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Instruction Begins in the Home: Relations Between Parental Instruction and Children’s Self-Regulation in the Classroom
Abstract
The study examined the effectiveness of 3 aspects of parental instruction for predicting children's self-regulation in school. Fathers, mothers, and their children (52 families) were visited in their homes the summer before the child entered 3rd grade. Metacognitive content (task and strategy information), manner of instruction (small steps at an appropriate pace), and emotional support were coded from parents' instructions to their children for a problem-solving task. Children's self-regulatory behaviors in the classroom were assessed the following school year. Two patterns of relations were observed. Manner of instruction predicted children's attention to instructions and help-seeking in the classroom. Metacognitive content of instructions did not predict these aspects of self-regulation. In contrast, metacognitive content of instructions presented in an understandable manner with emotional support predicted children's monitoring and metacognitive talk. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... Research on parental scaffolding behaviors suggests that the way parents provide cognitive support during problem solving is likely to create cognitive problem-solving models applied by children (Rogoff, Mistry, Goncu, & Mosier, 1993). Indeed, the kind of cognitive support provided by mothers during problem solving is positively related to children's attention skills, conceptual knowledge, academic ability, executive function and methods of working or seeking assistance (Englund, Luckner, Whaley, & Egeland, 2004;Hammond, Müller, Carpendale, Bibok, & Liebermann-Finestone, 2012;Pianta, Nimetz, & Benett, 1997;Stright, Neitzel, Sears, & Hoke-Sinex, 2001). In the same line, children whose parents give appropriate instructions in small steps, concerning the information and the details, as well as metacognitive information, have better spatial and arithmetic skills and are more likely to monitor the process of their learning and mention their way of thinking (Casey, Dearing, Dulaney, Heyman, & Springer, 2014;Mattanah, Pratt, Cowan, & Cowan, 2005;Stright et al., 2001). ...
... Indeed, the kind of cognitive support provided by mothers during problem solving is positively related to children's attention skills, conceptual knowledge, academic ability, executive function and methods of working or seeking assistance (Englund, Luckner, Whaley, & Egeland, 2004;Hammond, Müller, Carpendale, Bibok, & Liebermann-Finestone, 2012;Pianta, Nimetz, & Benett, 1997;Stright, Neitzel, Sears, & Hoke-Sinex, 2001). In the same line, children whose parents give appropriate instructions in small steps, concerning the information and the details, as well as metacognitive information, have better spatial and arithmetic skills and are more likely to monitor the process of their learning and mention their way of thinking (Casey, Dearing, Dulaney, Heyman, & Springer, 2014;Mattanah, Pratt, Cowan, & Cowan, 2005;Stright et al., 2001). Moreover, Stright et al. (2009) found that the cognitive support provided by mothers positively predicted cognitive and metacognitive aspects of children's self-regulatory behaviors in kindergarten. ...
... These authors showed that mothers' emotional and autonomy support were linked to aspects of children's emotional and motivational self-regulation. Evidence from other studies indicates that parental emotional support and motivational climate during joint problem solving (e.g., encouragement, positive attitude, praise, sensitivity) were related to the presence of metacognitive speech in children in the third grade, to children's cognitive outcomes, academic skills, delay of gratification, executive function and social skills (Bernier, Carlson, & Whipple, 2010;Leerkes, Blankson, O'Brien, Calkins, & Marcovitch, 2011;Martin & McLellan, 2008;Razza & Raymond, 2013;Stright et al., 2001). ...
The aim of the present study was to adapt a measure of maternal scaffolding of children’s learning and to examine its relationships with children’s self-regulated learning (SRL) skills and cognitive performance in different cognitive domains, such as visual-spatial and language tasks. Thirty-five pairs of mothers-preschool children participated in joint problem solving. Maternal supportive behaviors were examined by means of a structured observation form tapping mothers’ Cognitive and Metacognitive Support, Emotional-Motivational Support, and Autonomy Support. The children’s actual SRL skills and cognitive performance in the two different cognitive domains were also assessed. The maternal scaffolding instrument’s inter-rater reliability was confirmed. A developing and dynamic network of relations emerged between maternal scaffolding behaviors, children’s SRL skills and cognitive performance; the cognitive domain of the tasks differentiated these relations. Maternal promotion of children’s autonomy was positively associated with children’s actual use of cognitive strategies, and with their planning and monitoring skills in both cognitive domains. The implications of the findings for promoting children’s SRL in different cognitive domains are discussed.
... As Vygotsky (1978) suggested, children's learning can be viewed as a process of moving from other-regulation to self-regulation. Neitzel and Stright (Neitzel & Stright, 2003;Stright, Neitzel, Sears, & Hoke-Sinex, 2001) examined the influences of two indicators of maternal cognitive support, the provision of metacognitive information and manner of instruction, on children's SRL in classroom activities. The results of both studies demonstrated that mothers' manner of instruction moderated the relationships between parents' provision of metacognitive information and children's SRL behaviours in the classroom such as metacognitive talk, task persistence, and self-monitoring. ...
... While parental cognitive support contributes more to children's cognitive and metacognitive behaviours, emotional support has been found to be related more strongly to children's motivational and emotional regulatory process, particularly children's persistence on the task, motivation to continue the task and emotional responses to the task (Pino-Pasternak et al., 2010). Without appropriate and timely emotional support from parents, children may lack motivation to learn cognitive strategies or to practice newly acquired knowledge when solving problems independently (Stright et al., 2001). ...
... In contrast to this result, early Western studies have established a connection between parental emotional support and different aspects of children's self-regulatory behaviours. For example, parents' emotional support contributes to children's metacognitive talk and monitoring in the classroom (Stright et al., 2001) and children's task persistence (Salonen et al., 2007). In the present study, a low variability in the parental emotional support measure may have resulted in the absence of its influence on children's SRL outcomes. ...
The current study aimed to examine the relationships between dimensions of parental scaffolding and children's self-regulated learning (SRL). One hundred and thirty Chinese kindergarten children participated in a range of problem-solving tasks with their parents and independently. Parent-child interactions and child-alone behaviours were video-recorded for an in-depth observational analysis. Parental cognitive support, emotional support, and contingency were coded in parent-child interactions. Children's cognitive, metacognitive, and motivational strategic behaviours and task performance were coded and assessed within the context of child-alone tasks. Results showed that contingency was particularly important for children's SRL. Parental contingency was the only independent predictor of children's SRL among the three aspects of parental scaffolding and mediated the effect of parent education levels on children's SRL.
... As Vygotsky (1978) suggested, children's learning can be viewed as a process of moving from other-regulation to self-regulation. Neitzel and Stright (Neitzel & Stright, 2003;Stright, Neitzel, Sears, & Hoke-Sinex, 2001) examined the influences of two indicators of maternal cognitive support, the provision of metacognitive information and manner of instruction, on children's SRL in classroom activities. The results of both studies demonstrated that mothers' manner of instruction moderated the relationships between parents' provision of metacognitive information and children's SRL behaviours in the classroom such as metacognitive talk, task persistence, and self-monitoring. ...
... While parental cognitive support contributes more to children's cognitive and metacognitive behaviours, emotional support has been found to be related more strongly to children's motivational and emotional regulatory process, particularly children's persistence on the task, motivation to continue the task and emotional responses to the task (Pino-Pasternak et al., 2010). Without appropriate and timely emotional support from parents, children may lack motivation to learn cognitive strategies or to practice newly acquired knowledge when solving problems independently (Stright et al., 2001). ...
... In contrast to this result, early Western studies have established a connection between parental emotional support and different aspects of children's self-regulatory behaviours. For example, parents' emotional support contributes to children's metacognitive talk and monitoring in the classroom (Stright et al., 2001) and children's task persistence (Salonen et al., 2007). In the present study, a low variability in the parental emotional support measure may have resulted in the absence of its influence on children's SRL outcomes. ...
The current study aimed to examine the relationships between dimensions of parental scaffolding and children's self-regulated learning (SRL). One hundred and thirty Chinese kindergarten children participated in a range of problem-solving tasks with their parents and independently. Parent-child interactions and child-alone behaviours were video-recorded for an in-depth observational analysis. Parental cognitive support, emotional support, and contingency were coded in parent-child interactions. Children's cognitive, metacognitive, and motivational strategic behaviours and task performance were coded and assessed within the context of child-alone tasks. Results showed that contingency was particularly important for children's SRL. Parental contingency was the only independent predictor of children's SRL among the three aspects of parental scaffolding and mediated the effect of parent education levels on children's SRL.
... Self-regulation has been defined in several and different directions that differ from one study to another and from one area of knowledge to another based on the researchers background and perspective and has emerged not only as a multidisciplinary, but also as an interdisciplinary research (Agina, 2008). In philosophy the definition was based on self-control (e.g., Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000), in psychology the definition was based on self-management (e.g., Stright, et al., 2001), in cognitive science the definition was based on self-generated (e.g., Zimmerman & Schunk, 1989) and in motivational learning the definition was based on self-motivation (e.g., Boekaerts, 1999). ...
... Recently, Agina (2008) clarified, with more details, why naming one definition and stated one model of SRL is complex as each definition of self-regulation in each area of knowledge has been introduced based on the researcher's background and perspective. In philosophy the definition was based on self-control (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000), in psychology the definition was based on self-management (Stright, et al., 2001), in cognitive science the definition was based on self-generated (Zimmerman & Schunk, 1989) and in motivational learning the definition was based on self-motivation (Boekaerts, 1999). The same of this remarkable perceptive can be applied on all the models of self-regulation. ...
... However, each definition and model of selfregulation in each area of knowledge was defined and introduced based on the researchers' theoretical background, perspective, and the need of their studies and they may also assume their definitions and models in advance or concluded them based on the results of their studies (Agina, 2008). In philosophy, for instance, the definition was based on self-control (e.g., Shonkoff, et al., 2000), in psychology the definition was based on self-management (e.g., Stright, et al., 2001), in cognitive science the definition was based on selfgenerated (e.g., Zimmerman & Schunk, 1989), in motivational learning the definition was based on self-motivation (e.g., Boekaerts, 1999), and recently in computer-gaming and self-regulation the definition was based on self-control (e.g., Agina & Kommers, 2008). ...
