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Positive Psychology 2.0: Towards a Balanced Interactive Model of the Good Life

May 2011
Canadian Psychology/Psychologie canadienne 52(2):69-81

Authors:

Trent University

This paper first describes the growing pains and challenges of the positive psychology (PP) movement and identifies the four pillars of the good life as meaning, virtue, resilience, and well-being, which are all shaped by culture. I then introduce three issues that characterise the second wave of PP (referred to as PP 2.0). The first concerns the need for a comprehensive taxonomy of PP. The second involves the hypothesis that meaning-orientation and happiness-orientation represent two different visions of the good life with profound practical implications. Eudaimonia is viewed as meaning plus virtue. The third issue concerns a dual-systems model as a way to integrate the complex interactions between the negatives and positives to optimise positive outcomes in various situations. I conclude that PP 2.0 is characterised by a balanced, interactive, meaning-centered, and cross-cultural perspective. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Proposed New Taxonomy for a Balance PP Antecedent conditions Adaptive process Outcomes

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Positive Psychology 2.0: Towards a Balanced Interactive

Model of the Good Life

Published in Wong, P. T. P. (2011). Positive psychology 2.0: Towards a balanced

interactive model of the good life. Canadian Psychology, 52(2), 69-81.

This paper first describes the growing pains and challenges of the positive psychology

(PP) movement and identified the four pillars of the good life as meaning, virtue,

resilience, and well-being, which are all shaped by culture. I then introduce three

issues that characterise the second wave of PP (referred to as PP 2.0). The first

concerns the need for a comprehensive taxonomy of PP. The second involves the

hypothesis that meaning-orientation and happiness-orientation represent two different

visions of the good life with profound practical implications. Eudaimonia is viewed as

meaning plus virtue. The third issue concerns a dual-systems model as a way to

integrate the complex interactions between the negatives and positives to optimise

positive outcomes in various situations. I conclude that PP 2.0 is characterised by a

balanced, interactive, meaning-centered, and cross-cultural perspective.

Positive psychology (PP) has been all the rage since Martin Seligman’s APA

president address in 1998. In spite of its controversial nature (Carstensen & Charles,

2003; Held, 2002, 2004; Lazarus, 2003), PP has effectively changed the language and

landscape of mainstream psychology and it continues to grow exponentially in the

teaching, research, and applications of PP. The potential of applying PP to enhance

well-being is almost unlimited; it has already opened up new career opportunities for

psychologists in coaching, counselling, and consultation (Linley & Joseph, 2004;

Linley, Joseph, Harrington, & Wood, 2006). The PP movement has been spreading

like a forest fire with no sign of abating: research articles, books, and academic

conferences on PP continue to multiply. The formation of the International

Association of Positive Psychology is one of the many recent developments attesting

to the global appeal of PP. The vitality and creativity of PP research can be found in

mainstream psychology journals as well as specialized journals such as the Journal of

Positive Psychology and the Journal of Happiness Studies. By all indications, the

prospects of PP are bright, but there is a need to take stock and assess its future

direction, now that the dust has settled after the initial explosive growth. The present

paper represents both a reassessment and a reformulation of PP from a Canadian

vantage point.

Seligman’s (1998a) primary reason for launching the PP movement is to address the

imbalance in mainstream psychology. He emphasizes what is good about people to

counteract psychology’s preoccupation with psychopathology. This premise is correct

with respect to applied psychology and the study of emotions, but it becomes

questionable if one considers the totality of mainstream psychology research. For

example, numerous positive PP topics were already well researched prior to

Seligman’s (1998a) APA presidential address. Hart and Sasso (2010, this issue) have

found evidence of substantial growth of several PP sub domains, especially resilience.

Given the above, would PP become superfluous when an analysis of publication rates

of all the growth-oriented research topics fail to show a negativity bias in mainstream

psychology? I think not. I propose that a stronger argument in support of the

legitimacy

of PP is that PP is much more than a corrective reaction to the perceived imbalance in

the literature. Properly understood, the overarching mission of PP is to answer the

fundamental questions of what makes life worth living and how to improve life for all

people—this is also the heart and soul of the mission of both APA and CPA.

The Growing Pains and Challenges of Positive Psychology

Like any new movement, PP has attracted both supporters and detractors. Some of the

criticisms are caused by overstatements, resulting in unnecessary controversies and

criticisms. For example, the controversy regarding humanistic psychology’s

contribution to PP remains unresolved (Bohart & Greening, 2001; Robbins &

Friedman, 2008). The literature has also shown several legitimate concerns about PP:

What To Do About the Negative?

One persistent critique of PP is that it has ignored the reality and benefits of negative

emotions and experiences. Recently, there has been a shift in the PP movement from

focusing only on the positive as separate from psychopathology (Seligman, Steen,

Park & Peterson, 2005) to PP focusing the negatives, the dominant message of PP

(e.g., Fredrickson, 2009; Lyubomirsky, 2008; Peterson, 2006a) still maintains that

negatives will go away if people simply focus on enhancing the positives. However,

too much emphasis on positive affects as the answer to all ills can be

counterproductive because negative emotions, such as a guilt, regret, frustration, and

anger, can all motivate us toward positive change. Future research needs to test the

hypothesis that the development of character strengths and resilience may benefit

from prior experience of having overcome negative conditions. A balanced model

of PP explicitly seeks to harness the positive potentials from negative emotions and

situations for both individuals and society.

The Problem With Black-and-White Thinking

Related to the frequent criticism of “tyranny of positivity” (e.g., Held, 2002) is the

artificial dichotomous thinking of positive versus negative psychology. Such

distinction served a strategic function to launch the PP movement. It is also a useful

short-hand to differentiate between two different motivational systems (approach vs.

avoidance) or two emotional systems (positive affect vs. negative affect). However, in

the final analysis, most psychological phenomena cannot be properly understood

without considering both positive and negative experiences. Emotional experiences

are often complex, involving a mixture of positive and negative elements.

Toward a Balanced Interactive PP 2.0

Ryff and Singer (2003) emphasize the need to appreciate the dialectics between

positive and negative aspects of living: “Human well-being is fundamentally about the

joining of these two realms”(p. 279). In order to fully understand the complexity of

life in its totality, it is more promising to study the paradoxical and interactive effects

of positives and negatives in the next stage of development of PP. This is essentially a

concept paper for PP 2.0 which complements Seligman’s (1998b) original concept

paper and represents part of the ongoing evolution of PP.

