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Impact of Three Interior Color
Schemes on Worker Mood and
Performance Relative to
Individual Environmental
Sensitivity
N. Kwallek,* H. Woodson, C. M. Lewis,
C. Sales
The University of Texas at Austin, Division of Interior Design, 117 GEA, Austin, Texas 78712
Received 6 April 1996; accepted 14 August 1996
Abstract: Effects of three office color schemes (red, blue- made environment has been meeting our basic shelter
needs for centuries. Today, buildings serve other pur-green, and white) were examined for 90 workers’ mood
and productivity, taking into account individual differ- poses, such as education, entertainment, and work activi-
ties. Even with an affinity for nature, it has become in-ences in environmental sensitivity (high screeners vs. low
screeners). Matched on relevant variables, subjects were creasingly important to realize that individuals exist
within enclosed structures for most of their lives. There-assigned to one of three offices. Workers performed office
tasks for 4 consecutive workdays. Workers in the red fore, understanding how spaces affect individuals is nec-
office reported more dysphoria than workers in the blue- essary for personal well-being. Perhaps, most important
green office. Low screeners reported more dysphoria in are the effects of the work environment, the place where
the red and white offices than high screeners. High individuals spend most of their waking hours.
screeners performed better on office tasks in the red office This research was begun with the hope of being able to
and poorer in the blue-green office than low screeners. understand more fully how color within the work environ-
The results for performance are discussed as an extension ment affects worker mood and performance. The purpose
of the Yerkes–Dodson principle, while the results for was to determine the effects of three different interior color
mood tended to support previous findings.
q
1997 John
schemes on mood, speed, and accuracy on proofreading
Wiley & Sons, Inc. Col Res Appl, 22, 121–132, 1997.
clerical tasks administered to office workers on a Monday
and again on a Thursday of a four-day work week.
Key words: color schemes; performance and productiv- One goal was to counteract the design limitations of
ity; mood; environmental sensitivity; office workers; other color research by making the study as realistic as
NASA possible. Psychological experiments on color rarely return
unequivocal results. Previous color studies have been lim-
INTRODUCTION
ited to a single color or a few bright monochromatic
colors where subjects had limited exposure to the color.
There is an increasing desire to protect the environment In other instances, subjective judgments were rendered
through cleanup activities and legislation. Most of the from subjects by viewing color slides, swatches, light, or
focus has been on the natural environment, yet the person- color pictures of rooms —and not by actually viewing the
color by users in the interior or from actual exposure to
a color when performing tasks. However, this is not how
Correspondence to: Nancy Kwallek; PhD
color is seen in the interior environment. By simply view-
Contract grant sponsor: Institute of Business Designers Foundation
ing color pictures or slides of interiors, individuals are not
Contract grant sponsor: BASF Corporation
exposed to intervening variables that could affect color in
Contract grant sponsor: Interface Flooring Systems, Inc.
q
1997 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
the interior, such as different furniture styles, accessories,
121CCC 0361-2317/97/020121-12Volume 22, Number 2, April 1997
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textures, and the natural or artificial light, which are more anxiety scores were obtained in the red and yellow vs.
the green and blue conditions. In a similar study, Jacobsrepresentative of an office space.
Furthermore, interior color is not often highly saturated. and Blandino
7
found that color affected mood states with
different colored papers (yellow, red, green, blue, andContrast of value, saturation, and the interrelationship of
adjacent colors are what subjects perceive when viewing white). The only significant result was that high scores
on fatigue were associated with green, while low scoresor working in an interior. Such color quality dimensions
and their relationships within the environment may be were associated with red. Kwallek, Lewis, and Robbins
8
examined the effects of a red color environment vs. amore important than the color itself when assessing its
effects on a worker’s mood and productivity. In addition, blue one on a typing task and mood states. There were
no significant differences between the groups on moodwhen examining the effects of interior color on office
worker performance and mood, few researchers consider states. Though none of the differences between groups
was significant, subjects who remained in the red officeindividual differences when assessing the effects of inte-
rior color and light. experienced more anxiety and stress than the subjects
who remained in the blue office.As indicated, much of the past research has been incon-
clusive due to a lack of proper control measures.
1
Yet, their Thus far, research on warm and cool colors has been
reviewed because that is where most of the research hasimportance lies in the attempts to find or establish empirical
data. Among all colors, warm colors have been the most concentrated. Even when the color white has been exam-
ined, significant findings are usually among red, blue, andresearched, followed by cool colors. Warm colors, espe-
cially red, have been associated with excitement, whereas green colors. Unfortunately, white suffers from a lack of
thorough analysis. For example, Gerard
5
tested for whitecool colors, especially blue, have been associated with a
more passive and relaxed feeling. What are these associa- along with red and blue, but found that responses varied
considerably. The most that could be said was that thetions based upon? A relationship between mood and color
has long been a topic of speculation. Though clear associa- results for white were similar to that of the red conditions
on physiological and subjective measures of mood.tions between mood and color have not been overwhelm-
ingly accounted for, certain colors have been frequently
related with particular moods based on research data. Research on White
Little research has been conducted on the color white,
Color and Mood Associations which is often used in offices, homes, and institutions as
a neutral background. In contrast to this common applica-For instance Aaronson
2
asked subjects to rate the
names of colors with given adjectives and found red to tion, the Buffalo Organization for Social and Technologi-
cal Innovation (BOSTI) survey (Brill, Margulis, and Ko-be high in activation, whereas blue was categorized low.