... [14] With regard to emotional regulation refers to the regulation of emotional processes to compare performance [15] and at the same time is a learned behavior which must be imprinted in person from of childhood, parents can by providing nonformal educational environment cause (strengthen the control of excitement) and interest of children to solve problems (conflict-causing) through ability to evaluate, monitor and targeted. [16] This can be effective in couples during interpersonal problems. Also concluded that interactions and parents' education plays an important role in predicting children's emotional self-regulated learning. ...
... Also concluded that interactions and parents' education plays an important role in predicting children's emotional self-regulated learning. This, in turn, is associated with the use of emotional self-regulation behavior [16] and can help a person to use the best strategy to solve interpersonal conflicts especially couples. ...
AIM: This study aimed to predict the share of emotional adjustment and its components in marital satisfaction.
METHODS: In this study, were randomly selected 100 couples (200 persons) of the couples Kashan and answered to emotion regulation questionnaire of Graz and Enrich marital satisfaction questionnaire. Given that the study was descriptive to test the hypotheses were used the Pearson correlation coefficient and multiple regression.
RESULTS: The results showed that emotion regulation factors other than a lack of emotional awareness have a significant negative relationship with marital satisfaction (P > 0.01) and impulse control problems, lack of emotional awareness, and lack of emotional clarity nice to be able to predict marital satisfaction (P > 0.05).
CONCLUSION: Regarding the relationship of emotional regulation and its components with marital satisfaction, organizations, and family therapy clinics can take advantage of this variable in improving marital satisfaction and contribute to better human relations.
... These findings are to a great extent in accordance with previous evidence. For instance, school children whose parents provide (meta-)cognitive information during problem-solving interactions, better monitor their work, detect and self-correct errors, and adjust their strategy use in school (Stright, Neitzel, Sears, & Hoke-Sinex, 2001). In addition, parents' contingent support represents a significant predictor of children's interactional and independent problem-solving success (Conner & Cross, 2003). ...
... These findings are in accordance with previous studies. For instance, Stright et al. (2001) reported that parents' provision of metacognitive information did not effectively predict children's self-regulatory behaviors in school unless parents reduced the cognitive demands of the task for their children by breaking down the task and presenting information in small steps, reviewing the steps, and discussing progress in relation to the overall task goal. ...
The study examines (a) whether gestational age relates to parental scaffolding (SCA), when controlling for child cognitive development, parenting stress, and socioeconomic status, and (b) how SCA links to parent–child problem-solving performance. The sample included 142 parents with a full-term or preterm 2-year-old toddler (corrected age). Parents’ SCA during one of two (randomly assigned) problem-solving tasks was rated on five scales (use of SCA means, cognitive support, metacognitive support, transfer or responsibility, contingency management). The results suggest that gestational age is positively related to parents’ transfer of responsibility and metacognitive support. The effects decrease, however, once covariates are controlled for. Regarding the problem-solving performance, direct effects were observed from parents’ cognitive and metacognitive support, transfer of responsibility, and contingency management. The data also confirm an indirect effect of parents’ use of SCA means on the problem-solving performance, partially mediated via parents’ cognitive support. Implications for the design of interventions are discussed.
... The extent to which children attempt to act autonomously and thoughtfully in the face of problems and challenges is closely related to their caregiving interactions with adults in the early years (Belsky et al., 2008;Neitzel & Stright, 2003;Ryan et al., 2006;Stright et al., 2001;Warner, Lensing, et al., 2017;Zhang & Whitebread, 2017). Among these caregiving interactions, parental scaffolding plays an important role in the development of children's initiative, which is considered to be the foundational form of self-regulation and self-reliance (Belsky et al., 2008;Bradley et al., 2015;Ryan et al., 2006;Zhang & Whitebread, 2017). ...
... However, in the game activity, fathers may look forward to acting as a playmate who seems to have no expectations as to the academic outcome. These findings enrich prior studies (e.g., Belsky et al., 2008;Stright et al., 2001;Sun & Tang, 2017) from the perspective of activity contexts to explore the relationship between the provision of parental cognitive strategies and children's motivational performance in problem-solving. Different from mothers, fathers' support for autonomy was found to significantly predict children's initiative-taking behaviors in the worksheet and game activities. ...
Research Findings: This study examined the characteristics of mothers’ and fathers’ scaffoldings that facilitate Chinese children’s initiative-taking in different types of problem-solving activities. A sample of 96 Chinese children together with their mothers and fathers participated in this study. All children completed a worksheet, a game, and an application activity with their mothers and fathers separately. The process of parent–child interactions was videotaped. For each parent–child dyadic activity, the parent’s scaffolding behaviors were coded in terms of cognitive, emotional, and autonomy support. Occurrences of children’s self-starting, metacognition, and persistence behaviors were considered instances of the children’s initiative. Results indicated that children exhibited more initiative in the game and application activities than in the worksheet activity. More initiative was also observed among children in father–child interactions than in mother–child interactions. Only mothers’ emotional support positively predicted children’s initiative in the mother–child application activity. Notably, fathers’ cognitive and autonomy support in worksheet activity, autonomy support in game activity and cognitive support in application activity significantly predicted children’s initiative in corresponding activities. Practice or Policy: This study enriches the evidence on the important roles that mothers and fathers play in child initiative-taking and has the potential to promote programs for improving quality parenting.
... Importantly, at both educational and controlled laboratory settings the researchers [54][55][56][57][58], up to date, are still continuing to support their participants with explicit instructions be-fore/during/after learning tasks to regulate themselves and prompt them to talk/act when they are silent for long periods. This external intervention was typically in the form of prior training on how to use the material, en-couragement through the external regulators to keep talking during the performance, or a questionnaire after the session. ...
... The first branch of the studies followed the Vygotskyian's view that self-regulation is behavioral, appears after and as a result of regulation by others in a specific task and promoted by external regulators. This is also applied in the studies of HMI [54][55][56][57][58]. The second branch of research on children's devel-opment followed the Piagetian's view that self-regulation is psychological and promoted by giving children ex-tensive opportunities to make choices and decisions. ...
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Aim and Background: Studies have shown that emotion-oriented therapy affects many psychological variables; therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of emotion-oriented approach on self-control and mother-daughter conflicts in high school girls in Isfahan.
Methods and Materials: The research method was semi-experimental and applied. The research design was pre-test, post-test, follow-up, and experimental and control groups. The statistical population of the study consisted of all girls in the first year of high school in Isfahan and their mothers in 1398. Due to the fact that the research type was semi-experimental and the intervention was performed, 30 people (control and experimental groups) were selected as the sample size based on entry and exit criteria. The research instruments consisted of the Roseenbam Self-Control Questionnaire (1980) and the Murray E-Conflict Tactics Questionnaire (1990). In the present study, a Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was used to study the natural distribution of data. A variable and multivariate analysis of covariance test was used to examine the data.
Findings: The results showed that due to the difference between self-control and conflict averages, scores from pre-test to post-test self-control increased and decreased in conflict (p
... Flexible environmental structure in the family: Since the family is the first founder of personality in the child (Mei-Ju, Chen-Hsin, and Pin-Chen, 2014), behavioral disorders occur in families with unhealthy structures (Ahadi, Hejazi, and Foumani, 2014;Yaacob and Su, 2010). Stright, Neitzel, Sears, & Hoke-Sinex (2001);McCabe, Yeh, Lou, Argote, and Liang (2010) ;Maher, Marcynyszyn, Corwin, and Hodnett (2011) argue that providing an informal learning environment in the family stimulates the child's interest in problem-solving, acquiring skills, and purposeful behavior, and it is a commitment to children's happiness and well-being. Positive communication model in the family: Interactions are the first base of cognition in individuals (Issa Nejad, Ghasemi and Khandan, 2017); children in positive interactions with parents and in the family environment, can learn and practice new social and cognitive skills to help them connect with others (Myers and Pianta, 2008;Zhang, 2011;Romanowicz, 2019). ...
Background: The parent-child interaction is one of the determining factor in the cognitive, social, emotional and behavioral child's development in the early years of life. However, what are the components of effective parent-child interactions model of preschool's age?
Aims: The purpose of this study is to developing a model of effective parent-child interaction for preschool children.
Methods: The present study was under qualitative research strategy based on thematic analysis method. The study's population included all resources related to parent-child interactions that was selected by purposive sampling method that after removing the inessential items, 115 sources were examined Initial data were extracted from them. Initial data were extracted from them. Data were analyzed based on Braun & Clarke (2006) thematic analysis method and they were coded in term of parent-child interaction components.
Results: Since the primary data were rewrited and 89 basic themes were located in the first stage of coding. In the second stage 21 themes were identified. In the third stage, 8 global themes were abstracted, and thematic network was formed. Finally, the validity and reliability of model was performed using the interpretive credibility method. Therefore, the results were confirmed by expert's feedback.
Conclusion: The model of effective parent-child interaction of preschool children, has sufficient credibility. Thus, more researchers' attention to the issue of preschools' parent-child interaction, will help to develop new educational programs. It can also be a index for professionals to make parents aware the importance of parent-child interactions. Therefore, it is suggested that this model be used in the development of educational protocols based on parent-child relationships.
... Another unique part of our study was that conversations were structured around the three phase, cyclical process of self-regulated learning. Parental scaffolding may play an important role in the development of self-regulated learning for young children (Martinez-Pons, 2002;Stright, Neitzel, Sears & Hoke-Sinex, 2001; for a review, see Pino-Pasternak & Whitebread, 2010). For example, parents' metacognitive talk while problem solving with their child is related to elements of the child's later emerging self-regulated learning (e.g., self-monitoring; Neitzel & Stright, 2003). ...
Digital games are a part of children’s everyday life. Parental guidance may influence what children learn from digital games, but children also often play digital games alone. There is a need to study learning from digital games in the presence and absence of parental guidance. We compared exploration and learning to play the video game Rock Band 3 over 10 weeks at home in parent-guided (n = 25) and self-directed (n = 25) groups, relative to a control group (n = 27). We recorded the electroencephalogram (EEG) at rest to add to our understanding of the neurophysiological mechanisms involved in adapting to these learning experiences. Children in the parent-guided group explored the learning space more than children in the self-directed group, and children in the parent-guided group showed a greater capacity to learn to play a new song relative to the control group. However, improvement in performance was comparable for children in the parent-guided and self-directed groups. Learning to play the game induced change in the brain for both the parent-guided and self-directed groups. However, children in the parent-guided group showed lower EEG power relative to pre-study levels, and children in the self-directed group showed higher EEG power relative to pre-study levels. Findings shed new light on the neurophysiological mechanisms involved in adapting to learning experiences and inform our understanding of learning from digital games with and without parental guidance.