The Need for a More Precise Terminology

The progress of PP has been plagued by an imprecise language (Haybron, 2000)

because in the vernacular, happiness and the good life have many surplus meanings,

and psychologists also offer different definitions. Even the term “positive” is

ambiguous because it refers to many things, such as positive valance as well as

outcomes in positive and negative circumstances. The same ambiguity also surrounds

the descriptive “negative.” Guilt and regret are considered negative emotions, but they

may lead to the positive changes. Similarly, pain is necessary for gain in mastering a

sport.

Happiness or subjective well-being (SWB) is typically defined as “people’s cognitive

and affective evaluations of their lives” (Diener, Diener, & Diener, 2009a, p. 43).

However, a global SWB score is less meaningful without any references to contextual

variables and past histories. For instance, a high SWB score for people struggling in

the midst of unrelenting adversity and poverty would have a very different meaning

and may reflect a very kind of adaptive process than the same SWB score for

someone enjoying a pleasant life in peace and prosperity. The more negative the

situation, the greater the adaptive effort is needed in order to maintain a high level of

SWB. See the elaborate adaptive process involved when I (2008) tried to regain a

sense of joy in the midst of prolonged and intense pain.

The concept of hedonic adaptation

(Frederick & Loewenstein, 1999) describes the tendency to return to the set-point

after high and low points in life, but it does not recognize the very different processes

and consequences of upward and downward adaptations. Thus, the real value of a

global SWB score needs to be interpreted by factoring in the current negativity index

and the history of adaptation to adversity (Larsen & Prizmic, 2008). By the same

token, the same global SWB score tells a different story, depending on the different

sources and avenues of happiness. The following types of happiness all contribute to

SWB, but they may involve different personalities, circumstances, and pathways.

1. Hedonic happiness. It is typically defined as evaluating one’s life as satisfying and

containing a high rate of positive affect and low rate of negative affect (Kahneman,

Diener, & Schwartz, 1999; Kashdan, Biswas-Diener, & King, 2008). What

immediately comes to mind is the kind of life that emphasizes “eat, drink, and be

merry” or the hedonic treadmill. It represents the sensorial experiential pathway to

happiness as well as the general happiness set point inherent in different individuals.

Some people are happygo- lucky, while some are naturally moody or melancholy.

2. Prudential happiness. Feelings of satisfaction that come primarily from living a

fully engaged life. It often includes the “flow” and the intrinsic joy of doing

something one does best and enjoys doing. It refers to a person’s doing well in what

she is good at and what delights him without moral considerations (Haybron, 2000). It

represents the active pathway to happiness, because it fills one’s life with activities

and contents as an antidote to boredom and inner void, and it also provides

satisfaction for a job well done.

3. Eudaimonic happiness. Different researchers have defined eudaimonia differently

(e.g., Kashdan, Biswas-Diener, & King, 2008; Ryan, Huta, & Deci, 2008; Ryff, 1989;

Seligman, 2002; Waterman, 2007). However, it serves as an umbrella term that

incorporates psychological well being, virtue/excellence, intrinsic

motivation/authenticity, flow/fully functioning, meaning/purpose, and concern for

others. Personally, I prefer to define eudaimonia as a lifestyle characterised by the

pursuit of virtue/excellence, meaning/purpose, doing good/making a difference, and

the resulting sense of fulfillment or flourishing. It refers to the kind of happiness

associated with living in a manner that “actively expresses excellency of character or

virtue” (Haybron, 2000, p. 3). This narrower definition differentiates eudaimonia from

hedonic and prudential happiness and recognizes the moral/ethical underpinnings of

eudaimonic well-being.

4. Chaironic happiness. Feeling blessed and fortunate because of a sense of awe,

gratitude, and oneness with nature or God. Chaironic (pronounced “chair”-“ronic”)

comes from the Greek root chairo (a´), which simply means blessing, joy, or gift

of happiness. However, chaironic happiness does depend on our preparedness and

receptivity. What really matters is our attitude toward life, our being mindful of the

moment and attuned to the transcendental reality. It is typically associated with peak

experiences, mindful meditation, and transcendental encounters. It represents the

existential spiritual pathway to happiness. It calls for empirical and theoretical work.

Granted that everyone may be seeking happiness, but people do differ in the kind of

happiness they pursue as the ultimate purpose in life. A global SWB measure is not

sensitive enough to differentiate these four types of happiness, because they all

contribute to

SWB, even though their sources and pathways may differ. More specialized well-

being measures are needed to complement the general SWB scale. For example,

eudaimonic happiness may be best measured by a eudaimonic happiness scale

(Waterman, 2008),

flourishing (Diener et al., 2009) or authenticity (Wood, Linley, Maltby, Baliousis, &

Joseph, 2008). Chaironic happiness may be more related to the spiritual well-being

scale (Bufford, Paloutzian, & Ellison, 1991) than other types of happiness. Presently, I

am developing a eudaimonia preference scale focusing on meaning and virtue in life’s

tough-choice situations.

The Future of a Balanced PP Is Now

Snyder and Lopez (2007) commented that “Future psychologists must develop an

inclusive approach that examines both the weaknesses and the strengths of people. . .

We have not reached that point, however, because we have yet to develop and explore

fully

the science and practice of positive psychology” (p. 9). For all their support of a

balanced PP, they see it as an ideal for the future. But I propose that the future is now.

Since we can never explore fully the science and practice of PP without considering

the limitations

of positives and the benefits of negatives (e.g., Aspinwall & Staudinger, 2003; Ryan

& Deci, 2001), why not adopt a new strategy of incorporating negative experiences in

all our research and practice of PP right now? Haybron (2007) has rightly emphasized

that “A crucial task for any theory of well-being is to give a credible accounting of the

value of pleasant and unpleasant experiences, especially suffering” (p. 12).

King (2001) points out that “the focus on the maximization of positive affect and the

minimization of negative affect has led to a view of the happy person as a well-

defended fortress, invulnerable to the vicissitudes of life. . . Perhaps focusing so much

on subjective

well-being, we have missed the somewhat more ambivalent truth of the good life”

(pp. 53–54). Larsen, Hemenover, Norris, and Cacioppo (2003) emphasize the health

benefits of coactivation of positive and negative emotions, which allow individuals to

gain understanding and mastery over stressful and traumatic experiences. Consistent

with Baumeister, Bratslavsky, Finkenauer, and Vohs (2001), Larsen (2009) has

documented the negativity bias. There is also considerable literature on posttraumatic

growth (Cassel

& Suedfeld, 2006; Joseph, 2009; Tedeschi & Calhoun, 1995). The clearest statement

in favour of a balanced approach of PP comes from Peterson’s (2006b) syllabus for

his course on Positive Psychology Interventions:

“Positive psychology calls for as much focus on strength as on weakness, as much

interest in building the best things in life as in repairing the worst, and as much

attention to fulfilling the lives of healthy people as to healing the wounds of the

distressed.”