Wexner
3
also tried to determine whether a similar rela- nar)
9
found that white and neutrals were ‘‘clearly re-
jected’’ as colors for walls and dividers among officetionship exists between color and mood. She selected
various adjectives that were thought to be representative workers. Most other research that examined white as a
color only investigated the effects of white light insteadof mood and displayed eight paper colors. Subjects were
asked to pair them. Although not all colors demonstrated of a white surface.
Most color studies have included subjects respondingdefinite associations, red was among the ones to exhibit
a strong link with excitement. Attempting to replicate to various color stimuli without specifying any particular
setting. As Wise et al.
1
pointed out, part of the problemWexner’s findings, Murray and Deabler
4
found consistent
color-mood associations, although differences found with relying on these color studies for factual information
is that they frequently deal with color in isolation and areamong their three study groups may have been related to
socio-economic status. Regardless, red was still seen as not applied to an object or context. Thus, judgments are
rendered on only one color or one color pair, and colorsexciting and stimulating, and both blue and green as se-
cure and tender. In a study on male college students, are almost exclusively being judged against a neutral
background. Color and mood associations help us under-Gerard
5
tested the colors red and blue under one stimulus
condition. Except for heart rate, he found statistical sig- stand how people may be affected by their environment.
However, a thorough analysis of actual work settings withnificance between the red-blue condition for the physio-
logical measures tested, with red producing a more alert subjects performing common office tasks in various color
spaces would be more valuable and relevant in makingfeeling and blue a more relaxed one.
In these studies, red was often associated with excite- inferences about the general effects of interior color
schemes on mood and performance.ment. In other studies, warm colors in general have been
linked to anxiety and stress, while cool colors have contin- The BOSTI survey ( Brill et al.)
9
was mostly concerned
with the opinions of office workers about their workingued to exhibit tranquillity and even depression. Jacobs
and Suess
6
found that colors had an effect on people’s environment. Further interest has been shown in this area
by Oldham and Fried,
10
who studied howworkspace char-anxiety states. Color slides of red, green, blue, and yellow
were projected for five minutes between administration acteristics, suchas social density, room darkness, or num-
ber of enclosures, may affect employee reactions. Theyof a paper and pencil anxiety test. Significantly higher
122 COLOR research and application
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found that employees tend to withdraw under certain con- also varied with color, and blue was rejected only when
it reached a darker hue than most other colors provided.ditions, such as when it is dark, or when there are few
enclosures surrounding a work area. Unfortunately, color Wise et al.
1
reviewed many color studies to determine
which color combinations would create the mostspacious,was not part of the evaluating data.
In a more recent study, Ainsworth, Simpson, and Cas- pleasant, andproductive environment. Over the long term,
they determined that the largest surface area should besell
11
studied subjects in an office setting for one hour in
three different color office interiors (red, blue-green, and high in value (light) and low in saturation ( dull ), that
the second largest area should be medium in value andwhite). There were no significant findings in the three
groups for anxiety, depression, or arousal. Similarly, saturation, and that the trim and accents should be high
in saturation (bright) and either high or low in valueKwallek and Lewis
12
assessed the effects of a red, white,
or green office environment on worker productivity and (light or dark).
Based upon their conclusions, it was hypothesized thatmood. They found that while subjects working in the red
office made the fewest errors, the subjects in the white an office color scheme with the largest surface area of
the room being a bright vivid color would create an envi-office made the most errors. However, those who worked
in the red office reported that the color of their office was ronment which is more confined, unpleasant, and less
conducive to productivity. For this study, a predominantlymore distracting than the subjects who worked in the
white office. bright red color scheme was selected as an office color
scheme because of its preponderance in the literature cit-Since the quintessential office color is white and be-
cause white has been the standard color of NASA’s mock- ings as being associated with those negative effects and
because it has the greatest degree of saturation in latexup habitation space module, white was selected as one of
the office color schemes to be examined. A monochro- pigment paints.
Conversely, a third office color scheme employing amatic white office was of interest for two additional rea-
sons: to inform NASA of the effects of white on worker light color or pastel for the largest surface area in a room
was selected. The purpose was to test the Wise et al.
1
productivity and mood over a period of time in a relatively
confined space; and, to use white for contrast or compari- proposal in terms of whether productivity would be en-
hanced and if the room would be experienced as moreson with the other two office color schemes. pleasant in comparison to the red office color scheme. A
light blue-green was selected for three major reasons: to
Saturation and Value allow for a comparison of a predominantly cool color
scheme (blue-green) with a predominantly warm colorSaturation has been cited as an important factor for
determining color pleasantness. Guilford and Smith
13
per- scheme (red); because the literature citings on color pref-
erence have indicated that office workers preferred a lightformed a thorough investigation rating 316 color papers.