... According to the Model, the parenting educational influences are based on parenting goals and values (school performance, educational evaluation) that influence school achievement through parenting style and actions. Parenting actions such as supervising and helping with homework, as well as monitoring of the school progress, directly affect school achievement (Stright et al., 2001). Parenting styles affect school achievement indirectly, as a moderator of the relationship between parenting practices and school achievement. ...
The aim of the study was to examine the characteristics and predictive role of parenting styles in students' involvement in the educational process, primarily cognitive, emotional and social. Parenting styles were classified into three main groups: desirable, undesirable, and divergent. The study involved students in the final grades of primary school (N=269 students), with an average age, of 13.08 years and their parents (N=269). Data were collected by the Parent Response Questionnaire and the Students' Emotional, Social and Cognitive Involvement Questionnaire. Parenting styles have been shown to be significant predictors of students' involvement in the educational process, with most of the variance explaining forms of desirable parenting style, with an emphasis on the form of congruent style. On the other hand, forms of undesirable and divergent style have the potential to provoke low levels of student involvement, in the cognitive, social and emotional dimensions. The results indicate the importance of parenting styles in predicting students' involvement in the educational process, which would be the initial step to develop and improve children's competencies.
... Moreover, parental emotional support has been found to foster students' selfmonitoring and metacognitive talk in the classroom (Stright et al. 2001). In addition, maternal emotional support and transfer of responsibility were related to children's behavior control in school (Neitzel and Stright 2003) while maternal sensitivity was related to children's self-control skills, such as delay of gratification (Razza and Raymond 2013). ...
Recent research offers new insights on the role of parents and teachers in the development of children’s self-regulated learning (SRL) skills. Parental behaviors that support children’s early learning efforts, such as parental contingent support and autonomy encouragement, are associated with the development of children’s SRL skills. When children enter school, teachers are expected to foster students’ learning and SRL skills, but this is often not the case. Teacher professional development programs aiming at promoting teacher self-regulation of their own learning and teaching as well as student SRL show promising results but also highlight the constraints of transferring such knowledge in teaching practices in the classroom. The implications of research findings for the cultivation of student SRL by parents and teachers are discussed from the point of view of theoretical and methodological shifts needed.
... Current research increasingly focuses on the social interactions of the request for assistance (Karabenick and Newman 2009). A student's ability to solicit an expert thus depends largely on his or her parental socialization (Newman 2000;Stright et al. 2001;Calarco 2011), which is a predictor of the request for assistance. In addition, teachers themselves, the relationship they have with their students and the classroom climate they build are likely to facilitate or hinder these interactions. ...
... These findings are also in accordance with previous studies. For instance, Stright, Neitzel, Sears, and Hoke-Sinex (2001) reported that parents' provision of metacognitive information did not effectively predict children's selfregulatory behaviours in school unless parents reduced the cognitive demands of the task for their children by breaking down the task and presenting information in small steps, reviewing the steps, and discussing progress in relation to the overall task goal. ...
Self-regulation is one of the hallmarks in early childhood and develops in direct social interaction between the child and the caregiver (Kopp, 1982). Toddlerhood demarcates the beginning of a period of rapid growth in child self-regulation (Garon, Bryson, & Smith, 2008). This dissertation focuses on the parent factor in toddlers’ self-regulation and addresses three major questions. First, how do parents’ co-regulation behaviour and self-efficacy beliefs relate to toddlers’ self-regulation and problem-solving performance? Second, which factors may affect parents’ co-regulation behaviour in toddlerhood? And third, how may parental co-regulation behaviours and associated beliefs be promoted at an early stage? To address these questions, a quasi-experimental intervention study has been conducted, including parents of full-term and preterm born two-year old toddlers, and has resulted in three empirical papers that are presented in this dissertation. Concerning the first question, Paper 1 provides evidence for direct (but no indirect) effects from parents’ negative co-regulation practices and domain-specific self-efficacy beliefs to toddlers’ inhibitory control (parent-report) six weeks later. Complementing these findings, the second paper analyses the contribution of parents’ cold co-regulation behaviour (scaffolding) to the parent-child problem-solving performance. Different levels of parental scaffolding are assessed (use of scaffolding means, scaffolding intentions, and process variables) that significantly and differentially relate to the parent-child problem-solving performance. With respect to the second question, Paper 2 also examines determinants of parental scaffolding, precisely how parent (parenting stress), child (preterm birth, cognitive development), and context factors (socioeconomic status, the type of problem-solving task) relate to parents’ scaffolding behaviour. The findings suggest that parental scaffolding differs depending on child cognitive development and the task at hand, but not child birth status, parenting stress, or family socioeconomic status. Finally, and regarding the third question, in Paper 3 evidence is provided that a training of parental co-regulation (especially the combination of scaffolding and sensitivity) may enhance parents’ beliefs about co-regulation and the promotion of learning the most, both in parents of full- and preterm born toddlers. Taken together, this dissertation complements previous research on the parent factor in the development of self-regulation in early childhood. The results underline the importance of taking into account the mental level of the caregiver, meaning self-efficacy beliefs, as well as child and context factors when analysing this interplay. The findings are discussed in light of the existing evidence and prevailing theories, and provide an outlook for further directions. The thesis also offers critical implications for the preventive work and clinical practice.
... Lingkungan fisik sekolah mempengaruhi perkembangan dan kompetensi anak dengan banyak cara (Skinner, 1984 Dukungan orang tua secara kognitif kepada anak berimplikasi besar kepada kognitif dan metakognitif anak, dukungan emosi juga berhubungan erat dengan proses regulasi emosi dan motivasi anak, khususnya ketahanan anak terhadap tugas, kemauan mengerjakan tugas dan respon emosi terhadap tugas tersebut (Skinner, 1984). Tanpa dukungan emosional yang sesuai dari orang tua, anak mungkin akan kehilangan motivasi untuk belajar strategi kognitif atau untuk menerapkan pengetahuan baru ketika menyelesaikan permasalahannya sendiri (Stright dkk, 2001). ...
Penelitian ini dilakukan untuk mengetahui seberapa besar tingkat kesiapan sekolah anak. Analisa dilakukan untuk mengetahui kebutuhan yang paling diperlukan untuk meningkatkan kualitas pendidikan prasekolah di kabupaten Kudus. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode pengambilan data kuantitatif dan kualitatif. Data kuantitatif diambil dengan menggunakan alat tes psikologi Denver II, Bender-Gestalt II, Child Development Inventory (CDI), sedangkan data kualitatif menggunakan teknik observasi dan wawancara. Subjek penelitian adalah 40 anak Taman Kanak-Kanak (TK) dengan rincian 20 anak TK A dan 20 anak TK B yang terdiri dari empat TK di Kabupaten Kudus. Pemilihan subjek dalam penelitian ini menggunakan purposive sampling. Jumlah subjek penelitian terdiri dari 160 anak. Peneliti menyimpulkan dari keseluruhan data, bahwa ada perbedaan antara sekolah yang terletak di kota dan dengan sosioekonomi yang lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan sekolah yang berada di pinggiran kota. Walaupun secara kategorisasi tidak jauh berbeda, namun secara rata-rata skor tiap anak menunjukkan perbedaan.
... While most research with children was focused on cognitive outcomes of scaffolding (e.g., Mattanah, Pratt, Cowan, & Cowan, 2005;Pratt & Savoy-Levine, 1998), some research refers as well to non-cognitive behaviours such as children's behaviour problems, attention, help seeking, work habits, conceptual knowledge, and academic competence (e.g., Stright, Neitzel, Sears, & Hoke-Sinex, 2001). Stright, Herr, and Neitzel (2009) reported a study on maternal scaffolding of children's problem-solving and children's adjustment in kindergarten in Hmong families living in the United States. ...
... Wertsch's notion of regulation transition is bolstered by statistical associations between maternal scaffolding quality and both the child's later self-regulation skills (e.g., Neitzel & Stright, 2003;Stright, Neitzel, Sears, & Hoke-Sinex, 2001), and indeed skill development within a task (Pino-Pasternak, Whitebread, & Tolmie, 2010), so it is surprising that other-regulation is rarely operationalized for tutoring research (two exceptions are Hadwin, Wozney, & Pontin, 2005;and Nader-Grosbois, Normandeau, Ricard-Cossette, & Quintal, 2008). The selfregulatory skills internalized by the child during a scaffolding interaction tend not to be examined (see Pino-Pasternak et al., 2010, for an exception), so few self-and otherregulation coding schemes exist. ...
Background:
Typical scaffolding coding schemes provide overall scores to compare across a sample. As such, insights into the scaffolding process can be obscured: the child's contribution to the learning; the particular skills being taught and learned; and the overall changes in amount of scaffolding over the course of the task.
Aims:
This study applies a transition of regulation framework to scaffolding coding, using a self-regulation and other-regulation coding scheme, to explore how rich and detailed data on mother-child dyadic interactions fit alongside collapsed sample-level scores.
Sample:
Data of 78 mother-child dyads (M age = 9 years 10 months) from the Sisters and Brothers Study (SIBS: Pike et al., 2006, Family relationships in middle childhood. National Children's Bureau/Joseph Rowntree Foundation) were used for this analysis.
Methods:
Videos of the mother and child completing a multiple-trial block design puzzle task at home were coded for their different self- and other-regulation skills at the end of every block design trial.
Results:
These constructs were examined at a sample level, providing general findings about typical patterns of self-regulation and other-regulation. Seven exemplar families at different ends of the spectrum were then extracted for fine-grained examination, showing substantial trial- and behaviour-related differences between seemingly similarly scoring families.
Conclusion:
This coding scheme demonstrated the value of exploring perspectives of a mother-child tutoring task aligned to the concept of other-regulation, and investigating detailed features of the interaction that go undetected in existing scaffolding coding schemes.