Commenting on Sheldon, Kashdan, and Steger (in press); Steger (2010) wrote: “In

nearly every one of the essays, leaders in the field urge us not to myopically focus on

the ‘positive’ in psychology and to preserve the symbiotic relationship between the

good and the bad”. The challenge for PP 2.0 is to begin a research program NOW to

study the symbiotic relationship between the good and the bad. The enterprise of PP

2.0 needs to begin with a comprehensive new taxonomy that recognizes the

legitimacy of negatives in all subdomains of PP.

The Need for a New Taxonomy for a Balanced PP

Taxonomy, the most basic level of theory development, can be helpful in facilitating

the advance of PP. This new taxonomy of positive psychology, as shown in Table 1,

will achieve three things: First, it brings order to a wide array of seemingly

contradictory data. Second, it incorporates areas of research that have been ignored as

part of positive psychology. Third, it has the heuristic value of generating new areas

of research by looking at different combinations of the 2  2 matrix. The new

taxonomy must recognize the benefits and risks for both positives and negatives. To

achieve the good life and optimise well-being, one needs to know how to manage

risks and balance positives and negatives.

The main focus is on adaptive processes and positive outcomes in both positive and

negative conditions. This taxonomy has the heuristic value of stimulating PP research

regarding the optimal interactive adaptation to both positive and negative antecedent

conditions for individual and society.

Table 2 show a 2 x 2 contingency table involving Positive Traits – Positive Outcome

(Quadrant 1), Negative Traits – Positive Outcome (Quadrant 2), Positive Traits –

Negative Outcomes (Quadrant 3) and Negative Traits – Negative Outcomes (Quadrant

4). The same 2 x 2 contingency table can be applied to a variety of traits, conditions,

and processes, thus creating a systematic way of studying both the limits of positivity

and positive potentials of negativity.

PP generally focuses on the Quadrant 1 and ignores Quadrants 2 and 3, which also

hold potentials for PP. Quadrant 2 is an important but much neglected area. Every

virtue can become a vice when it is too much or too little. Similarly, the pursuit of

happinessboth on healing the worst AND building the best (Peterson, 2006a). While

acknowledging the need to address also has its downsides, such as greed and

indulgence in materialism and environmental exploitation (O’Brien, 2008). Quadrant

3 (Negative – Positive) holds enormous potential for enhancing the success and well-

being of multitudes who feel that they cannot compete because of all the deficits and

obstacles they face. The world is not fair in terms of life opportunities and health

conditions. Some were born with several strikes against them, and they have to endure

much more than their share of misfortunes and sufferings. Studying their adaptive

process and the positive potentials of various negative emotions and conditions can

benefit large numbers of disadvantaged and disabled people. According to PP 2.0, the

most effective strategy to maximize Positive – Positive and minimize Negative –

Negative is to discover the benefits of Positive – Negative and Negative – Positive.

Thus, the 4 Quadrants comprise a complete strategy of furthering the mission of PP.

Table 1

Proposed New Taxonomy for a Balance PP

Antecedent conditions

Adaptive process

Outcomes

Positive

good living conditions

good health

positive attitudes

good resources

self-determination

congruent coping, response flexibility

goal persistence

high well-being

actualization, virtue

benefits to society

group morale

Negative

bad living conditions

bad health

negative attitudes

lack of resources

acceptance

endurance

transcendence

transformation

wisdom, humility

growth, maturity

patience, faith

spiritual formation

Table 2

A Balanced Approach to Character Traits and Outcomes

Quadrant 1

Positive Trait: Self-confidence

Negative Trait: Self-doubt

Quadrant 2

Positive Outcomes

Success & happiness

Optimal functioning

Fame & power

Self-improvement

Humility

Trust in God & others

Negative Outcomes

Arrogance

Revenge

Alienating friends

Disillusion

Fear and anxiety

Escape from reality

Despair

Depression

Quadrant 3

Quadrant 4

Balancing Between Individualist and Collectivist

Orientations

The positive outcomes can be either for the individual or for the group/society. A

group-oriented positive psychology is more consistent with collectivistic cultures

(Leong & Wong, 2003). Social activism and political reform also belong to the realm

of positive psychology if they result in the enhancement of justice and the common

good (Csikszentmihalyi, 2009). The positive motivations for the well-being

of othershave not attracted much attention of PP researchers. Altruism (Batson,

Ahmad, Lishner, & Tsang, 2002) and compassion (Gilbert, 2009) represent only a

small segment of PP’s broader concern for creating positive institutions.

People in strong collectivist cultures may be more concerned about securing a better

life for their family than for themselves. Over the years, I have met many professional

people from China or Korea who work at low-paying jobs in Canada so that their

children can have a better education and a better future. They endure marginalization

and downward social mobility for their children’s happiness. Thus, there are cultural

differences in the balancing act between me and we. For PP 2.0, we need to

emphasize positive motivations, processes, activities, and outcomes for both

individuals and groups. Examples of positive outcomes for individuals include life

satisfaction, achievement, and self-esteem, while positive outcomes for groups would

encompass harmonious relationships, group morale, and collaborative success.

Toward a Balanced Definition of PP

In view of the rapid expansion of PP, it becomes increasingly difficult to have a

comprehensive definition that encompasses different aspects of PP. Seligman, Steen,

Park, and Peterson (2005) remain committed to the three-pillar definition of PP as “an

umbrella term for the study of positive emotions, positive character traits, and

enabling institutions” (p. 410). It is worth noting that Seligman et al. recognize that “a

complete science and a complete practice of psychology should include an

understanding of suffering and happiness, as well as their interaction”, but they

consider relief of suffering and enhancement of happiness as “two separate

endeavours” (p. 410). According to PP 2.0, these are inherently interdependent

endeavours. The focus on what is good about people in times of peace and prosperity

is only half of the story. The whole story of PP is about how to bring out the best in

people in good and bad times in spite of their internal and external limitations. Thus,

PP may be defined as the scientific study of virtue, meaning, resilience, and well-

being, as well as evidencebased applications to improve the life of individuals and

society in the totality of life.