They found that across all colors, with varying levels blue-green office color; and, that blue-green and red are
considered to be contrasting or complementary colors.of value, the blue-green regions generated the highest
pleasantness ratings, while the lowest were in the yellow,
yellow-green regions. As value increased, perceived Stimulus Screening
pleasantness also increased. Where there was an increase
in saturation for a given color, the greater was its per- When examining the effects of interior color on office
worker performance and mood, few researchers considerceived pleasantness. Smets
14
also found that saturation
accounted for 88% of the variation in judgment of pleas- individual differences when assessing the effects of inte-
rior color and light. One important variable that may inter-antness, while value was less important accounting for
only 12%, and color itself was negligible at 0.68%. act with how different color schemes affect an individu-
al’s mood and performance is how individuals differ inThe color blue has frequently been cited as a favorite
or preferred color by many people. In the BOSTI survey their ability to screen out irrelevant stimuli within their
environment. As Mehrabian
16
suggested, individual dif-(Brill et al. )
9
about 1000 subjects evaluated colors de-
scribed verbally. Pastel cool colors (blue-green) were ferences in arousal response to stimulation have been a
central issue for research in this area. Studies (e.g., Yer-rated as most preferred by the respondents. The color
preferences were similar for office wall and panel colors molayeva–Tomina)
17
that have explored the effects of
environmental stimuli on an individual’s state of arousalwith light blue and light blue-green (aqua) as among the
most preferred. and performance of tasks have found that some individu-
als are more easilydistracted by irrelevant stimuli, leadingIn one color preference study examining the extent to
which the degree of whiteness, blackness, and saturation to decrements in performance. In contrast, other individu-
als actually improved their performance in a task whenimpacts color preference, Sivik
15
found blue to be judged
positive in more instances than other colors. However, irrelevant or extraneous stimuli were introduced. Siddle
and Mangan
18
demonstrated that distractibility was asso-across all colors, he found that the degree of blackness
was negatively associated with the degree of pleasantness ciated with initial amplitude of the orienting response,
slower speed of habituation, and with neuroticismand that blue was rejected when it reached a darker hue
than most other colors provided. The degree of dislike (Eysenck and Eysenck).
19
The association with neuroti-
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cism is consistent with Eysenck’s
20
suggestion that this Data on three others were collected but not included in
the analysis because the subjects were taking psychotropicconstruct is related to individual differences in autonomic
activation. medication. Participants were paid $200 upon completion
of the experiment or an hourly rate for any hours workedMehrabian
16
concluded that individual differences in
arousability can be regarded as being related to less selec- prior to dropping out. The mean age of the workers was
33.2 years, (SD
Å
11.46). Workers were recruitedtivity on the part of more aroused persons. These individ-
ual differences may be associated with consistent differ- through the state Human Resource Center, by placement
of ads in the city newspaper, and through other job recruit-ences in the ability to automatically screen less important
aspects of stimulation in various sensory modalities. Indi- ment centers in the city.
viduals who are most adept at screening less relevant
stimuli of their environments are referred to as high Office Design
screeners, while individuals who typically cannot screen
incoming sensory information as well are referred to as Each of the three offices, 8 ft 8 in. (2.63 m) wide, 11
ft 6.5 in. (3.52 m) long, and 8 ft (2.44 m) high, was oflow screeners. With respect tothe type of task,Mehrabian
and Russell
21
concluded that decrements in performance a different color scheme, but identically furnished. Each
had an office desk and return, a posture chair, an occa-for highly aroused subjects (low screeners) are seen only
when a distracting stimulus is introduced during the per- sional chair, a memory typewriter, a wall clock, and three
framed black-printed generic certificates on the wall op-formance of a moderately or highly complex task.
Some recent studies have focused on the relationship posite the desk (see Figs. 1 and 2).
Desk accessories included a wooden paper tray andbetween the interior environment and worker perfor-
mance and/or satisfaction (e.g., Oldham; Sutton and Ra- wooden card file box, a metal tape dispenser, stapler,
and bookends. An identical book (with beige jacket) wasfaeli).
22,23
Their conclusions rested on the notion of over-
stimulation of workers in response to extraneous environ- placed in each desk’s bookends. Identical beige tele-
phones, a green (artificial) plant, a phone message pad,mental stimuli leading to negative behavioral and af-
fective responses (Baum and Paulus).
24
Other studies a clear glass cup holder for pens and pencils, and a clear
glass paper clip holder was also placed on each desk.(e.g., Oldham, Kulik, and Stepina)
25
have examined how
the ability to screen irrelevant stimuli in the environment Each individual office, including all four walls and the
back of the office door, was painted. The window in eachdepends on the complexity of the task involved. Mixed
results have been obtained concerning task complexity– office was closed off with drywall and painted like the
rest of the wall so that no natural light entered the officeenvironment interactions. For example, Sundstrom, Burt,
and Kamp
26
found that task complexity had little impact to eliminate any fluctuations of natural daylight. The tem-
perature was controlled at 73–75 degrees Fahrenheiton employee responses to various environmental stimuli.
Block and Stokes
27
conducted a laboratory study, which (22–24 degrees Celsius). The acoustics were buffered
with ‘‘white noise’’ machines. Small built-in circulationfound that individuals perform a simple task best when
working in a room with four people, while individuals fans kept a constant air flow and temperature. Artificial
light was measured using an Illumination Quality Meter,performing a more complex task performed best when
working alone in a room. model IQ-2 by Prime Color, Inc. At the center desk area
in each office, the light was identically set at 600–620
lux (60–62 foot-candles). Glass fiber luminance ceiling
Hypotheses panels were rearranged with opaque acoustic ceiling pan-
els in a drop ceiling framework so that the light could be
For this study, it was predicted that workers in the red measured as identical foot-candles at the center of the
office color scheme would be more adversely affected in desk work area of each office. General Electric Chroma
terms of their productivity and mood than workers in the 50 daylight fluorescent lamps were used, having a color
blue-green office color scheme, who would experience a temperature of 5000 Kelvin and a color rendering index
more positive effect on productivity and mood. Second, of 90.
it was hypothesized that low screeners would be more All paint colors in the experiment are identified using
adversely affected in the red office color scheme in terms the Munsell Color Notation System and/or CIE Notation
of productivity and mood than high screeners, who can and/or Inter-Society Color Council—National Bureau of
more easily ignore environmental stimuli. Standards (ISCC-NBS) color designation. An attempt
was made to use pure pigments for all latex paint colors
without blending in any other adjacent color on the color
METHOD
wheel. A Munsell Notation of 5 for the color provides
Subjects the purest possible color.