... This feeling of connection can come from many areas, including from parents, siblings, teachers, neighbors, mentors, and friends. Relatedness is essential within a learning environment, as parents and teachers who are more involved with their children's education tend to have children who show greater motivation and self-direction (Deci et al., 1991;Grolnick & Ryan, 1987;Ratelle et al., 2005;Stright, Neitzel, Sears, & Sinex, 2001;Vallerand et al., 2008). The results of this study showed no difference in the level of relatedness satisfaction between the two groups. ...
This article explores the theories of Self-Determination, Cognitive Evaluation, and Intrinsic Motivation as it applies to home education. According to Self-Determination Theory, intrinsic motivation is innate. However, the maintenance and enhancement of intrinsic motivation depends upon the social and environmental conditions surrounding the individual. Deci and Ryan’s Cognitive Evaluation Theory specifically addresses the social and environmental factors that facilitate versus undermine intrinsic motivation and points to three significant psychological needs that must be present in the individual in order to foster self-motivation. These needs are competence, autonomy, and relatedness. Because of curriculum and time constraints, intrinsic motivation may be difficult to facilitate within the traditional classroom. This loss of intrinsic motivation for learning prompts some parents to homeschool their children. One of the most impressive strengths of home education lies in the fact that in many cases, the entire process revolves around a child’s intrinsic motivation to learn.
... As children's SRL may be affected by their classroom environment, following Stright, Neitzel, Sears, and Hoke-Sinex (2001), to get an accurate picture of student behavior, each child was observed for twelve coding intervals (4x3) resulting from matches of the four core subjects (i.e., Mathematics, Portuguese language, English as Foreign language (EFL) and Science) with the three instructional contexts (i.e., while teacher is instructing the entire class; during seat work [children working alone on an assignment], and while children are working on a classroom activity without the direct supervision of the teacher). Observers were instructed not to discuss their observations with teachers. ...
The high rate of school failure among Gypsy children is on the agenda of European policies. The current study assessed the efficacy of an extra-class program, eighteen weeks long, to promote the behavioral and cognitive engagement (self-regulated learning, SRL) of Gypsy children from fourth grade. Gypsy communities were contacted, and the 35 Gypsy children in the 4th grade (10 to 12 years old) participating in the study were randomly distributed in the experimental and control groups. The program used a story-tool to organize the weekly sessions due to the cultural value of stories and the oral transmission of values in Gypsy communities. Children's behavioral engagement and self-regulatory behaviors in the classroom were assessed with an observation protocol. The 35 Gypsy children were observed throughout the duration of the program in 12 five-minute intervals for a total of 60 min. The findings show the efficacy of the program for promoting behavioral engagement and enhancing SRL strategies.
... Puustinen and Pulkkinen (2001) built on Pintrich and Zimmerman's work to describe the details of SR as a goal-oriented process. An emphasis on SR has also been noted in discussions of self-generation (Zimmerman & Schunk, 1989), self-control (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000) and self-management (Stright, Neitzel, Sears, & Hoke-Sinex, 2001). ...
The authors use the Music Flow digital game with 266 Taiwanese junior high school students to investigate the influence of digital game player self-regulation (SR) on game flow state. Game data were used to probe various aspects of Bandura's (1986) SR learning model and related effects on game flow state as described in Csikszentmihalyi's (1990) flow theory to determine if game information can be used to measure SR during different flow states. A tool for recording stage selection, hit rate, and other real time data was created to monitor and measure flow state among players immersed in interactive play. Self-reaction capabilities were measured in terms of skill- and game-level difficulty during different states. Results indicate that SR exerted a significant and positive effect on flow state. Our main conclusions are (a) flow state was continuously influenced by self-reaction over time; (b) hit rate served as an indicator of self-judgment in terms of challenge, skill and flow state; and (c) flow states in players with distinct self-reaction capabilities were influenced by play stage selection. It is our hope that the method used in this study will help researchers in their efforts to measure and/or analyze player sense of fun in game-based learning environments.
The aim of the present study was to investigate the relations between different aspects of maternal support of learning and children’s self-regulated learning (SRL) skills and task performance over time. Thirty-five mothers and their kindergarten children were examined twice during joint problem-solving, in a six months period. Children’s SRL skills and maternal support during engaging in visual-spatial and language tasks were recorded via observation. Maternal cognitive support, emotional and motivational support, autonomy support, and maternal contingency were examined. Results showed that early maternal autonomy support and maternal contingency were significantly associated with children’s developing SRL skills and task performance in the visual-spatial tasks six months later. Children’s early cognitive-metacognitive skills mediated the above relations. The theoretical, methodological and practical contribution of the study is discussed.
“Learning to be a learner” is how Tessa, a grades 6-12 teacher librarian, said she would describe the idea of self-regulated learning to her students. Teacher librarians are in a unique position within schools to truly serve as lifelong learning coaches for students, focused on process and skills instead of content. Further, their reach extends across levels in the school, touching every single student through their teaching and the development and maintenance of the library collection. This paper presents findings from a study investigating how US teacher librarians apply metacognitive strategies in their teaching. An unexpected theme emerged from the interviews as participants described lifelong learning skills they strive to impart to students. These skills included cognitive, personal, and interpersonal skills as defined by UNICEF (2003) and exemplified by the theme for the 2013 International Association of School Librarians’ Conference.
This chapter focuses on the academic and social outcomes of those who have been homeschooled. What happens to homeschoolers when they grow up? Are they able to attend college? Are they employable? Are they socially, emotionally, and psychologically healthy? Are they happy and well adjusted? Numerous researchers have studied the outcomes of those who are home educated, with very positive results. This chapter focuses on the conclusions of these studies and ends with an analysis of how research on adult homeschooled graduates must grow and change to represent the shifting data on homeschooling itself.
The concept of assistance is a subject that presents different facets depending on whether one is on the side of the student, the teacher or the educational institution. This chapter discusses the corpus of articles that reflects the state of French and English‐language literature on the concept of assistance. It examines three aspects of the concept of assistance: requests for assistance, assistance practices within regular classes, and means of providing additional assistance. Struggling students may be offered various kind of assistance within school or outside of school. In general, the aim of intervention programs is to enable pupils with difficulties to progress by increasing the intensity of the teaching they receive. The central idea of response to intervention is to propose different levels of assistance of increasing intensity, generally symbolized by a pyramid whose base represents what all students benefit from, and the top represents what a small part of them benefit from.
SYNOPSIS
Objective
. The context of play has changed dramatically over the past decade with the ubiquitous presence of mobile technologies available to children in and outside the home. Despite increasing use of interactive technological devices at home, the quality of parental interactions in these 2D digital play contexts, relative to traditional 3D play contexts, remains relatively unexplored, especially in the domain of geometry. Design . The present study examines parental support and scaffolding of 32 parent–child dyads (16 girls, 16 boys; M age = 51.16 months) engaged in interactive play during two home visits, one involving 3D physical blocks and puzzles and the other with 2D virtual blocks and puzzles presented through apps on a tablet. Parental interactions were assessed for four scaffolding qualities (i.e., affection, encouragement, responsiveness, and teaching) and two interactional styles (i.e., child-directed and parent-directed) for 10 min of each play session. Results . Overall, parents actively scaffolded children with varied positive supports in both play contexts using a predominantly child-directed interactional style. Differences were found for the quality of parental interactions across 3D and 2D play contexts. Fewer parental scaffolds involving responsiveness and teaching were provided in the 2D context. Conclusions . Effective, yet differing, supportive parental scaffolding occurs when parents engage in both traditional and virtual spatial play. Through joint play with their children, parents can support the acquisition of foundational concepts in geometry.
In their traditional role, digital assistants in technology-mediated services provide customers with information, guidance, and suggestions. However, as the opportunities offered by technology and artificial intelligence increase, digital assistants can also provide emotional support, which refers to empathetic, reassuring expressions for customers who have failed or succeeded in fulfilling a task. We show across four experiments that emotional support offered by a digital assistant increases customer satisfaction (Study 1 and 2) and persistence (Study 3 and 4) in using technology-mediated services. The increase in satisfaction occurs via the perceived warmth of the digital assistant, and the increase in persistence via the serial mediation of perceived warmth and satisfaction. Further, the results of a moderated serial mediation show that the effect on persistence only occurs when a digital (but not when a human) assistant provides emotional support in technology-mediated services. Finally, the effect of emotional support on persistence occurs independently of the digital assistant's embodiment. Practitioners learn how to imbue technology-mediated services with a human touch, inducing favorable customer outcomes.
The study aims at understanding the role of classroom management in student's regulation during the class. The Research subject involves four, ten years male and female Elementary student's. Based on the data analysis, it can he concluded that the self regulation of the students during the class consist of ability to focus, ability to find instruction, ability to monitor, ability to be involved actively in class and metacognitive talk. The classroom management consist of ability to get students involve actively, ability in managing the class distraction and ability to manage time efficiently. Key words: Self regulation, Classroom Management.
L’objectif de cette thèse était d’analyser les difficultés de wayfinding de personnes présentant une déficience intellectuelle (DI) sous l’angle de l’autorégulation et de l’hétérorégulation. Pour cela, trois études utilisant une situation d’apprentissage d’itinéraires en environnement virtuel ont été menées. La première montre que les personnes présentant une DI ont un niveau d’autorégulation globale et de certaines stratégies autorégulatrices plus faible que les personnes au développement typique de même âge chronologique. Elles acquièrent la connaissance d’itinéraires après un apprentissage plus long et sont peu nombreuses à développer une connaissance de la configuration de l’environnement. La seconde étude, portant sur 19 dyades éducateurs-jeunes présentant une DI, révèle un ajustement entre l’hétérorégulation des éducateurs et l’autorégulation des jeunes. En outre, l’analyse des aides verbales données par les éducateurs montre qu’ils utilisent principalement des prescriptions d’actions associées ou non aux points de repère. L’impact de ces deux types d’aides a été testé dans la troisième étude montrant que les prescriptions d’actions associées aux points de repère favorisent l’apprentissage d’itinéraires chez les personnes présentant une DI et chez des enfants au développement typique de même niveau de développement intellectuel. Nos résultats semblent montrer que l’autorégulation, l’hétérorégulation et le wayfinding ne sont pas des processus indépendants. Toutefois, d’autres recherches sont nécessaires pour mieux définir la nature de leur relation. Enfin, plusieurs implications pratiques sont envisagées concernant l’autorégulation, les méthodes d’apprentissage des déplacements et les aides à la navigation.
textcopyright 2015 by IGI Global. All rights reserved. Web 2.0 offers the Zeitgeist to update seminal research concerning children's Private Speech (PS) and Self-Regulation Learning (SRL) for application in social networks. Contemporary literature holds a body of research from the Vygotsky through Piaget to constructive theories that can be applied to theoretical foundations of Web 3.0 designs. Specifically, the purpose of the present chapter is to be present an index based on valuable and effective research concerning the subject matter in which a historical overview of both PS and SRL have demonstrated significant complexities and the most significant critiques that exist in the literature. The chapter does not mean to include detailed research methodology and results but, instead, to be used as an indexing review of PS and SRL for possible theoretical foundations in applications in the expanding world of social media. Finally, the conclusion provides a reflection on the future of our children's PS and SRL and what we should do next to enhance these concepts.