The Four Pillars of Positive Psychology

Virtue, meaning, resilience, and well-being are the four of pillars of PP 2.0 because

extensive research has shown that they are the major ingredients of PP, as evidenced

in textbooks and journal publications in PP. Empirically, these four pillars incorporate

many areas of mainstream research which recognizes the moral imperative, the

centrality of meaning, the intrinsic human capacity for resilience, and the universal

human yearning for happiness and a better future. Logically, it is difficult for people

to survive and flourish lacking any of these four ingredients. It is always difficult and

risky to identify areas as essential for positive psychology. My choice of these four

additional pillars is based on both empirical research, as reviewed here, and the

broadest possible psychological understanding of what is essential to make life better

for individuals and society in good times and bad. Seligman’s three pillars represent

the characteristics and outcomes of having achieved a high level of meaning, virtue,

resilience, and well-being. Recently, Seligman has added relationships as an

additional pillar, which is also included as a major source of meaning (Wong, 1998).

The Imperative of Virtue

Virtue is concerned with what kind of person we want to be and the kind of values

and character strengths we want to possess. Unlike competence-based strengths, virtue

cannot be a value neutral term just like “good” is not a value neutral descriptor. Good

invariably begs the question of good for what. A consensus is emerging among

positive psychologists that what is good needs to be both for the individual and the

common good. Virtue, not science, provides a moral map for how we ought to live our

lives and how we ought to develop just and compassionate societies. It takes people

with virtue and integrity to create positive institutions and democratic society. Virtue

is its own reward. It feels good from doing good, even when it hurts. Living a virtuous

life may not always be good for the individual— because the pursuit of what is good

and just may result in persecution and oppression— but it will be good for the

common good (Haybron, 2000).

Fowers (2008) points out that virtues and ethics are important not only for

psychologists but also for the good life in general: “Virtues are the character strengths

that are necessary to pursue what is good. . . That means that what counts as a virtue is

determined largely by what we believe to be the best, highest, most admirable, most

noble aims for humans” (p. 631).

He further adds that “the identification and description of our ends are central to

defining the character strengths we deem admirable and worth cultivating. Because

positive psychologists aim to promote human flourishing and character strength, one

could reasonably expect them to articulate a rich and resonant understanding of what

is good for humans” (p. 631). I agree with Fowers that the concept of good cannot be

entirely based on “the inherent worth of virtue and on the subjective markers of that

worth” (p. 633), because such a view heavily reflects the individualistic bias of

contemporary Western societies without considering the value-systems of more

collectivist societies. Research on virtues needs to recognize cultural differences as we

move toward an international positive psychology.

Another concern is that purely subjective views of what is good will give license to

people to do evil in the name of doing what they are best at, be it gambling, killing, or

exploiting people. According to a value-neutral view of character strengths, even

serial killers and terrorists can be considered living the good life (Seligman, 2002).

Fowers suggests that we need to consider collectivist virtues, “such as citizenship,

responsibility, nurturance, altruism, civility, and tolerance” (p. 634). He also raises the

issue of how to balance the individual and group-level virtues and how to “curb the

possibility of becoming too masterful or hedonically oriented” (p. 634). These issues

implicate the importance of moral/ethical consideration and cultural norms with

respect to what is good.

PP takes an ambiguous stance with respect to moral values because of its emphasis on

science. On the one hand, Seligman emphasizes that the main purpose of PP is to

understand and enhance human strengths and civil virtues (Seligman, 2002), and one

of the 10 criteria for selected each character strengths in Peterson and Seligman

(2004) that the strength needs to be “morally valued in its own right” and a person’s

display of the strength does not diminish or hurt other people. On the other hand, the

above quote seems to suggest that the display of strength can contribute to the good

life, even if it is destructive to others. This inconsistency has been pointed out by a

number of philosophers and psychologists (Martin, 2007; Robbins, 2008;

Sundararajan, 2005; Taylor, 2001; Woolfolk & Wasserman, 2005).

Such inconsistency may be due to Peterson and Seligman’s (2004) emphasis on

competence-and-success values at the expense of moral and ethical values. Their

stance on moral neutrality actually waters down their emphasis on the need for civil

virtue in creating positive institutions and societies. Kraut (2009) maintains that the

ethics of well-being must consider what is good and dismisses that it requires each

individual to construct his or her own definition of the good. It is questionable

whether anyone’s life can be considered “good” or if anyone can be considered of

having a “good character” if either are morally corrupt and ethically harmful to

society. McCullough and Snyder (2000) define virtue as “any psychological process

that consistently enables a person to think and act so as to yield benefits to him or

herself and society” (p. 1). What is good depends on the purposes it

serves. Good must mean good for something, Applying Aristotle’s virtue ethics Kraut

(2009) argues that human good needs to entail whatever fosters human flourishing.

The good life demands the presence of virtue. At the heart of how should we live is

the question of good—how we ought to live a worthy and excellent life that embodies

the best existential values that characterise us as human beings.

Virtue research incorporates several lines of mainstream research, such as moral

development (Gilligan, 1977; Kohlberg, 1981; Walker, 1989), prosocial behaviour

(Clark, 1991), and compassion (Gilbert, 2005, 2009). Moral psychology, at the

intersection of psychology and philosophy, promises to be an area of substantial

growth in PP, especially when eudaimonic well-being gains currency. Like well-

being, virtue also has a cultural dimension (Leong & Wong, 2003; Rigsby, 1994).

The Centrality of Meaning

Jerome Bruner (1992) has long sought to establish meaning as the central concept of

psychology. Peterson’s (1999) analysis has shown that a fuller understanding of

meaning-making requires us to connect the world of myths and beliefs with the world

of science and neuropsychology. Hoffman (2009) concludes that “the attainment of

meaning is one of the most central aspects of human existence and necessary to

address in existential therapy” (p. 49). A meaning-centered PP 2.0 goes beyond the

confines of science to explore narratives, myths, and culture as advocated by the

above three authors.

Prominent positive psychologists typically consider meaning as one of the

components of happiness or the good life (Park, Peterson, & Ruch, 2009; Peterson &

Seligman, 2004; Seligman, 2002). However, the construct of meaning is much

broader and richer. It is much more than being an antecedent or outcome measure of

happiness. Based on implicit theories, research of lay people’s beliefs of what

constitutes the ideal good life or the ideal meaning full life, when money is no longer

an issue, Wong (1998) has identified eight sources of meaning: happiness,

achievement, intimacy, relationship, self-transcendence, self-acceptance, and fairness.