To further interpret color notations,the value (lightnessA total of 90 office workers (67 females, 74%; and 23
males, 26%) completed a four-day work week experi- or darkness) of a color precedes the slash mark while the
saturation, chroma, or intensity (brightness or dullness)ment. Nine additional subjects began the experiment, and
six dropped out before the end of the fourth work day. is designated by the number following the slash mark.
124 COLOR research and application
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FIG. 1. Reception/pretest area showing three enclosed offices.
The value range of a color is nine steps between pure intensity steps selected were /12, /7, and /2 for red and /
8, /5, and /2 for blue-green.white and pure black. In designing the color schemes for
value, an attempt was made to create colors having an Office #1 was painted white (Munsell Color Notation
2GY 9/.5) on all four walls and door including the deskequal distance of separation between the lightest, medium,
and darkest values chosen for the three colors for each returns and appointments. The white chosen was govern-
ment standard #595b-27875, the same white used by NASA.scheme. Selecting a darker value than 5 was not feasible,
because the pigment of the color neutralized too much in The red selected for the top two-thirds of the wall area
in Office #2 (including the inside of the office door) wasthe artificial light used in the offices. Thus, for the colors
coordinated on the walls in the red and blue-green offices, Munsell Color Notation 5R 5/12. The complement of
red, blue-green, was selected for the lower third of thethe values selected were 9/ for the lightest value, 7/ for
the median value, and 5/ for the darkest value. walls, desk, and return (Munsell Color Notation 5BG 7/
5). For accent and trim molding, the selected color wasIntensity, chroma, or saturation is designated by the
number following the slash mark. As the number in- Munsell Color Notation 5R 9/2 (ISCC-NBS generic
name, Pale Pink).creases, the color becomes brighter. Conversely, as the
number decreases, the color becomes duller. However, Utilizing the Munsell Color Notation System, red’s
complement, a light blue-green was selected as predomi-
due to a color’s wavelength, some colors at the same nant in Office #3 (Munsell Notation 5BG 9/2). It was
value level appear more intense than other colors. For selected for the top two-thirds of the wall area, including
example, because red has a longer wavelength, it appears the inside of the office door. Medium red was selected
more intense than its opposite color (blue-green) at the for the lower third of the wall, desk, and return (Munsell
same degree of intensity. Based on Munsell color theory, Color Notation 5R 7/7). For accent on wood and metal
red reaches its maximum intensity at /14 of the intensity accessories, and trim molding, a strong bluish-green was
scale, whereas, due to its shorter wave length, blue-green selected (Munsell Color Notation of 5BG 5/8).
reaches its maximum intensity at /10. To generate the
most intense red color in latex paints, /12 intensity was Materials
the brightest achieved while the brightest for the blue-
green was /8. Thus, to create a three-step spread of inten- The Jenkins Achievement Striving Activity Scale (JA-
SAS; Helmrich, Spence, and Pred)
28
is a 7-item, 5-pointsity for red and blue-green from brightest to dullest, the
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FIG. 2. Offices #1 white, #2 red, and #3 blue-green. Each office shows views upon entering or working in each office.
Likert-type instrument. The scale assesses for the pres- bility is on a continuum representing the general emo-
tional responsiveness and lability with respect to internalence of achievement-related behaviors and attitudes in
individuals from ‘‘much less’’ to ‘‘much more than oth- and external stressors. In addition, the EPI contains a Lie
Scale, which may be used to identify subjects exhibitingers.’’ Scores can range from 7–35 points summed over
all 7 items. The scale was originally derived from an a ‘‘desirability response set.’’ Each personality scale has
24 items and each item is scored 0 (no) or 1 (yes) de-exploratory factor analysis of the Jenkins Activity Survey
(Jenkins, Zyzanski, and Rosenman),
29
and subsequently pending on how it is answered. Scores are summed and
can range from 0–24 on each scale. The Lie Scale has 9replicated for a second sample in a confirmatory factor
analysis. For both sexes, all items assigned to this scale items. A summed score of 4 or 5 on this scale suggests
that the test results may not be a valid indicator of eitherloaded 0.30 or higher, and Cronbach’s alpha was 0.79.
The Eysenck Personality Inventory ( EPI; Eysenck and personality dimension. Form A was used for the study and
test-retest reliabilities range from 0.82 to 0.97. Factorial,Eysenck)
19
is a 57-item, dichotomous response (yes or
no) instrument. The EPI consists of two independent construct, and concurrent validity has been well estab-
lished for these personality scales (Eysenck andscales, which measure pervasive personality traits identi-
fied as extroversion–introversion and neuroticism–stabil- Eysenck ).