This study examined the relationship between aspects of maternal scaffolding and Chinese preschoolers’ self-regulation. Thirty-three children aged 3–5 (12 boys and 21 girls) and their mothers from one kindergarten in Nanning, China, participated in 2 dyadic problem-solving tasks. The children’s self-regulation was assessed using the tapping task either before or after a dyadic problem-solving session on the same day. All mother–child joint problem-solving sessions were videotaped and transcribed. Maternal scaffolding was coded in terms of cognitive assistance (elaborative/directive), emotional feedback (positive/negative), and transfer of responsibility (adult’s/child’s responsibility) in interaction turns. The results of a hierarchical regression analysis indicated that maternal elaborative cognitive assistance and positive feedback positively predicted children’s self-regulation, while neither the adult’s nor the child’s bearing of responsibility in interaction turns significantly predicted children’s self-regulation. Reasons for these results and implications for further studies and practitioners are discussed.
This study addressed questions about the relations among teacher instructional interactions, classroom environmental contexts, and students’ subsequent self-regulated learning behaviors in upper elementary school. One hundred and six 4th- and 5th-grade students from five classrooms in two schools in two communities (one urban and one rural) in the southern United States participated in the study. Each student was observed in ongoing classroom learning activities during teacher-directed and student-centered academic tasks throughout the school year. A structured observational protocol was used to record information about instruction and feedback provided to students by teachers, classroom and environmental contextual features, as well as students’ self-regulated learning behaviors. Findings revealed that teachers’ instructional information and feedback content both directly and indirectly predicted students’ self-regulation behaviors in the classroom. However, features of the classroom environment and structure influenced how the students made use of the available information and mediated the effects of classroom social interaction.
Considering the importance attached to writing as a life skill, this study investigated the nature and variability of adults' aid to Zambian second graders in the context of shared writing in Bemba (first language), and the relations between this support and students' literacy and cognitive-metalinguistic skills. Fifty-seven children and their caregivers were videotaped while writing word items in Bemba. To document the adults' literate mediation (i.e., letter-sound correspondences) and print mediation (i.e., letter formation), the adult support was coded at the letter level, and demand for precision mediation (i.e., expectation for correcting writing errors) was coded at the word level. Results revealed that the adults provided diverse but mostly low-level support for literate and print mediation dimensions. In contrast, the adults also provided high-level support for the demand for precision dimension. Overall, adult literate support uniquely explained children's word reading and writing, including orthographic awareness and alphabet sound knowledge, and print support explained children's alphabet knowledge and orthographic awareness. Furthermore, demand for precision support was also linked to students' word reading and phonological awareness. Thus, despite providing low-level writing support, adult support was associated with children's literacy and language-related skills. The results also underscore the potential importance of caregivers as literacy resources to enhance acquisition of literacy skills in an orthography and region not commonly investigated (i.e., Bemba in sub-Saharan Africa).
This study addressed questions about the function of children’s various participation and regulation strategies in different instructional contexts and at different points in time in school. The developmental trajectories of kindergartners’ academic participation and regulation strategy selection and use across the school year in teacher-directed and child-centered instructional contexts were investigated. Sixty-eight children participated in the study. To assess academic participation and regulation strategies, the children were observed in their kindergarten classrooms during teacher-led and child-directed activities on four occasions throughout the school year. At the start of kindergarten, the young children participated more frequently during teacher-directed activity than during student-centered activity; however, the children used deeper-level participation strategies and regulated more frequently in student-centered activities than in teacher-directed activities. Additionally, there were unique trajectories of change in the children’s profiles of participation and regulation strategy use over the school year, in general as well as within and across instructional contexts. The study findings also indicate that early participation and regulation strategies may differentially influence future patterns of participation and regulation.
This study of 61 elementary school children examined how maternal behavior and child engagement in a homework-like task relate to reading achievement, and whether task engagement mediates the relation between parenting and reading achievement. Maternal behaviors and task engagement were examined using videotaped observations of mother-child interaction during a homework-like task. Children participated in reading achievement testing, and schools provided reading/language arts grades. Children who displayed higher task engagement performed better on measures of reading achievement. Maternal support for autonomy predicted reading achievement, even controlling for support for relatedness and competence. In addition, support for autonomy was a significant predictor of child task engagement, controlling for the other parenting variables. Task engagement partially mediated the relation between support for autonomy and reading achievement. This research points to the importance of child engagement as a potential mechanism for academic success, and to the ability of parents to foster engagement and achievement.
The authors examined the relative stability and variability of self-regulated learning (SRL) in kindergartners across various contexts (teacher-directed activities, small-group work, and independent work). They assessed the role of temperament and context on children's use of SRL while seeking to identify if there are optimal contexts for promoting SRL in particular children. The results revealed that although temperament was not related to SRL, children's regulation strategy usage was heavily dependent on context, contradicting the idea that children are either high or low self-regulators. The relative stability of SRL varied by child, with some children showing more sensitivity to context than did others. Optimal contexts for eliciting SRL also differed by children, with some children exhibiting elevated regulation during small-group activities and others during teacher-directed activities.
This study investigated children?s interest-based activities in the home during the preschool years and their subsequent academic self-regulation behaviors in school. Children?s home activities were tracked for 1 year prior to kindergarten entry. Based on their profiles of activities, children (109) were assigned to one of four interest groups: conceptual, social, procedural, or creative. The children?s academic self-regulation behaviors were observed throughout kindergarten. Specifically, the contribution of children?s early interests to understanding their metacognitive talk and progress monitoring was analyzed, controlling statistically for the effects of gender, cognitive skill, and temperament. There were discernible patterns unique to each group in the content of their metacognitive talk and strategies for monitoring progress. The study offers an uncommonly rich description of the academic self-regulation behaviors of young children and explores the role of early childhood interests in the development of academic self-regulation.
This guide accompanies the following article:
Gascoine, L., Higgins, S. & Wall, K. The assessment of metacognition in children aged 4–16 years: a systematic review, Review of Education, DOI:10.1002/rev3.3077
This article presents the results of a systematic review of methods that have been used to measure or assess metacognition in children aged 4–16 years over a 20-year period (1992–2012). It includes an overview of the types of tool and methods used linked with the ages of the participants targeted and how metacognition and associated concepts are defined. Two thousand, seven hundred and twenty-one records were identified through systematic searching; 525 articles or reports were full text screened, resulting in 149 included studies reporting 84 distinct tools or methods. Of these 84 distinct tools or methods, four were excluded from further analysis after appraisal for reliability, validity and replicability. The final number of methods and tools for metacognitive assessment included in the analysis is 80. The key findings of this review include: Self-report measures (including questionnaires, surveys and tests) comprise 61% of the included tools; Observational methods that do not rely on prompting to ‘think aloud’ (Think Aloud Protocols) have only been used with students aged 9 years and under; Information about reliability and validity is not always given or given accurately for different tools and methods;The definition of metacognition in a particular study relates directly to its assessment and therefore its utcomes: this can be misaligned.
In their analysis of the U.K. riots of August 2011, the Riots Communities and Victims Panel (2012) emphasized the long-term impact of poor parenting. In the heat of the moment, many young people were seduced into joining in the looting and violence, but others were able to hold back. Interviews conducted in the aftermath of the riots highlighted self-control and self-discipline as key discriminators between these groups, and, as the Panel concluded, parents are best placed to instill such positive attitudes and behavior in children. Our aim in this chapter is to review research on parental influences on children's executive functions (the higher order processes, associated with the prefrontal cortex, which underpin goal-directed thought and action and adaptive responses to changes in the environment). This review will encompass both early studies on parental strategies for scaffolding planning and self-control (mostly with preschoolers, but including some research with older children) and later studies that focus on maternal depression and family chaos as predictors of poor executive function development.
This study addressed questions about the influence of children’s early childhood interests on their subsequent academic regulation and information pursuit behaviors in kindergarten. Differences in the pattern of academic behaviors employed by four groups of children who had different interest orientations were examined. Specifically, the study investigated the relative stability (or variability) of the influence of particular interest types on the children’s behavior patterns across the first year of school. Participants included 109 children who were enrolled in a longitudinal study of interest development. To assess their academic regulation strategies and information pursuits, the children were observed in their kindergarten classrooms during both teacher-led and student-directed activities on four occasions throughout the school year. The findings reflected an elaboration in children’s repertoires of regulation strategies and information pursuits across the school year in general. However, differences in the profiles of academic behavior for the four interest groups suggest that at least short term, the influence of interest is relatively pervasive, strengthening rather than waning over time. Early interaction preferences may function as important transitional and maintenance tools as children adapt and adjust to new cognitive and behavioral expectations of school.
Parents' rhetorical questions to preschoolers are ubiquitous within collaborative problem-solving, and central to Vygotskian pedagogy. This perspective privileges questions as a discourse structure, important for emergent metacognitive self-regulation. Few studies investigate effects of poverty on parents' collaborative talk, particularly frequency of questions relative to statements, or factors such as parenting-stress and children's language ability. Analyses of 25 parents' scaffolding language during a construction task revealed suppressed questioning among low-SES parents, and among only those High-SES parents reporting high parenting stress. Correlations controlling for child age and language ability revealed associations between parenting stress and less frequent questioning as a discourse style. Discussion focuses on the question of how exposure to rhetorical questions helps children internalize language as a thinking tool.
