis (t2) confirmed the theoretically postulated assumption that academic career intention at (t1) influences career behaviour at (t2.) However, the indirect influence of interest on career behaviour was not confirmed. Additionally, the assumption that self-efficacy and attitude affect career behaviour both directly and indirectly through their influence on interest must be rejected. Overall the model variables accounted for nearly 40% of the variance in the academic career behaviour assessed one year after the submission of the thesis for defence. With respect to postulated sex/gender differences, the study revealed a lower degree of career related self-efficacy expectations and direct learning experience among the female junior scientists. And they expressed a higher awareness of the personal costs associated with the pursuit of academic careers than men. Neither the assumption that up-and- coming female scientists would express lesser intention to continue their academic career at the time after submitting their thesis (t1) nor that they would show diminished academic career behaviour one year later (t2) could be confirmed.
This study investigated the validity of My Vocational Situation for adult females. The participants were members of homemaker clubs and clients of displaced homemaker centers. The validity of the instrument was generally supported.
The unique career counseling needs of traditional evangelical Christian women at midlife are seen as precipitating from two circumstances: (a) children reaching school age and/or (b) husbands undergoing midlife crises which threaten their marriages. The rationale for choosing a Christian versus secular counselor is discussed, along with ways to adapt conventional secular counseling strategies and tools to accommodate evangelical values. Suggestions for motivating clients biblically are offered Problems addressed include phases of counseling, guilt issues, family concerns, and financial considerations. A decision-making model that emphasizes the centrality of values and a “change agent” approach to barriers is advocated.
This article presents evidence that girls are not receiving an equal education and describes a program model which offers solutions for counselors and teachers to adopt.
Interest in the roles of environmental supports and barriers in career and educational development has increased steadily over the past few decades, enough to warrant a meta-analysis of this vast and still growing literature. The current study presents the results of a meta-analytic investigation, employing 276 samples drawn from 249 published articles (N = 104,440), on the relationships of supports and barriers to nine different career and educational outcomes. Employing a random effects meta-analytic model and sampling and measurement error-corrected effect size estimates, the study found that supports tended to account for more variance (M = 10%) across all outcomes than did barriers (M = 3%). Several moderators were also found, suggesting that (a) men’s self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectations are more strongly related to supports than women’s, (b) Latino(a) students’ levels of school engagement and performance are more weakly related to supports than White students, and (c) supports (and perhaps barriers) seem to be more highly related to elementary school students’ levels school engagement than high school students. The implications of the results are discussed as well as potential avenues for future investigation suggested by some gaps in the literature uncovered in this meta-analysis.
Mainstream vocational theory was characterized, during some decades, by a focus on middle-class white men and individual characteristics and was guided by positivist assumptions. At the same time, career counseling was mainly focused on intrapsychic issues and individual change. Globalization and the post-modern movement, with their criticism to science, have considerably shaped changes to those previous conceptualizations. Focusing mainly on gender issues and feminism, the objective of this article was, by analyzing the more or less recent past of vocational psychology and highlighting the asymmetry that still exist in Portugal and Brazil, to draw some possible future paths, at the theoretical, research and practical levels, as based on critical psychology and feminism.
The articles by M. Lucas (1997), B. S. Richie et al. (1997), R. S. McCracken and L. M. Weitzman (1997), L.M. Rainey and L.D. Borders (1997), and K.G. Schaefers, D. L. Epperson, and M. M. Nauta (1997) in the Special Section on Women's Career Development are considered within the context of prospects and problems in the empirical and theoretical literature. Promising trends include an increasing convergence on core themes such as gender role attitudes, relational and family issues, multiple role dilemmas, cultural influences, and the effects of support and barriers on women's career development. Methodological and theoretical issues are also examined and discussed. Primary among the concluding recommendations are the need for comparative model testing and the integration of important new constructs into existing conceptual models.
Utility of gender, traditionality of choice, and gender role identification as moderators of the interest–field congruence and ability-level realism of major and occupational preferences in college students were examined. Measures of vocational interests, academic abilities, and gender role orientation, as well as a statement of college major choice and occupational plans, were obtained in a sample of 592 undergraduates. Results indicated that, contrary to L. K. Wolfe and N. E. Betz's (1981) study, traditionality of choice and gender role were unrelated to interest–field congruence. However, among both men and women, those having masculine-typed and androgynous personality characteristics were most likely to be using their abilities in their choices, whereas feminine-typed persons and those who preferred female-dominated occupations were least likely to be doing so.