This finding has been replicated in several other cultures (Kim, Lee & Wong, 2005;

Lin & Wong, 2006; Takano & Wong, 2004). The Personal Meaning Profile (PMP) as

reported in Wong (1998) and McDonald, Wong, and Gingras (in press), excludes the

happiness component in order to minimize the problem of confound when PMP is

used to predict well-being. The seven major sources of meaning are very similar to the

major sources of happiness (Myers, 1993).

Apart from sources of meaning, we also need to consider the structure and functions

of meaning defined as PURE (Wong, 2010a) which stands for Purpose,

Understanding, Responsible action and Enjoyment. Functionally, these four

components cover for many psychological processes for the good life: motivational

(purpose), cognitive (understanding), moral/spiritual (responsibility), and

evaluative/affective (enjoyment). They function together as part of the self-regulation

process (Baumeister & Vohs, 2004; Carver & Scheier, 2001; Ryan & Deci, 2000).

Purpose-driven life. Purpose has to do with the overall direction, life goals, and core

values. It provides the framework of daily deliberations and navigating troubled

waters. According to Kashdan and McKnight (2009), purpose can be characterized as

a central, self-organizing life aim. At one level, purpose refers to the incentive

objectives, goals, and plans (Emmons, Colby, & Kaiser, 1998; Gollwitzer, 1999;

Klinger, 1998). At a deeper level, purpose is concerned with the existential values:

what really matters in life and what would make for the ideal good life (Wong, 2010b;

Wong & Gingras, 2010). At a higher level, purpose refers to devoting something

larger and higher than oneself; Park, Peterson, and Ruch (2009) considers this broader

or higher concern as the

hallmark of a meaningful life.

Understanding and a sense of coherence. Without a sense of coherence, life is

incomprehensible, unpredictable, and unsettling. Without a sense of order and

understanding of how the world works, we would have difficulty achieving hardiness

(Maddi, 1998). Without a clear sense of self-identity, we would not know what to do

with our lives. Pursuit of self-understanding and selfknowledge is important for self-

control (Baumeister, Heatherton, & Tice, 1994). At a situational level, it requires

attribution and appraisal in order to know how to cope (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984;

Peacock & Wong, 1990; Seligman, 1990; Wong & Weiner, 1981). Understanding also

includes emotional intelligence (Salovey, Mayer, & Caruso, 2002). At a deeper level,

enlightenment about life and death and one’s place in the large scheme of things is

needed to discover the meaning of life (Wong, 2010b). Understanding entails the need

for self-reflection and self-acceptance, which are components of meaningful living

(Wong, 1998, 2007).

There is also a social/cultural dimension to understanding. According to constructivist

psychology (Raskin & Bridges, 2004), meaning making is involved in understanding

self and the world, in navigating everyday life. Meanings are subjectively constructed

based on one’s personal history and idiographic way of experiencing the world, but

the ways we understand our world and ourselves are also shaped by culture, language,

and ongoing relationships. Thus, curiosity, meaning seeking, myth-making, and

storytelling all contribute to our understanding of ourselves and the world we live in.

Responsible action. It is concerned with doing what is right and what is good. With

freedom comes responsibility. Since selfdetermination is one of the keys to happiness

and the good life, the ability to make good decisions is paramount. Good decisions not

only lead to successful or satisfying results for the individual, but also meet ethical

requirements and contribute to the well-being of others (e.g., Snyder & Feldman,

2000).

Aristotle (trans. 2004) emphasizes the importance of practical wisdom as well as

rationality. In Sternberg’s (2001) words, practical wisdom is “not simply about

maximizing one’s own or someone else’s self-interest, but about balancing various

selfinterests (intrapersonal) with the interests of others (interpersonal) and of other

aspects of the context in which one lives (extrapersonal), such as one’s city or country

or environment or even God” (p. 231). To decide on the right course of action

demands that we have the right purpose in life, the correct understanding of the

situation, and careful consideration of its consequences on other people. One is

responsible not only to one’s own conscience and conviction, but also to others and a

higher authority.

Enjoyment and evaluation. Feeling good is the inevitable outcome from doing good

in light of one’s highest purpose and best understanding. One can feel satisfied with

the decision and action even when one fails to accomplish the desired result. Thus,

meaning is related to both SWB and eudaimonia. When the situation worsens and

when dissatisfaction sets in, self-regulation demands that one reevaluate one’s

purpose and understand actions in order to made midcourse corrections. The

evaluative component is necessary to ensure that one does not remain stuck in a rut.

Here discontent serves a positive function when it compels the unhappy person to

make positive changes.

The central, integrating function of meaning. Meaning serves a vital function to

integrate various aspects of human needs and functions. The centrality of meaning can

also be appreciated from the stand point of meeting the basic human needs

(Baumeister & Vohs, 2004) for purpose, efficacy and control, value and justification,

and self-worth. Furthermore, there is extensive literature on the relationships between

meaning and various indices of well-being in personality and social psychology (e.g.,

Baumeister, 1991; Brickman, 1987; Chamberlain & Zika, 1988; Deci & Ryan, 1991;

Kasser & Ryan, 1993; Klinger, 1977; Little,1989; McAdams, 1993; Reker &

Chamberlain, 2000; Reker, Peacock, & Wong, 1987;Ryff, 1989; Ryff & Keyes, 1995;

Sheldon & Kasser, 1995; Wong & Fry, 1998; Wong, in press).

The Necessity of Resilience

It is inevitable that we will experience setbacks, obstacles, failures, losses, sickness,

and death. It makes a great difference how we respond to adversities. Typically,

resilience is conceptualised in terms of protective factors within the individual and

available in the culture or environment. Such factors not only prevent people from

getting sick but enable them to bounce back from illness or trauma. The broadest way

to view resilience is terms of adaptation—the process of adjusting and overcoming

setbacks, resulting not only in bouncing back but also in becoming stronger.

Resilience simply means the capacity to endure, bounce back, and grow in the midst

of adversities and existential anxieties; we can study resilience both in terms of the

underlying processes and its beneficial effects on the human being.

According to Davydov, Stewart, Ritchie, and Chaudieu (2010), “Resilience can be

viewed as a defence mechanism, which enables people to thrive in the face of

adversity.” However, I conceptualise resilience is involved in both recovering and

flourishing as defined by Keyes and Lopez (2002). Resilience depends on having

sufficient inner and external resources to cope with whatever life throws as us.