Web 2.0 offers the Zeitgeist to update seminal research concerning children's Private Speech (PS) and Self-Regulation Learning (SRL) for application in social networks. Contemporary literature holds a body of research from the Vygotsky through Piaget to constructive theories that can be applied to theoretical foundations of Web 3.0 designs. Specifically, the purpose of the present chapter is to be present an index based on valuable and effective research concerning the subject matter in which a historical overview of both PS and SRL have demonstrated significant complexities and the most significant critiques that exist in the literature. The chapter does not mean to include detailed research methodology and results but, instead, to be used as an indexing review of PS and SRL for possible theoretical foundations in applications in the expanding world of social media. Finally, the conclusion provides a reflection on the future of our children's PS and SRL and what we should do next to enhance these concepts.
This study examined teacher beliefs, knowledge, and classroom practice of self-regulated learning for ten elementary and middle school teachers. Using Zimmerman’s SRL model to frame our method and results, we administered questionnaires, observed classrooms and conducted interviews with these teachers. Teachers had positive beliefs about the role of SRL in their classroom but had some reservations about students’ ability to self-regulate at these grade levels. As revealed in interviews, teachers demonstrated gaps in knowledge in particular around goal setting for a task and evaluation after a learning event. Teachers most frequently encouraged student SRL during the monitoring phase of learning events in their classrooms. They were also able to explain most richly how to encourage student practice of metacognition in this phase. Nonetheless, just as for their own knowledge and personal practice of metacognition and SRL, gaps in teacher classroom practice emerged in the planning and evaluation stages of learning events. Cases were used to examine the alignment between teachers’ beliefs or knowledge and their classroom practice. Often the three constructs were not well aligned. Disconfirming cases were interpreted in light of other theoretical models. Our results suggest the need for continued professional development in SRL strategies and their application to practice.
A model of parental inducement of academic self-regulation was tested. One hundred and five elementary-school students were surveyed to assess their perceptions of (a) their parents' influence on their academic self-regulation and (b) their own academic self-regulatory behavior. Their standardized academic achievement scores were also recorded. Factor analysis disclosed that measures of parental modeling, encouragement, facilitation, and rewarding of the students' self-regulation loaded on a factor separate from, but related to, academic achievement; path analysis disclosed that parental self-regulation inducement significantly predicted student academic achievement through mediation of student self-regulatory behavior. The findings are interpreted in light of social cognitive theory, and recommendations are made for further study.
Forty male and female l0th-grade students from a high achievement track and 40 from other (lower) achievement tracks of a suburban high school were interviewed concerning their use of self-regulated learning strategies during class, homework, and study. Fourteen categories of self-regulation strategies were identified from student answers that dealt with six learning contexts. High achieving students displayed significantly greater use of 13 categories of self-regulated learning. The students' membership in their respective achievement group was predicted with 93% accuracy using their reports of self-regulated learning. When compared to students' gender and socioeconomic status indices in regression analyses, self-regulated learning measures proved to be the best predictor of standardized achievement test scores. The results were discussed in terms of a social learning view of self-regulated learning.
The causal role of students' self-efficacy beliefs and academic goals in self-motivated academic attainment was studied using path analysis procedures. Parental goal setting and students' self-efficacy and personal goals at the beginning of the semester served as predictors of students' final course grades in social studies. In addition, their grades in a prior course in social studies were included in the analyses. A path model of four self-motivation variables and prior grades predicted students 'final grades in social studies, R = .56. Students' beliefs in their efficacy for self-regulated learning affected their perceived self-efficacy for academic achievement, which in turn influenced the academic goals they set for themselves and their final academic achievement. Students' prior grades were predictive of their parents' grade goals for them, which in turn were linked to the grade goals students set for themselves. These findings were interpreted in terms of the social cognitive theory of academic self-motivation.
This study assessed three dimensions of parent style, autonomy support, involvement, and provision of structure in 64 mothers and 50 fathers of elementary-school children in Grades 3–6, using a structured interview. Construct validity data for the interview ratings suggested that the three parent dimensions were reliable, relatively independent, and correlated with other parent measures in hypothesized ways. Aspects of children's self-regulation and competence were measured through children's reports, teacher ratings, and objective indices. Parental autonomy support was positively related to children's self-reports of autonomous self-regulation, teacher-rated competence and adjustment, and school grades and achievement. Maternal involvement was related to achievement, teacher-rated competence, and some aspects of behavioral adjustment, but no significant relations were obtained for father involvement. The structure dimension was primarily related to children's control understanding. Results are discussed in terms of the motivational impact of the parent on school competence and adjustment and in terms of transactional models of influence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The understanding of instructions was explored within the context of cognitive load theory. Instructional material may be difficult to understand if it consists of many elements that must be held in working memory simultaneously. If the number of elements that must be processed exceeds working-memory capacity, then some elements must be combined into schemas before the material can be understood. A diagram may reduce cognitive load by providing such a schema. In a series of experiments, 3 different electrical resistor problems were given to students to complete, with instructions presented using diagrams or text. Results suggested that understanding depends on the degree of interaction among elements of information. However, if interacting elements can be incorporated into a diagrammatic schema, cognitive load will be reduced and understanding enhanced. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Prior to reading a text about computer crime and prevention, eighth graders read one of four types of operationally defined organizers: concept, analogy, outline, or dummy. While reading the text, students matched paragraphs of the text to numbered sections in the organizer, leaving a trace that was scored to reflect their actual use of the organizer while reading the text. Multiple regression analyses of multiple-choice and short answer achievement measures showed no main effects of type of organizer. However, students in true advance organizer groups (concept and analogy) who were able to use the organizers effectively, as indicated by higher trace scores, outperformed students in the outline and dummy groups. Analysis of trace scores revealed that students had difficulty connecting information in the concept and analogy organizers to the text. These findings indicate that simply presenting a genuine advance organizer does not guarantee that students will use it effectively. However, when students did use an advance organizer effectively, achievement increased slightly. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Using student interviews, teacher ratings, and achievement test outcomes, we validated a strategy model of student self-regulated learning as a theoretical construct. Forty-four male and 36 female high school students were asked to describe their use of 14 self-regulated learning strategies in six contexts, and their teachers rated these students for their self-regulated learning during class. Factor analyses of the teachers' ratings along with students' scores on a standardized test of mathematics and English revealed a single self-regulated learning factor that accounted for nearly 80% of the explained variance and two smaller factors that were labeled Student Verbal Expressiveness and Achievement. Students' reports of using self-regulated learning strategies during a structured interview correlated .70 with the obtained teachers' rating factor and were negatively related to the Student Verbal Expressiveness and Achievement factors. Our results indicate both convergent and discriminative validity for a self-regulated learning construct. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Researchers interested in academic self-regulated learning have begun to study processes that students use to initiate and direct their efforts to acquire knowledge and skill. The social cognitive conception of self-regulated learning presented here involves a triadic analysis of component processes and an assumption of reciprocal causality among personal, behavioral, and environmental triadic influences. This theoretical account also posits a central role for the construct of academic self-efficacy beliefs and three self-regulatory processes: self-observation, self-judgment, and self-reactions. Research support for this social cognitive formulation is discussed, as is its usefulness for improving student learning and academic achievement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Two studies documented and evaluated parental scaffolding of 3- and 4-year-olds' spatial communication. In Study 1, children gave directions to parents about locations of objects. Three-year-olds gave ambiguous directions more often than 4-year-olds, and parents used directive prompts more often with 3-year-olds than 4-year-olds. Study 2 compared the effectiveness of parental prompts in a controlled experiment. Each time children gave ambiguous directions, they were given either a directive prompt, nondirective prompt, or no prompt. Both age groups benefitted from directive prompts, but 3-year-olds benefitted less than 4-year-olds from nondirective prompts. Discussion focuses on parents' sensitivity to children's scaffolding needs and on developmental differences in children's responses to scaffolding. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Investigated variations in parental tutoring of children on the basis of Vygotsky's (1978) theorizing and concept of parental scaffolding of children's learning. Twenty-four couples and their 3-year-old children participated. Mothers and fathers worked separately with the child on three difficult tasks: a block construction task, a matrix classification task, and a story retelling task. Parental interventions were classified by level of support and were used to define the region of sensitivity to instruction, following the work of Wood (1980). Independent observers rated each parent separately on authoritative/uninvolved and authoritarian/permissive styles, following Baumrind's (1967, 1973) typology. Both mothers and fathers adjusted their support of the child as predicted. Later portions of the tutoring interactions demonstrated more fine tuning of interventions by parents than earlier portions. However, authoritative mothers and fathers were generally more likely than nonauthoritative parents to focus interventions in the region of sensitivity across tasks and to shift their interventions contingent on child success or failure. These patterns were also associated with more dyadic success on task as predicted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
With hierarchical linear modeling, student reports of the avoidance of help seeking were related to student and classroom characteristics. Avoidance of help seeking was related negatively to students' academic efficacy. However, avoidance of help seeking was related less strongly to students' academic efficacy in classrooms in which teachers believed they should attend to their students' social and emotional needs. Average levels of avoidance of help seeking were related to students' perceptions of the classroom goal structure: A perceived emphasis on self-improvement was related to lower levels of help avoidance, whereas a perceived emphasis on relative ability was associated with higher levels. Teacher reports of their approaches to instruction (emphasizing self-improvement or emphasizing relative ability) were unrelated to students' avoidance of help seeking. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study had 2 goals. The first was to examine a multidimensional conceptualization of parent involvement in children's schooling, defined as the allocation of resources to the child's school endeavors. A second goal was to evaluate a model in which children's motivational resources (i.e., perceived competence, control understanding, and self-regulation) are mediators between parent involvement and children's school performance. 300 11-14-year-old children and their teachers participated. Factor analyses of a set of parent involvement measures supported the hypothesized 3 dimensions of parent involvement: behavior, intellectual/cognitive, and personal. Path analyses revealed indirect effects of mother behavior and intellectual/cognitive involvement on school performance through perceived competence and control understanding, and indirect effects of father behavior on school performance through perceived competence. The results argue against a unidimensional understanding of parent involvement and support the view of the child as an active constructor of his or her school experience.