Neste artigo abordam-se alguns aspectos e conceitos mais importantes no estudo do desenvolvimento da carreira em mulheres, com especial incidência nas que trabalham. Os principais modelos teóricos que se têm debruçado sobre o tema são também analisados, e referidos os contributos mais relevantes para uma melhor compreensão dos problemas de carreira no actual quadro da investigação. Finalmente, tecem-se algumas considerações sobre as possibilidades de intervenção e sobre as implicações no aconselhamento da carreira.
Os percursos vivenciais dos indivíduos pautam-se por acontecimentos de vida que, podendo ser perspectivados como situações de crise ou situações de stresse, envolvem a exigência de reestruturações aos níveis pessoal e relacional, e, portanto, comportam uma transição de vida.Assim, os acontecimentos de vida constituem-se como marcos que pontuam o desenvolvimento pessoal (Campos, 1993). De acordo com Schlossberg (1981), os acontecimentos de vida poderão ser normativos - quando apresentam um elevado nível de previsibilidade associada à idade cronológica ou ao momento histórico (ex., casar)- , não normativos -, quando são pouco prováveis (ex., acidentes) - ou camuflados - acontecimentos idiossincráticos, mais íntimos e difíceis de partilhar (ex., frustrações). De qualquer forma, os acontecimentos de vida podem ser perspectivados como “transições desenvolvimentais porque exigem uma mudança nos pressupostos sobre si próprio
e sobre o mundo e requerem deste modo uma correspondente mudança no próprio comportamento e relação” (Campos, 1993, p.7).
Possible selves is a future-oriented, personalized, affect-laden, motivating form of self-knowledge, which provides a link between one's self-concept and incentives for future behavior, an interpretive framework for an individual's current views of self, and a way to link present behaviors with future outcomes. This article explores the usefulness of thinking about one's occupational future in the context of possible selves. Beneficial aspects of doing so include a personalization of career-related choices including their affective components, incentives to be planful, and an explicit focus on the future. Ideas are presented for applying possible selves to a career-counseling focus for racial/ethnic minorities and women. Cautions related to the construct and directions for research are explored.
The purpose of this study was to test common assumptions about the effects of counselors' gender and gender-role orientation on clients' career choice traditionality. A sample of 240 career counseling clients (120 women and 120 men) were counseled by a male or female counselor, who were further classified as possessing a masculine, feminine, or androgynous gender-role orientation as determined by the Bem Sex-Role Inventory. The clients' career choice traditionality was measured on three occasions: during the counseling sessions, at the conclusion of counseling, and with respect to clients' actual career choices 6 months after completion of the counseling process. Results showed that counselor gender and gender-role orientation had no effects on any of the three measures of client career choice traditionality. Client gender emerged as the only significant determinant of client career choice traditionality. We discuss the implications of these findings for counseling research and practice.
This chapter has a how-to emphasis. Examples of how therapists might help adults with work and study problems are the material of this chapter. Readers wishing traditional literature reviews of this area should consult the references noted next. Useful review and discussion articles include the following: Allen (1980); Cianni-Surridge and Horan (1983); Dahlstrom (1983); Dayton (1981); Fitzgerald and Crites (1980); Fretz (1981); Fretz and Leong (1982); Holland, Magoon, and Spokane (1981); Kirschenbaum and Perri (1982); Krumboltz, Scherba, Hamel, and Mitchell (1982); Richards (1981); and Tryon (1980).
The last 50 years have produced multiple changes in our understanding of the place of paid and unpaid work in women’s lives. A growing theoretical, research and practical literature attests to the attention being directed to the broader understanding of women’s working lives.
A relational cultural paradigm for vocational psychology has been introduced as a novel paradigm that emphasises the cultural shaping of meaning-making through relationships as central to the understanding of work in people’s lives (Schultheiss, 2007).