Resilience also depends on learning effective coping strategies and skills to manage

different kinds of troubles and threats. This learning process requires cultural

knowledge (Rigsby, 1994; Wong & Wong, 2006) and the ability to differentiate

between adaptive and maladaptive coping processes. Recently, Ungar and his

associates (Ungar & Lerner, 2008 and Ungar & Liebenberg, 2009) have broadened

resilience to include ecological and cultural factors. They define resilience as the

development and application of science-based knowledge pertaining to positive

development, positive adjustment and thriving across the life span. In sum, resilience

is a complex and multifaceted adaptation process with cognitive, behavioural, social,

and cultural components.

The will to live is the key to resilience. Frankl (1985) defined the will to live as the

will to meaning. According to the meaningcentered approach (Wong & Wong, in

press), the will to live consists of having meaning and purpose and the capacity to

transform negatives to positives.

The Psychology of Well-Being

The good life necessarily entails well-being. The psychology of well-being serves as

an umbrella term for happiness, health, flourishing, and optimal functioning at both

the individual and national levels in both positive and negative conditions. Well-being

denotes the desirable condition of our existence and the end state of our pursuit. All

human efforts and ingenuities are directed to improving their well-being and bettering

their future. Everyone who is seeking and striving for something is after some kind of

wellbeing— something that makes them feel good and something that is evaluated as

good and satisfying. Culture shapes our understanding of happiness and our

expression of emotions (Ahuvia, 2001; Carter, 1991; Chang, 1996; Christopher, 2005;

Leong & Wong, 2003; Pederson, 1999; Sue & Constantine, 2003; Wong, Wong, &

Scott, 2006). Given that there are cultural differences, subjective well-being still

provides a useful index on how we are doing and how well we live at the individual

and national level. Diener and Tov (2009) have reported that overall life satisfaction

and positive affects have different predictors in different countries.

Well-being reflects not only healthy functioning and happiness (Ryan & Huta, 2009),

but also serves an evaluative function in the self-determination process (Ryan, Huta,

& Deci, 2008). Wellbeing is concerned with both objective assessments of wellness

and the subjective judgment of how satisfied one is with their life in terms of physical,

mental, social, economic, and emotional well-being. A high level of well-being, both

subjective and objective, flows from living by our best light (virtue), pursing our most

cherished dreams (meaning), and overcoming life’s difficulties (resilience). A sense of

well-being also comes from developing the attitudes and skills to appreciate life,

savour the moments, and enhance happiness. Positive affects, in turn, will increase our

capacity for virtue, meaning, and resilience (Frederickson, 2002; Lyubomirsky, King,

& Diener, 2005). There is a need to develop a more complete taxonomy and index of

national and individual well-being. The current Canadian Index of Wellbeing (CIW,

2009) includes six components: living standards,

healthy populations, community vitality, democratic engagement, time use, and

leisure and culture. The CIW places too much emphasis on physical, social, and

economic well-being and very little on psychological well-being such as meaning in

life, subjective well-being, relationships, and spiritual well-being. Ryff and associates

have identified several dimensions of psychological well-being (Keyes & Ryff, 2000;

Ryff, 1989; Ryff & Keyes, 1995; Ryff & Singer, 1998). Ryff (1989) proposed three

major dimensions: psychological, social, and emotional. Each of these dimensions

includes separate elements. For example, psychological wellbeing includes self-

acceptance, personal growth, purpose in life, environmental mastery, autonomy, and

positive relationships with others. This sounds very much like what constitutes a

meaningful life according to the PMP (Wong, 1998). In other words, psychological

well-being according to Ryff is much broader than subjective well-being.

Well-being enriches and energizes life; it also endows life with a sense of joy and

meaning. All the struggles and sufferings seem worth it when we are able to drink

from the fountains of happiness. It is tempting to view the meaning of life purely in

terms of

positive affects. However, psychology of well-being needs to study both the perils of

happiness (Wong, 2007) and the benefits of suffering (Frankl, 1985; Wong, 2009).

A complete theory of well-being needs to take into account negative emotions and

suffering (Haybron, 2003). One cannot define well-being in terms of the absence of

negative affect and conditions as I have discussed earlier. Approach-oriented

motivations need to work in conjunction with avoidance-oriented motivations to

produce the optimal level of adaptation and well-being. Watson (2002; Watson &

Clark, 1994) have demonstrated the coexistence and the interdependence of positive

and negative affect. Diener and Emmons (1984); Keyes and Ryff (2000), and

Bradburn (1969) have all demonstrated the independence of negative and positive

emotions. Therefore, the challenge for people is not to avoid or minimize negative

emotions or to achieve the ideal positive-to-negative ratio as proposed by Fredrickson

and Losada (2005). Instead, the challenge for psychologists is to help people achieve

the optimal level of well-being in spite of the difficulties and pains they are going

through. The psychology of well-being needs to focus more on the positive potential

of transcending and transforming negative emotions. Salovey, Mayer, and Caruso

(2002) proposed that the best way to manage emotions is to balance approach-oriented

and avoidance-oriented emotions. According to PP 2.0, well-being is not the algebra

of positive minus negative but positive plus negative. In other words, the capacity to

transcend and transform negative provides an additional source of well-being to

positively based well-being. Some recent studies (e.g., Huta & Hawley, 2010)

combined strengths and vulnerabilities and examined their relations to well-being.

The present balanced model goes one step further. It will predict one’s coping efficacy

with vulnerability, and negative emotions will be positively related to both strengths

and well-being.

Two Mindsets: Meaning Orientation Versus Happiness

Orientation

One emerging trend in PP is the recognition of meaning and eudaimonia. The debates

of meaning versus happiness and eudaimonic happiness versus hedonic happiness are

closely related. Eudaimonia can be understood from a meaning perspective because of

its emphasis on purpose, understanding, responsibility, and enjoying the fruit of the

good life. Eudaimonia can also be viewed as rooted in both inner goodness and the

common good, as previously discussed. In other words, eudaimonia can be defined as

meaning plus virtue. A meaning-orientation with a focus on virtues becomes a

eudaimonic orientation. The distinction between eudaimonia (meaning) and hedonic

happiness is an important one for parenting, education, and positive psychology. For

example, Haybron (personal communication) suggested that eudaimonia might

provide the key to resolving the parenting paradox in SWB research which shows that

parents with young children tend to be the least happy of them all. Gilbert (Munsey,

2010) suggests that parents need to believe that their hard work and sacrifice are

worth it in order to raise good children. In order words, being responsible and

sacrificial parents may result in eudaimonic rather than hedonic well-being.