This study examines the relationship between mothers' intervention techniques and children's school-related abilities. When the children were age 4, their mothers' intervention techniques were examined in 2 settings-a teaching task and an interview about hypothetical disciplinary situations. Measures of children's school-related abilities were taken at ages 4, 5/6, and 12. Intervention techniques that maximize parental dominance (direct control tactics) were distinguished from those that deem-phasize dominance and rely on the child's capacity for self-regulation (indirect control techniques). 3 processes that mediate the effects of direct control are described. In both teaching and disciplinary situations, direct control tactics were negatively correlated with children's school-relevant performance. In addition, children of mothers who used a high proportion of direct control techniques in both situations performed more poorly than children of mothers who relied on a combination of direct and indirect techniques. Direct control tactics were not induced by children's difficulties during problem-solving tasks, and relationships between these techniques and children's academic achievement persisted after the effects of socioeconomic status were controlled. Boys appeared to be affected less than girls by maternal directiveness.
In this study, we sought preliminary information about the relationships among measures of self-efficacy, self-regulation, collaborative learning behavior, and grades. The collaborative verbal behavior of 20 students in a computer course was observed. Also, students responded to a questionnaire to assess their academic self-efficacy. A teacher rated each student's self-regulated learning behaviors. The measures were taken at various points throughout the school year, and the data were analyzed using path analysis. Although students scoring higher on self-regulation tended to score higher also on the measures of collaborative verbal behavior than did those who scored lower on self-regulation, scores on self-regulation rather than on verbal engagement were correlated with grades. The findings were discussed in the light of social cognitive theory and recommendations were made for further study.
Second-grade children were given general training in monitoring the utility of strategies, the affective consequences of strategy use, or no strategy-monitoring training. They then performed an associative learning task, first without strategy instructions and then with instructions to use either an effective or ineffective strategy. All training conditions produced short-term maintenance of the effective strategy, but only the strategy-utility training resulted in long-term maintenance. Subjects given strategy-utility training abandoned the ineffective strategy at a higher rate than children given strategy-affect or no training. Responses to metamemory questions indicated that only in the strategy-utility condition was strategy efficacy a prime consideration in strategy-use decisions. This experimental evidence bolsters the case for including monitoring instruction in multicomponent training packages aimed at producing durable strategy use.
Self-regulated learners understand, value, and engage academic learning in ways that are fundamentally different than their peers who have difficulty in school. We discuss how students become aware of themselves as learners and the kinds of theories that students construct about schooling. Children's ideas about success and failure, their awareness and attribution, and their metacognition and motivation, develop concurrently as they progress through formal education. We focus on developmental changes in students' theories about learning and how they are influenced by variables in school such as task difficulty, helping behavior, and standards of success. Instructional conditions that promote children's self-regulated learning are also discussed. We believe that self-regulated learning is a desirable educational outcome that can be fostered by teachers who minimize academic competition, explain appropriate strategies, provide assistance during problem solving, and promote an atmosphere of collaboration in classrooms.
Contemporary models of proficient self-regulated cognition include monitoring of performance as an important component. Monitoring is an executive process, activating and deactivating other processes, as a function of on-line evaluation (of thought processes and products as they occur. This article reviews our recent research on monitoring during text processing. Our most dramatic finding was that monitoring, even by skilled adults, is often far from optimal, leading to the conclusion that efficient self-regulated study occurs much less frequently than previously suggested by basic cognitive researchers.
This article discusses the idea that overt verbalization helps to develop children's self-regulated learning of cognitive skills. Verbalization can enhance children's attention to task-relevant features. As a type of rehearsal, verbalization may improve coding, storage, and retention of material, and thereby facilitate subsequent retrieval and use. Verbalization can help children maintain a positive task outlook and cope with difficulties. Because verbalization makes salient a systematic approach for improving learning and children's ability to apply it, verbalization also can raise self-efficacy (perceived capabilities). Research is summarized that assesses the effects on children's learning due to verbalizing information to be remembered, modeled actions, and strategies. Future research needs to explore maintenance and generalization of systematic approaches to learning, verbalization of task-specific and general statements, and uses of verbalization in classrooms.
This article summarizes "facts" emerging from recent research and explanations of those facts arising from metacognitive theory. We suggest that the following four questions should be addressed empirically: (a) How can we measure "knowing about knowing" more accurately?, (b) How can we measure the effects of strategy instruction?, (c) What are the relations between content knowledge and strategy knowledge?, and (d) What is the role of achievement motivation in use of strategies?
Cohen's kappa statistic is frequently used to measure agreement between two observers employing categorical polytomies. In this paper, Cohen's statistic is shown to be inherently multivariate in nature; it is expanded to analyze ordinal and interval data; and it is extended to more than two observers. A nonasymptotic test of significance is provided for the generalized statistic.
This study examines children's reading awareness and comprehension skills as examples of the developmental and instructional relations between children's metacognition and performance. 8- and 10-year olds were interviewed about their knowledge of reading tasks and strategies in the fall and spring. A scale of reading awareness was constructed and related to children's performance on several reading tasks. During the year half of each group received 4 months of classroom instruction on how, when, and why to use reading strategies to enhance comprehension. Pretest correlations revealed a significant relation between children's level of reading awareness and comprehension skills. Furthermore, comparisons between pretests and posttests revealed that the metacognitive instruction significantly increased children's reading awareness and their use of comprehension strategies. The study clearly showed that (a) children who are more aware of the nature of reading tasks and strategies also score higher on tests of reading comprehension and (b) informed instruction in the classroom can enhance both awareness and comprehension skills.
Examined the effects of collaboration with an adult or a peer on children's independent errand planning. 32 adult–child and peer dyads involving 9- to 10-year-old children worked collaboratively on errand planning tasks, followed by an individual posttest. There was more use of sophisticated planning methods, greater involvement of children in such methods, and more frequent communication of planning strategies in adult–child than in peer dyads. On the individual posttest, children from adult–child dyads produced more efficient plans than target children from peer dyads. Sophistication of planning and communication of strategies during collaborative trials correlated, as did the extent of joint decision making, with children's posttest performance. The study suggests that adult guidance is more effective than peer collaboration in children's acquisition of errand planning skills. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Metacognition is a starting point for working with learning-disabled children, who often lack cognitive self-awareness. The awareness of strategy variables available for problem solving is suggested as a core problem in special education. Children must be made aware of task variables through specific monitoring instructions, and the need for active behavior and the importance of personal variables such as interest, motivation, and concentration must be brought out. However, the child must be at a cognitive level sufficient to utilize strategic training and to isolate relevant concepts. Metacognition can provide a repertoire on which the child can build and retain strategies. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examined the relationship between observations of mother and child behavior in a problem-solving situation at school entry and children's subsequent adjustment in school. Data were collected on 342 children (aged 4 yrs 9 mo to 6 yrs 7 mo) and their mothers. 252 Ss in the 1st grade were included from the original sample at follow-up. Data on cognitive and motor development, family demographics, and mother–child problem-solving behavior were also collected at school entry. Ratings of competence and behavior problems in school were significantly correlated with child affection, task orientation, self-esteem, parent support, and instruction. The mother and child factors were significantly predictive of child behavior problems and competence in the classroom as rated by teachers, after accounting for mothers' educational level, child cognitive ability, and fine motor skills. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
It was predicted that orientations to help-avoidance (HA) would predict styles of help seeking (HS). In Study 1, a total of 1,029 pupils aged 10–12 years rated reasons for HA in math class. Ratings formed 3 factors reflecting autonomous strivings for independent mastery, ability-focused concerns to mask poor ability, and expedient perceptions that help would not expedite task completion. In Study 2, a total of 272 pupils who had endorsed one or another HA orientation could request help for math problems. An autonomous orientation was associated with autonomous HS, which promoted independent mastery, and an expedient orientation with executive HS, which expedited task completion. Pupils, especially boys, with an ability-focused orientation exhibited avoidant-covert HS: they requested least help and were most likely to cheat. HS was moderated by perceived threat to competence (ability-focused orientation) but not by perceived competence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Structural modeling was used to explain children's intentions to seek help with schoolwork. One hundred seventy-seven 3rd, 5th, and 7th graders were administered questionnaires assessing perceived academic competence, intrinsic orientation (preference for challenge and striving for independent mastery), and attitudes and intentions regarding help-seeking in math class. A multisample procedure tested for grade differences in covariance structures. At Grades 3 and 5, the child's expressed likelihood of seeking help was explained by intrinsic preference for challenge, extrinsic dependence on the teacher, and attitudes about the benefits of help-seeking. At Grade 7, expressed likelihood of seeking help was explained by attitudes about the benefits as well as the costs of help-seeking. Discussion focuses on developmental and individual-difference factors related to instrumental help-seeking and academic performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
It is generally argued that parental use of specific discipline techniques (e.g., reasoning vs power assertion) differentially affects a child's internalization. This article offers an expanded formulation. Internalization as a result of discipline is proposed to be based on a child's accurate perception of the parental message and acceptance or rejection of it. Mechanisms promoting acceptance are perceptions of the parent's actions as appropriate, motivation to accept the parental position, and perception that a value has been self-generated. Features of the misdeed, discipline technique, child, and parent that affect accurate perception and acceptance–rejection are outlined. Other goals besides internalization, such as movement beyond the parent's position, maintenance of the child's self-esteem, and maintenance of the parent–child relationship, are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Effects of prior knowledge on question asking were examined. Fifth graders with little or much prior knowledge had to indicate the meaning of a set of words. Pupils could (a) not ask a question, (b) ask a global question, or (c) ask a specific question. In Study 1, prior knowledge significantly affected the number of questions asked and the pragmatic significance of the questions. In Study 2, selection was contrasted with production of questions. Pupils with little prior knowledge asked fewer specific questions and more global questions in production. The pragmatic significance of the questions was lower for all pupils in production. The pupils' questions were found wanting in information-gathering and communicative qualities. In Study 2, asking for "provisional answers" in advance of question asking strongly stimulated question asking. It presumably enhances commitment, stimulates monitoring, and alleviates social constraints in asking questions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examined maternal teaching interactions that may facilitate adult transfer of task responsibility, as demonstrated by children's improved independent task performance after a teaching session. 51 dyads of 3-yr-olds and their mothers participated. 27 dyads were recruited from local day-care centers (low risk), and 24 were recruited from a therapeutic preschool that services families identified as high risk for child abuse and/or neglect. Each child was videotaped during either a selective attention task or a sequencing task, with or without the mother. High-risk mothers used more controlling verbal teaching strategies, less distancing, and fewer attributions of child competence, even when maternal education and children's initial level of task performance were taken into account. Maternal attributions of child competence was the strongest predictor of children's improved independent task performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The present study investigated motivational influences on help-seeking behavior in math classrooms, focusing on early adolescents' perceptions of the benefits and threats associated with such behavior. Seventh and 8th graders (