19
Mehrabian’s Stimulus Screening Questionnaire (SSQ;ity. Extroversion–introversion is on a continuum defining
an individual’s general level of engagement or inhibition Mehrabian)
16
is a 40-item, 9-point scale instrument,
which measures individual differences in the degree ofwith respect to his or her environment. Neuroticism–sta-
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the circles of dots are distinguishable if the individual has
normal color vision. Only the first 11 plates are used to
detect general color deficiency. If 10 or more plates are
read correctly, then color vision is regarded as normal.
The Profile of Mood States (POMS; McNair, Lorr and
Droppleman)
31
is a paper-and-pencil multi-state battery
that provides a profile of 6 mood factors: Tension–Anxi-
ety, Depression–Dejection, Anger–Hostility, Vigor–Ac-
tivity, Fatigue–Inertia, and Confusion–Bewilderment.
The items on the POMS are adjectives denoting a particu-
lar feeling. Subjects indicate the degree to which each
adjective describes how they are feeling on a 5-point scale
of 0–4, from ‘‘not at all’’ to ‘‘extremely.’’ Scores for
items representing each subscale are summed to produce
a total score for each subscale. Internal consistency
reliabilities for the subscales range from 0.84 to 0.92.
Test-retest reliabilities range from 0.65 to 0.74
(McNair et al.).
31
Evidence of predictive, concurrent,
and construct validity has been established for the
POMS (McNair et al.).
31
The Minnesota Clerical Test (MCT; Andrew, Paterson,
and Longstaff)
32
is designed to measure elements of per-
ceptual speed and accuracy relevant to various clerical
tasks. The test consists of two parts, a number comparison
task and a names comparison task. There are 100 pairs
of items in each part, which are either identical or slightly
dissimilar. The subject is asked to mark which items are
exactly alike. The numbers comparison is an 8-min timed
test and the names comparison is a 7-min test. The raw
score for each part is the total number of items correct
minus the total number of items incorrect. The scores for
each subtest can range from 0–200. Test-retest reliabili-
ties are above 0.80 for the numbers comparison test and
above 0.85 for the names comparison test. The MCT is
highly correlated with other measures of clerical ability
FIG. 2. (Continued)
and not as well correlated with other measures of general
ability (Andrew et al.),
32
which is indicative of the instru-
ment’s construct and discriminant validity.
automatic screening of and habituation to irrelevant stim- Procedure
uli in the environment. Responses on each item range
from
/
4 (very strong agreement) to
0
4 (very strong All prospective subjects were screened on a Friday
prior to being assigned to the experiment. They weredisagreement) with a score of 0 denoting ‘‘neither agree-
ment or disagreement.’’ Scores are summed and can range administered the JASAS, EPI, SSQ, ICBT, and a timed
typing task. After screening, subjects were eliminatedfrom
/
160 to
0
160 with more positive scores denoting
higher stimulus screening ability and more negative from the experiment if they: typed fewer than 40 words
per minute with 5 or more errors (Mitchell),
33
werescores indicating the reverse. For the present study, scores
of
0
25 and above denoted ‘‘high screeners,’’ while scores deemed color deficient by the ICBT; scored above five
on the social-desirability scale of the EPI; were dyslexic;of
0
24 and below represented ‘‘low screeners.’’ The
Kuder–Richardson reliability coefficient for the question- experienced physical impairments interfering with perfor-
mance of office tasks; or indicated prior knowledge ofnaire is 0.92. Discriminant, convergent, and construct va-
lidity have been demonstrated for the questionnaire (Meh- the purpose of the experiment (see Table I). Although
over 400 subjects were scheduled for screening, only 200rabian).
16
The Ishihara Color Blindness Test (ICBT: Ishihara)
30
or so appeared. A total of 120 subjects passed the screen-
ing tests, but due to cancellations, no shows, and otheris designed to provide an accurate assessment of color
vision deficiency of congenital origin. The test consists circumstances, 90 subjects completed the experiment, ac-
counting for a 75% attrition rate.of 14 plates, each with a circular image consisting of
colored dots as in a pointillist painting. Numerals within Initially, subjects were randomly assigned to one of
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TABLE I. Characteristics of matched workers for three offices.
White office Red office Blue-green office
nRange MSDn Range MSDnRange MSD
Typed words per
minute 30 41–76 55.20 10.70 30 41–86 57.26 11.00 30 40– 86 58.20 11.92
Mehrabian’s stimulus
screening
scores
a
30 087 to /69 014.40 34.76 30 098 to /119 016.43 45.47 30 083 to /91 015.63 38.57
Jenkin’s
achievement
striving activity
scores
b
30 7–32 24.96 4.64 30 20– 35 25.33 3.81 30 14 –31 25.16 3.96
Sex
Male 8 21–30 24.50 3.02 7 20–32 24.85 4.59 8 19– 31 24.37 3.58
Female 22 7–32 25.13 5.15 23 20– 35 25.47 3.65 22 14 –31 25.45 4.13
Age 30 20–56 32.03 10.78 30 20–68 33.13 11.71 30 18– 59 34.53 12.08
Male 8 21–49 30.62 10.30 7 20–40 24.71 7.47 8 18– 53 28.12 12.78
Female 22 20–56 32.54 11.14 23 20–68 35.69 11.69 22 20– 59 36.86 11.21
Handedness
Lefthanded 2 2 4
Righthanded 28 28 26
Eysenck’s
Extroversion–
introversion
score
c
30 1–16 10.66 3.33 30 2–17 11.10 3.95 30 2–19 11.20 3.40
Neuroticism
scores
d
30 1–24 8.20 5.12 30 0–20 7.46 5.50 30 1– 17 8.10 4.62
Social desirability
lie scores
e
30 0–4 2.30 1.26 30 0 – 4 2.43 1.13 30 1–4 2.40 .85
a
Test norms are considered a mean Å024 and standard deviation Å39 (Mehrahian, 1976).