Takamori, Akehashi, and Ito (2006) observe that: “Modern society is plagued with ills

such as violence in its many forms, including tyranny, terrorism, murder, and suicide.

Real answers to these problems continue to elude us. Our advances may have made us

richer, but they have not done anything to ensure our happiness or provide us with a

sense of abiding meaningfulness. In fact, modern life often seems only to bring more

acute feelings of isolation, loneliness, and emptiness” (p. ix”). How can we be freed

from all these human miseries in spite of material prosperity?

They point on that this question was addressed more than 25 hundred years ago by

Siddhartha Guatama (Sakyamuni), the founder of Buddhism. Born a prince, raised in

privilege and luxury, and blessed with everything that people ever dreamed of for

happiness, yet his heart was not happy. He was troubled by existential givens of old

age, sickness and death; and he was burdened by the suffering of fellow human

beings. As a result, he devoted nine decades of his life to search and spread the

wisdom of how to achieve inner peace and happiness by being freed from ignorance

and greed—the root of all suffering—so that people can experience the joy of being

alive. Obviously, he was not interested in hedonic or prudential happiness; his pursuit

can be best described as eudaimonic and chaironic. Researchers have found happiness

ranks as one of life’s most cherished goals (Diener, 2000; Lyubomirsky, 2001). But

Sakyamuni, Confucius, and many modern saints have pursued a very different kind of

happiness, one that is closely linked to finding meaning and virtue or eduaimonia.

These people are willing to sacrifice their personal comforts and even their own lives

for a higher purpose enhancing the well-being of humanity.

PP 2.0 is interested in studying these two contrasting visions of happiness—one

focuses on the pursuit of personal happiness and success, the other on the pursuit of

meaning and virtue. Needless to say, most people would say that what matters most to

them is personal happiness and success, but a tiny small segment would say that what

matters most is make this world a better place. The latter group would include people

like Gandhi, Nelson Mendela, Martin Luther King, Jr., Mother Theresa, and the many

social/political reformers and humanitarian relief workers who sacrifice their own

comforts and risk their own lives for the well-being of others. Why are psychologists

more interested in what makes life happiest rather than what makes life most

meaningful and virtuous? Haybron (2000) points out that “the question of what way

of life will make one happiest may be second only to that of what manner of living

would be most admirable or virtuous as a matter of practical consideration when

confronted with Socrates’ question” (p. 7).

Huta and Ryan (2010) report eudaimonic motivation tends to be more strongly related

to a sense of meaning and purpose in life, whereas hedonic motivation tends to be

more closely linked to positive emotions and a sense of being carefree. I maintain that

two different types of happiness represent two fundamentally different mindsets in

terms of basic life orientation, ultimate concerns, lifestyles, and well-being. I propose

that it matters a great deal whether one is primarily motivated to pursue happiness or a

meaningful virtuous life as the ultimate purpose.

In this paper, I equate meaning orientation with eudaimonia and happiness with both

hedonic and prudential types of happiness. This difference in mindset will influence

the tough choices one makes. A happiness-oriented person is more likely to give up in

the face of adversity, whereas a meaning-oriented person is more likely to persevere

in spite of personal suffering. The differences between the two different mindsets are

shown in Table 3. These two mindsets will also leads to different predictions in

various conditions, as suggested in Table 4.

The two different mindsets also lead to different predictions with respect to how we

relate to environmental issues. According to Boehm and Lyubomirsky (2009),

sustainable happiness refers to intentional efforts that enhance level of personal

happiness beyond the set point; pursuit of hedonic happiness may result to unbridled

consumerism. In contrast, O’Brien (2008) defines sustainable happiness as “the

pursuit of happiness that does not exploit other people, the environment, or future

generations” (p. 289). Her concept of happiness is more like eudaimonia because she

emphasizes personal and social responsibilities to contribute to global well-being.

Another benefit of a Meaning Orientation (MO) is that it is especially important to the

suffering masses. For people living in abject poverty or in Nazi death camps, they

would not have many opportunities for enjoying a pleasant life. Similarly, individuals

struck with severe and chronic illnesses and disabilities would not be fully engaged in

life. Fortunately, even when people are forced to live an impoverished and restricted

life, they can still manage to live a meaningful life (Frankl, 1985; Wong, 2009).

Interestingly, Seligman (2002) also emphasizes that “people who are impoverished,

depressed, or suicidal care about much more than just the relief of their suffering.

These people care—sometimes desperately—about virtue, about purpose, about

integrity and about meaning” (p. xi). Therefore, a meaning-orientation is more

adaptive than a happiness-orientation in terms of overcoming adversity and enjoying a

high level of well-being in the midst of suffering.

Table 3

Differences Between Meaning and Happiness Orientations in Terms of Life Purpose

and Core Values

Meaning Orientation

Happiness Orientation

1. Actualizing meaning & purpose

1. Optimizing positive experiences

2. Primarily interested in eudaimonic &

chaironic well-being

2. Primarily interested in hedonic and

prudential well-being

3. Pursuing worthy ideals, even at personal costs

3. Pursuing worldly success and avoiding

pain and sacrifice

4. Concerned with how to live a life good in all

respect

4. Concerned with what will make me

happiest

5. Concerned with satisfaction with one’s life as

a whole

5. Concerned with feeling happy moment by

moment

6. More interested in nurturing the inner life—

inner peace & joy

6. More interested in external sources of

happiness

Table 4

Differences Between Meaning and Happiness Orientations in Terms of Personal

Characteristics and Life Choices

Meaning Orientation

Happiness Orientation

Responsibility above feeling

Feeling above responsibility

High in compassion and altruism

Low in compassion and altruism

High in delayed gratification

High in immediate gratification

Endurance & perseverance

Giving up in the face of hardships

Willing to sacrifice self interests for family

& friends

Putting self-interests above family and friends

Will speak up against corruption at the risk

of losing one’s job

Will keep quiet against one’s own values in order

to keep one’s job

Places moral and ethical principles above

expediency

Will place expediency and practical gain above

moral and ethical principles

High in self-control, transcendence,

courage, spirituality

High in self-confidence, self efficacy, achievement

motivation, competence

A Dual-System Model of the Good Life

The proposed dual-system model represents our attempt to conceptualise how the

positives and negatives interact with each other to achieve the good life. This model

incorporates all the elements I have discussed earlier. Although the present model

focuses on the dual-system of approach and avoidance motivations, it is actually a

complex multisystem model of self regulation. For example, the mindful awareness

state is important when the person is not actively engaged in approach and avoidance

activity By adding clarity and vividness to experience, savouring contributes directly

to well-being, happiness and self-regulation (Brown & Ryan, 2003; Brown, Ryan, &

Creswell, 2007).