Gender differences in achievement have been the focus of many studies across different domains (e.g., Halpern, 2000; Willingham & Cole, 1997). Mathematics especially has received much attention due to its fundamental importance in modern society, its observed performance gap in favor of males on many academic tasks, and its minority of female experts in related fields (Halpern, 2000). Other chapters in this book provide a discussion of possible reasons for these gender differences in mathematics (e.g., critical thinking, biopsychosocial reasons, spatial ability, talent, personality). The focus of this chapter is on the role of self-regulation. In a general sense, self-regulation is any effort to alter or sustain one's own pattern of behavior (Baumeister, Heatherton, & Tice, 1994). Within the academic context, however, self-regulated learning has been characterized by motivational, cognitive, and metacognitive strategies that specifically facilitate academic achievement (Bandura, 1993; McCombs, 1984). We explore mediating roles of students' trait and state self-regulation in academic tasks and of students' test anxiety to further our understanding of the gender gap in students' mathematics achievement. Traits are considered relatively enduring predispositions or characteristics of people (e.g., intelligence, aptitude, or self-regulation), whereas states are attributes of individuals that are relatively changeable, thus representing dimensions of intraindividual variability over time or occasions (Spielberger, 1975). The distinction is important because individuals' traits are highly predictive of their state characteristics, although manifestations of state characteristics are highly dependent on the environment and circumstances of the specific instance.
This study is targeted at high school girls explore career barriers to validate the effectiveness of group counseling. Recognize and overcome barriers to careers in the process of setting and achieving career goals for the academic focus and the will to help school adjustment. Career barriers is composed of 7 sub-factors. There are lack of self-apprehension, lack of self-confidence, sex-role conflict and sex discrimination, disapproval by significant others, uncertainty about future, lack of career-related information and lack of financial support. The subjects participated voluntarily 32 girl`s high school students were conducted. The study conducted by career barriers for group counseling program students than the control group students relaxed awareness of career barriers respectively. Considering these results, it can be said that the carriers barriers exploration program has an effect on decrease the whole career barriers and four subordinate areas of the girl`s high school students.
Women in the traditionally masculine field of mathematics must contend with stereotypes that allege a sex-based math inability. The threat of being personally reduced to these gender stereotypes can evoke a disruptive state that undermines women's math performance – a situational predicament termed “stereotype threat.” Women are susceptible to stereotype threat whenever they risk fulfilling, or being judged by, a negative gender stereotype that provides a plausible explanation for their behavior in a given domain. This chapter examines the insidious effects that stereotype threat can have on women's performance and aspirations in all quantitative fields. Picture in your mind the typical computer scientist. Now picture the typical librarian. Is the librarian shy and the computer scientist socially awkward? Do they both wear glasses? Are they both inept at sports? Is the computer scientist a male and the librarian a female? Most people can clearly articulate the content of stereotypes targeted at various groups in our society, and gender stereotypes are no exception. As Brown and Josephs (1999) suggest, stereotypes regarding gender differences in math and science ability still pervade contemporary Western thought. In fact, if you assumed that the direction of those gender differences benefited men, you have just displayed personal knowledge of some of the negative stereotypes targeted at women in our culture. This is not meant to imply that you personally endorse those stereotypes – research has shown no relationship between personal beliefs and knowledge of stereotypes (Devine, 1989; Devine & Elliot, 1995).
El propósito de este trabajo consistió en vincular el proceso de toma de decisiones, en relación con los estudios universitarios, a dos variables que entendemos significativas por su contribución explicativa de las diferentes elecciones que realizan las alumnas y los alumnos cuando se plantean la entrada en la educación superior. Se trata del género y de los valores incorporados o asociados a la trayectoria vital de cada individuo.
En la primera parte, nos ocupamos de ofrecer unas notas sobre el desarrollo de la orientación vocacional, la posible diferenciación electiva en función del género y la influencia de esta variable en el sistema de valores individuales. Y en la segunda, realizamos un estudio empírico con una muestra de universitarios. Se aplicó el cuestionario de valores de Rockeach. Los resultados arrojan una apreciable similitud en cuanto a los valores instrumentales y finales que señalan hombres y mujeres de las distintas carreras universitarias . Asimismo, el orden de importancia concedido a ambas escalas de valores apenas difiere en función del género, si bien se han descubierto diferencias estadísticamente significativas entre alumnas y alumnos para determinados valores instrumentales y finales.
Script theory has been used to understand shared social norms for behavior in specific situations [1], and more broadly, to analyze individual life patterns by looking at highly personalized life scripts [2]. This article applies a methodology derived from script theory in an attempt to better understand life choices of women. Individual women's perceptions of daily life scripts for a successful woman lawyer, a secretary, and a full time homemaker are used as data for predicting these women's own career aspirations. Predicted relationships were strongest for the lawyer scenario data.
In considering the role of values in counseling, a series of propositions is presented concerning their derivation, their determination, and their relation to the task of counseling. The teaching, and the promotion of given values are included. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)