b
For a sample of 1035 college students, the mean was 23.96 for males and 24.44 for females (Pred, Helmreich, & Spence, 1986).
c
Test norms are those considered between a raw score of 10 and 14. Individuals scoring above or below cutting points would be depicted
as above or below average on this trait (EPI; Eysenck, 1968).
d
Test norms are those considered between a raw score of 7 and 12. Individuals scoring above or below cutting points would be depicted
as above or below average on this trait (EPI; Eysenck, 1968).
e
Individuals scoring ú4 were not selected for the study and were not deemed truthful in their responses (EPI; Eysenck, 1968).
the three offices. After having tested approximately 30 the office. The MCT was administered in the offices on
the morning of the first day and in the afternoon of thesubjects, the participants were matched across office con-
ditions on nine performance, demographic, and mood- 4th day. Additional questionnaires were administered at
the end of each day and at the end of the experiment;related characteristics ranked according to importance:
typing speed, scores on the SSQ, scores on the JASAS, these assessments are not part of the data analyzed for
this report.sex, age, handedness, and the three-part inventory scores
on the EPI.
Subjects performed a variety of office tasks throughout
RESULTS
a 4-day (Monday through Thursday), 8-hr work week (9
a.m. to 5:30 p.m.). During each working day, subjects Regression models were used with office color scheme
as the independent variable and with mood states andwere permitted two 15-min breaks and a 1-hr lunch break.
On any given day, all three workers in each office per- productivity as dependent variables. Stimulus screening
ability (high screeners vs. low screeners) was treated as aformed the same tasks in the same order and time frame.
However, office tasks were organized into two weekly covariate. Preplanned comparisons were used to examine
differences between color schemes. The alpha level forschedules, A and B, which alternated from one week to
the next. Though the daily schedules within both weekly statistical tests was 0.05.
schedules were identical, the weekly schedules differed
in terms of which daily schedule applied from one day Performance
to the next. Two office tasks totaling 15 min in duration
were performed by the workers at the beginning of the On day 1, the overall regression model reached signifi-
cance for proofreading names, F(3, 86)
Å
2.92, p
õ
work day and after breaks and lunch to acclimate the
workers to the office environment. 0.05, R
2
Å
0.09 (see Table II). A significant interaction
occurred for stimulus screening and office environmentThe workers filled out the POMS questionnaire twice
each day, first at the beginning of the day in the reception- between the red and blue-green offices, F(1, 86)
Å
5.62,
p
õ
0.05. Among those who scored low on the stimulusist area, and then as a post-test at the end of the day in
128 COLOR research and application
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TABLE II. Minnesota clerical test results.
White office Red office Blue-green office
Scores
a
Range MSDRange MSDRange MSD
Monday–day 1
Name 53–165 115.60 28.77 48 – 158 111.33 23.78 73– 181 121.46 26.64
Number 68–162 113.23 23.88 87 – 181 110.90 22.10 72– 156 109.63 22.94
Thursday–day 4
Name 73–188 138.53 32.94 84 – 178 130.90 28.09 73– 192 143.53 30.36
Number 98–192 139.26 26.85 82 – 196 135.96 31.46 83– 192 133.30 28.83
a
nÅ30 subjects for each office.
screening measure (low screeners), workers in the red ing scores and office environment between the white and
blue-green offices. The interaction suggests that lowoffice scored lower on proofreading names than subjects
working in the blue-green office. The reverse was true for screeners tended to score higher on Depression in the
white office than high screeners.those who scored high on the stimulus screening measure
(high screeners). On average, they scored higher on In general, workers in the red office reported higher
levels of dysphoria in terms of Confusion, Tension, andproofreading names in the red office than subjects work-
ing in the blue-green office. less Vigor as compared to that of workers in the blue-
green office at the end of the first day. Greater levels ofOn day 4, the overall model approached significance
for proofreading names, F(3,86)
Å
2.41, p
õ
0.07, R
2
Å
dysphoria in terms of Depression and Anger were re-
ported for low screeners as compared to that of high0.08 ( see Table II) . As with day 1, a similar significant
interaction effect between stimulus screening and office screeners in the red and white offices, while workers in
the blue-green office reported similar levels of dysphoria,environment was found when comparing red and blue-
green, F(1, 86)
Å
4.10, p
õ
0.05. These interaction ef- (Depression and Anger) regardless of stimulus screening
ability. These effects were found at the end of the 1st andfects suggest that environmental/screening may be a
moderating factor in the effect of office environment on 4th days.
performance.