N = 203) responded to a questionnaire on perceptions of social and cognitive competence, achievement goals, attitudes, and avoidance of and adaptive help-seeking behavior in math class. Both threats and benefits were important influences on avoidance of help-seeking behavior, whereas only benefits predicted adaptive help seeking. Findings indicated that perceived threats and benefits partially mediated the effects of relative ability goals, task-focused goals, extrinsic goals, and perceptions of cognitive competence on avoidance of help seeking. Perceived benefits partially mediated the effects of task-focused goals on adaptive help seeking. Social competence had an indirect effect on avoidance of help seeking. Results illustrate the importance of linking cognitive, motivational, and social characteristics of students to provide a fuller understanding of adolescent help seeking in math. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In this study the influence of guided participation in children's collaboration with adults and peers on children's learning to plan imaginary errands was investigated. 60 9-yr-old children collaborated with novice peers, peers trained in errand planning, or untrained adults. The collaborative planning of dyads with trained peers and dyads with adults was equally sophisticated, but there was more discussion of planning strategies and more target child involvement in dyads with adults, and target children who worked with adults planned better in posttests than those who had collaborated with trained peers. Dyads with trained peers used more sophisticated planning strategies than dyads with untrained peers, but posttest results of target children from both peer conditions did not differ. In sum, children learned more from collaboration involving skilled planning, guidance, and participation (with adults) than from collaboration involving skilled planning with little guided participation (with trained peers) or from collaboration involving symmetrical paticipation with little skilled planning or guidance (with untrained peers). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Two studies were conducted in which 5- and 9-year-old children either collaborated with another person (peer or adult) or worked individually in planning efficient routes through a model grocery store. The studies examined the effects of planning with a partner as well as the relation of collaborative planning to subsequent solo planning. Study 1 demonstrated that older children are more skilled at planning in advance of action than younger children, and that children who planned in advance produced more efficient routes. Younger children who shared task responsibility developed more efficient routes, but this relationship did not appear for the older children. Results of Study 2, focusing on 5-year-olds, suggested that, although having a partner did not influence later individual planning, sharing responsibility for planning with a peer or an adult related to advance planning and planning effectiveness in later individual planning efforts. The results of the present studies suggest that cognitive gains resulting from joint problem solving between children and adults or peers may be more likely with shared task responsibility. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Children's understanding of their own cognitive skills, or metacognition, has been hypothesized to play a major role in learning and development. In this study, we examine the developing relation between children's metacognition and reading comprehension. Children in third- and fifth-grade classes were given an experimental curriculum, Informed Strategies for Learning (ISL), designed to increase their awareness and use of effective reading strategies. In both grades, children in experimental classes made significant gains in metacognition and the use of reading strategies compared with children in control classes. The multivariate profiles of reading skills derived from the developmental analyses helped to identify subgroups of children who responded differently to the metacognitive instruction. Although there were specific aptitude-by-treatment interactions, there was a general trend for metacognition and strategic reading to become more congruent from 8 to 10 years of age. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Pupils' perceptions of constraints on asking questions during mathematics classes were explored. Third and fifth graders were interviewed with regard to two helpers (teacher and fellow pupil) and two situations (instruction and seatwork). The highest ranked concern about helpers was their competence, voiced mainly by students seeking help from fellow pupils during seatwork. Other concerns such as a helper's unwillingness to respond and a student's anticipation of a negative reaction relate to cooperativeness. Most of the findings about helpers complement the outcomes from studies on positive helper characteristics. A highly important constraint on help seekers was an internalized norm of independence. Pupils said that they worried about seeking help because they wanted to solve problems on their own. This striving for independence appears to be greatly affected by situational and helper differences. The majority of the responses concerning the task/setting referred to classroom rules inhibiting question asking. No sex or grade differences were found. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Investigated whether knowledge of cognition affects regulation of cognition. 115 undergraduates were assigned to 1 of 3 levels of monitoring ability based on pre-experimental self-report data and then completed a reading comprehension test in which they monitored their local (i.e., during testing) and global (i.e., after testing) performance. Self-appraised high monitors scored higher on a standardized reading comprehension test and were more confident and accurate when evaluating their test performance locally and globally compared to low monitors. Global monitoring scores improved significantly for high but not low monitors due in part to information acquired during testing. Results suggest that most college students possess metacognitive knowledge about their learning even though a large proportion do not use this knowledge to improve their on-line regulation of test performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Elementary-school children were asked why they do, or do not, ask for help from parents, teachers, and classmates when they have problems in math and reading. Responses were correlated with achievement scores. Findings indicate: (a) Classmates are seen as less helpful than adults in answering questions, (b) there is more concern about possible negative reactions (i.e., perceptions of being "dumb") from classmates than from adults, (c) children perceive a greater need for help in math than in reading, (d) girls are more concerned than boys about negative reactions to help-seeking in math, (e) the more children believe that asking questions is likely to help in learning, the more they like to ask questions, and (f) the lower the child's achievement, the greater their reluctance to ask questions. Discussion focuses on ways in which children's attitudes differ according to academic subject and identity of the helper. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The general nature of constructivist educators' views of teaching are overviewed first, followed by analysis of good strategy instruction in constructivist terms. That good strategy instruction is scaffolded teaching is particularly emphasized. Scaffolded teacher-student interactions necessitate that students experience unique instruction that stimulates a great deal of student construction of to-be-acquired competencies. The only important difference between good strategy teaching and teaching recommended by constructivist educators is in the explicitness of instruction, with relatively greater teacher input about what is to be learned during good strategy instruction.
This article provides an overview of the existing literature on the development of metacognition in gifted children and emphasizes needed areas of research. Research examining individual differences in the development of declarative metacognitive knowledge, cognitive monitoring, and the regulation of strategies is reviewed. Differences between patterns of gifted and nongifted development differ depending on the type of metacognition being examined. Specifically, research on declarative metacognitive knowledge and far transfer shows a monotonic relationship between metacognitive development and giftedness. Research on spontaneous use of a variety of both simple and complex strategies is suggestive of an acceleration hypothesis (with giftedness effects increasing with age). These effects, however, may be domain-specific. Finally, research on cognitive monitoring suggests only developmental (but no giftedness) effects. As a consequence, we argue that it is important to differentiate the aspect of metacognition being examined before drawing conclusions about the relationships among metacognition, giftedness, and development. Additionally, an intelligence theory approach may be a much less profitable paradigm for understanding the relationship of metacognition and giftedness than an exceptional performance paradigm.
Recent research on parenting styles has shown that authoritative parenting is linked to better school achievement by children. Two observational studies of parent tutoring of fifth-graders' long-division mathematics homework assessed the hypothesis that this relation may be at least partly mediated by differences in the quality of parental teaching strategies. Parental tutoring patterns were analyzed based on the scaffolding perspectives of Vygotsky and Wood.In a first, pilot study, a system for analyzing levels of parental support was developed and validated. As expected, parents gave more support to difficult task components and to children with poorer initial skills, as measured on a pretest. Study 2 replicated these findings with a larger sample and showed that individual differences in parental scaffolding were associated predictably with variations in the quality of children's learning from a tutoring session. As well, authoritative parenting styles, measured independently, were positively related to more effective scaffolding styles, and to better mathematics achievement by children.
Traditional approaches to the study of young children's behavior in helping relationships are examined and criticized as inadequate because they have failed to represent the child's perspective from the role of “active helpee” (i.e., help-seeker in such relationships). By failing to look at helping from the perspective of the one who seeks help, researchers have neglected to pursue an important lead in understanding why some children are able to learn and progress independently when confronted with the same obstacles that serve to defeat other children. This article focuses on instrumental help-seeking defined as an active, complex social-cognitive activity that is essential to learning and achievement. In the first sections of this article, it is argued that instrumental help-seeking can be formally distinguished from passive dependency as well as from the actual giving and receiving of help. In following sections, a heuristic model of the help-seeking process is offered, prior research relevant to the model is reviewed, and ideas for research on help-seeking in children are suggested within the framework of this model.
This paper reviews the most frequently used and misused reliability measures appearing in the mental health literature. We illustrate the various types of data sets on which reliability is assessed (i.e., two raters, more than two raters, and varying numbers of raters with dichotomous, polychotomous, and quantitative data). Reliability statistics appropriate for each data format are presented, and their pros and cons illustrated. Inadequancies of some methods are highlighted. The meaning of different levels of reliability obtained with various statistics is discussed. This critique is intended for the reading professional and the investigator who has an occasional need for reliability assessment. Statistical expertise is not required and theoretical material is referenced for the interested reader. Necessary formulas for computations are presented in the appendices. A summary table of some suitable reliability measures is presented.
This study examined 3 familial factors--parental surveillance of homework, parental reactions to grades, and general family style--in relation to children's motivational orientation and academic performance. Family, parent, and child measures were obtained in the home from 93 fifth graders and their parents. Teachers provided a measure of classroom motivational orientation, and grades and achievement scores were obtained from school records. Higher parental surveillance of homework, parental reactions to grades that included negative control, uninvolvement, or extrinsic reward, and over- and undercontrolling family styles were found to be related to an extrinsic motivational orientation and to lower academic performance. On the other hand, parental encouragement in response to grades children received was associated with an intrinsic motivational orientation, and autonomy-supporting family styles were associated with intrinsic motivation and higher academic performance. In addition, socioeconomic level was a significant predictor of motivational orientation and academic performance.
The family-school relationships model.
- Ryan