Mood and Performance
Mood
Specific hypotheses were not made about the possible
On the 1st day, the overall regression models for office relationships between mood and performance. Since anec-
environment reached significance on Confusion, F
Å
dotal and research evidence has tried to link the two vari-
6.50, (3, 86), p
õ
0.05, R
2
Å
0.18; Tension, F
Å
5.93, ables, usually hypothesizing that either positive mood
(3, 86), p
õ
0.05, R
2
Å
0.17; Vigor F
Å
3.46, (3, 86), states lead to higher productivity or that some other vari-
p
õ
0.05, R
2
Å
0.11; Depression, F
Å
6.35, (3, 86), p
õ
able causes both variables to change in the same direction,
0.05, R
2
Å
0.18; and Anger, F
Å
8.38, (3, 86), p
õ
0.05, the study examined the relationships between both vari-
R
2
Å
0.23 (see Table III). ables. No significant correlations were found between any
Significant main effects for office environment were of the mood state subscales and either task comparison
found on Confusion, F
Å
7.42, (1, 86), p
õ
0.05; Ten- subtests.
sion, F
Å
4.30, (1, 86), p
õ
0.05; and Vigor, F
Å
4.60,
(1, 86), p
õ
0.05. On average, higher scores for Confu-
sion and Tension were reported by workers in the red
office than in the blue-green office, while higher scores
DISCUSSION
for Vigor were reported in the blue-green office than in Performance
the red office.
Significant interaction effects for office environment The study provided no evidence for the first hypothesis
predicting that workers in the red office would be moreand stimulus screening were found on Depression, F
Å
5.69, (1, 86), p
õ
0.05; and Anger, F
Å
6.89, (1, 86), adversely affected in terms of productivity than workers
in the blue-green office scheme. However, the hypothesisp
õ
0.05. Low screeners reported more Anger in the
white office than high screeners. In the red office, low that stated that workers who scored low on stimulus
screening ability (low screeners) would perform morescreeners reported more Depression than high screeners.
On the 4th day, the overall regression model for De- poorly in the red office than those who scored high on
stimulus screening (high screeners) was supported by thepression reached significance, F(3,86)
Å
3.46, p
õ
0.05,
R
2
Å
0.11 (see Table III). A significant interaction effect, study (see Fig. 3). Furthermore, the reverse was true for
workers in the blue-green office. High screeners per-F
Å
4.01, (1, 86), p
õ
0.05, occurred for stimulus screen-
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TABLE III. Means for profiles of Mood States Questionnaire at the beginning and end of the 1st and 4th days.
All subjects White office Red office Blue-green office
POMS Scale nÅ90 MSDnÅ30 MSDnÅ30 MSDnÅ30 MSD
Anger-hostility
day 1 morning 2.21 4.79 3.33 6.15 1.90 3.73 1.40 4.08
day 1 afternoon 3.01 5.94 3.43 7.47 3.90 6.27 1.70 3.19
day 4 morning 2.42 5.29 3.26 7.60 1.77 3.55 2.23 3.78
day 4 afternoon 2.83 6.80 4.03 8.16 3.20 7.96 1.27 2.79
Confusion-bewilderment
day 1 morning 4.39 3.59 4.43 3.16 5.33 4.54 3.40 2.62
day 1 afternoon 5.26 3.94 5.40 4.31 6.47 4.43 3.90 2.43
day 4 morning 4.01 3.44 4.03 3.90 4.47 3.52 3.53 2.87
day 4 afternoon 5.17 4.31 5.30 4.67 5.93 5.20 4.27 2.61
Depression-dejection
day 1 morning 3.58 7.11 3.93 5.83 4.17 9.95 2.63 4.55
day 1 afternoon 3.44 7.37 3.67 5.90 4.67 10.87 2.00 3.13
day 4 morning 2.39 4.67 2.93 6.23 1.70 2.93 2.53 4.31
day 4 afternoon 2.49 6.26 3.90 8.73 1.73 5.51 1.83 3.24
Fatigue-inertia
day 1 morning 4.73 5.19 4.70 4.33 5.23 6.15 4.27 5.07
day 1 afternoon 9.26 6.93 10.16 8.54 9.83 5.24 7.77 6.61
day 4 morning 3.91 5.56 3.90 5.30 3.47 5.59 4.37 5.94
day 4 afternoon 7.46 6.76 8.0 8.31 7.90 5.68 6.47 6.13
Tension-anxiety
day 1 morning 6.47 4.72 6.50 4.00 7.67 5.71 5.23 4.10
day 1 afternoon 6.87 5.24 7.03 5.15 8.10 6.21 5.47 3.94
day 4 morning 4.94 5.19 5.23 6.73 4.73 4.27 4.87 4.35
day 4 afternoon 7.03 5.91 8.27 6.76 6.80 6.08 6.03 4.69
Vigor-activity
day 1 morning 14.70 5.91 14.70 6.02 14.13 5.70 15.27 6.14
day 1 afternoon 11.29 6.34 11.13 7.27 9.67 4.82 13.07 6.41
day 4 morning 13.27 7.20 13.50 7.18 12.43 7.22 13.87 7.37
day 4 afternoon 10.98 6.87 11.50 7.11 9.27 6.77 12.17 6.62
formed more poorly in the blue-green office than low does performance up to a point. After reaching that opti-
mal level of arousal, any increase in arousal will lead toscreeners (see Fig. 4).
One explanation for these findings may be related to the decreased performance. How much arousal is optimal for
maximum performance depends on the task (Stennett).
35
Yerkes–Dodson
34
principle, which proposes that there is
a curvilinear relationship between arousal and perfor- Generally, more cognitively complex tasks require less
arousal to reach optimal performance and, hence, the be-mance. As an individual’s level of arousal increases, so
FIG. 4. High Screener and arousal levels in blue-green of-
FIG. 3. High Screener and low screener arousal levels in fice: day 1 and day 4.
red office: day 1 and day 4.
130 COLOR research and application
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ginning of deterioration in performance. Conversely, less colors for office interiors, may have played a role in the
subjects’ experience of a light blue-green office as morecomplex tasks can be performed well, even at very high
levels of arousal. Other factors, such as environment and pleasant than the red office.
As expected, low screeners reported more dysphoriaindividual differences, may affect where an individual’s
optimal point of arousal is for a given task. with respect to depression in the red office than high
screeners. Surprisingly, individuals with low stimulusThe literature on color has consistently supported the
notion of warm colors, especially red, to be more physio- screening ability in the white office reported more dys-
phoria with respect to anger and depression than individu-logically and psychologically arousing than cool colors,
in particular blue, which are associated with low levels als who were high on this ability. One explanation for
these findings may be that the starkness of the white officeof arousal or increased relaxation. If the red office envi-
ronment is inherently arousing, then high screeners are with respect to the lack of contrast and pigment was more
disturbing for low screeners than high screeners wholess likely to feel overwhelmed in terms of arousal. As
a result, those individuals may perform better than low could more easily ignore the overall visual impact of that
office environment.screeners, because such individuals are more likely to feel
overwhelmed to the point where their performance begins
to deteriorate.
CONCLUSIONS
In contrast, if the blue-green office environment is in-
herently relaxing, then high screeners may not experience In examining the effects of three different color schemes
on productivity, the results suggest that color schemesenough arousal in order to reach a higher level of produc-
tivity. However, low screeners may be nearer to their alone may have no discernible impact on productivity.
The contrasting color schemes (bright red vs. light blue-optimal level of arousal and hence perform better than
those with a higher level of stimulus screening ability. green) derived from Wise and his colleagues’ proposal
concerning value and saturation did not differentially im-Differences in performance were found for the names
comparison task, but notfor the numberscomparison task. pact productivity, nor did the white color scheme as uti-
lized by NASA differ from the red or blue-green colorIn a study by Smith
36
examining the effect of increased
arousal on the performance of subjects, the numbers com- scheme. Only when individual differences in the ability
to screen irrelevant environmental stimuli are taken intoparison task also revealed no significant result. In contrast,
a significant result was found for the names comparison account did the color schemes exhibit a differential impact
on productivity.One important implication is that alteringtask in which the level of arousal heightened by an audi-
tory stimulus was negatively related to performance on a specific interior environment to enhance productivity
may be quite difficult, because the impact of that interiorthat task. A plausible explanation may be that the numbers
comparison task is cognitively simpler to perform than may vary from person to person depending on each per-
son’s individual characteristics. As a result, employersthe names task. In the numbers task the main cognitive
operation is checking whether each numeral in a row may need to concern themselves more with screening
potential employees with similar relevant characteristics.of numerals matches that of a second row of numerals.
Similarly, in the names task, the aim is to check whether Attempting to create the ideal environmental ambiance
through interior color across all individuals, who mayeach letter in a row of letters is identical to that of a
second row of letters. However, an additional cognitive differ in several pertinent characteristics, may be impossi-
ble. Alternatively, interiors could be designed with maxi-operation confounds the task where each set of letters can
be read as a proper name. This may make the task more mum flexibility to allow for variations within the same
general space according to each individual’s relevantcomplex than the numbers task. The ceiling for maximum
performance of the numbers task may have been too low characteristics.
The findings on mood definitely suggest that colorand relatively insensitive to arousal level to detect any
differences in performance on this subtask. scheme alone may impact mood states in accordance with
previous findings. Furthermore, individual stimulus
screening ability may act as a moderating variable that
Mood can influence how people experience a particular interior
color scheme. These results may indicate that individualConsistent with the first hypothesis concerning mood
states, workers in the red office color scheme reported characteristics will need to be examined more closely in
trying to understand the impact of various color schemesmore dysphoria than workers in the blue-green office
color scheme. The results seem to follow the proposals on an individual’s affective experience.
Not surprisingly, mood and productivity had no rela-of Wise et al.,
1
who suggested that a color scheme embod-
ying the color qualities (value and saturation) represented tionship, suggesting that the impact of color schemes and
stimulus screening on both of these variables are indepen-by the blue-green office would be experienced as more
pleasant than a hypothetical color scheme with opposite dent. One prevalent assumption in studying employee per-
formance in the workplace is that the employee’s affectivecolor qualities, such as the red office color scheme. In
addition, the choice of a light blue-green, which the state is related to his or her performance on tasks. How-
ever, the results of thisstudy did not support this hypothe-BOSTI survey reported to be among the most preferred
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15. L. Sivik, Color meaning and perceptual color dimensions: A study
sis, which could have both practical and ethical implica-
of color samples. Goteburg Psych. Reports 4, 1–21 (1974).
tions for interior environmental design in the workplace.
16. A. Mehrabian, Manual for the Questionnaire Measure of Stimulus
Specifically, when designing an interior to maximize
Screening and Arousability, UCLA, Los Angeles, California, 1976.
worker productivity, its impact on a given individual’s
17. L. B. Yermolayeva –Tomina, Concentration of attention and strength
of the nervous system, in Pavlov’s Typology, J. A. Gray, Ed., Perga-
affective state may not be relevant in maximizing perfor-
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18. D. A. T. Siddle and G. L. Mangan, Arousability and individual
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examined with larger work samples over a more extended
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20. H. J. Eysenck, The Biological Basis of Personality, Charles C.
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