It is not possible to understand the good life apart from various contextual factors.

Culture influences all components in the model. Personality traits are also relevant in

terms of their temperament and strengths and weaknesses. A complete understanding

of the good life needs to take into account a multidimensional or complex system

approach. Recently, Sheldon (2009) has also proposed a multilevel model of human

flourishing, involving biological and cognitive levels of the persons within supportive

social contexts and cultures. Similarly, DelleFave (2009) emphasizes that optimal

experiences vary according to culture contexts and meaningmaking.

According to the traditional approach-avoidance model, avoidance motive detracts

from the approach motive, resulting in a reduced approach tendency. However,

according to the dualsystems model, the right amount of avoidance can strengthen

approach. For example, when a person is motivated by both fear of failure and the

need for success, he will be work harder than when he is only motivated by

achievement need. Similarly, when a person is motivated by both the fear of getting ill

and the desire to enjoy good health, she is more likely to stay healthy than when she

pays attention only to health promotion without any thoughts about disease

prevention.

According to this dialectical, interactive, and dynamic dualsystem view, PP will pay

more attention to contextual variables and adaptive processes in both positive and

negative conditions. To fully experience life, to feel keenly alive is to embrace life in

totality. The dual-systems model depicts the complex interactions in living a full life.

For more details of this model, please read Wong (2010a, in press).

Conclusions

One out of five Canadians will experience some form of mental illness or disorder in

their lifetime (Canadian Mental Health Association, 2010). The challenge is twofold:

First, finding effective ways of treating people with mental illness; second, how to

create conditions that will prevent mental illnesses. The old approach of focusing on

psychopathology will not achieve the prevention goal. The American Positive

Psychology movement will not be adequate by itself in achieving the treatment goal.

The present balanced

model of PP 2.0 has the potential to attain both goals; it emphasizes the need to

enhance the positives and manage the negatives in order to increase well-being and

decrease mental illnesses.

Servan-Schreiber (2009) says “You can’t be healthy on a sick planet” (p. 81)—a

planet contaminated by toxins, chemicals, and pollutants. He emphasizes the need to

create a healthy environment and healthy lifestyle in order to prevent cancer and

promote well-being. Similarly, you cannot live a healthy and fulfilling life in a sick

world contaminated by crime, corruption, injustice, oppression, and poverty. Such

evils can destroy individuals and societies like cancer cells. Positive psychology 2.0

emphasizes the need to develop good and decent people as well as a civil society by

promoting meaning/virtue and overcoming and transforming the negatives.

PP is in flux. Given the dynamic changes in the field, PP today is already very

different from what was originally proposed by Seligman. I emphasize that PP needs

to synthesize the positive and negative, take a clear stance on the imperative of

virtues, integrate across levels of analysis, and build constituency with all branches of

mainstream psychology around the globe. I also shift the focus away from individual

happiness and success to a meaning-centered approach to making life better for all

people. According to Csikszentmihalyi (2009), “The next big challenge for this new

field is to help improving the social and cultural conditions in which people live.”

If PP is broad enough to encompass most areas of psychology, it may lose its identity

and reason for existence. On the other hand, if we place an arbitrary restriction as to

belong to PP, we may be perceived as being divisive. To resolve this dilemma, I

propose that PP 2.0 represents a mindset, a movement and a big tent for all positive-

oriented psychologists, rather than a distinct subdiscipline. PP will continue to evolve

and grow, and it will emerge as a vibrant and ever-expanding area of interest without

clear borders. PP can serve the same function as the counterpart to Abnormal

Psychology by integrating the various lines of research related to meaning, virtue,

resilience, and well-being in the service of making life better for individuals and

society. PP provides a hopeful framework for developing good and fully functioning

human beings and psychologically healthy institutions in spite of the negativity and

finitude inherent in human existence.

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Tithi Bhatnagar

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Pulkit Khanna

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Oct 2021

José Sánchez Maldonado

La pandemia de la covid-19 es el evento inesperado y singular que está marcando nuestra época a todos los niveles. A nivel macroeconómico seguimos sufriendo un shock exógeno que nos traslada a una situación de la que todavía no tenemos claro cómo salir.

Using Metaphors to Shine a Light on Wellbeing Education

Chapter

Jan 2023

Despite the increased attention on wellbeing over the decades, scholars and the general public continue to question how wellbeing is best understood and defined. One valuable tool to assist people in conceptualising wellbeing is the use of metaphor. Often adopted to describe complex phenomena in a simple and relatable way, metaphors have been used as a powerful learning tool in fields such as medicine, psychology, and business to aid understanding of a range of topics, including the human body, therapy, family dynamics and workplace conflict. The power of metaphors to convey vivid imagery, encourage intuitive interpretation, and illuminate deep understanding stands them in good stead to be used in wellbeing education. This chapter makes a case for the broad, intentional, and strategic use of metaphors in wellbeing education to promote wellbeing literacy, increase student voice, and help design whole-school wellbeing approaches that ultimately boost teachers’ and students’ wellbeing.

Factors Predicting the Subjective Well-Being of Nations

Article

Full-text available

Nov 1995

Subjective well-being (SWB) in 55 nations, reported in probability surveys and a large college student sample, was correlated with social, economic, and cultural characteristics of the nations. The SWB surveys, representing nations that include three fourths of the earth's population, showed strong convergence. Separate measures of the predictor variables also converged and formed scales with high reliability, with the exception of the comparison variables. High income, individualism, human rights, and societal equality correlated strongly with each other, and with SWB across surveys. Income correlated with SWB even after basic need fulfillment was controlled. Only individualism persistently correlated with SWB when other predictors were controlled. Cultural homogeneity, income growth, and income comparison showed either low or inconsistent relations with SWB.

Ironies of the human condition: Well-being and health on the way to mortality.

Chapter

Jan 2003

Human aging: Why is even good news taken as bad?

Chapter

Jan 2003

Toward a science of mental health: Positive directions in diagnosis and interventions

Article

Jan 2002

Multiculturalism as a fourth force in counseling

Article

Jan 1990

P. Pedersen

The role of purpose in life and personal growth in positive human health

Article

Jan 1998

Hope for the Many: An Empowering Social Agenda

Article

Jan 2000

The search for meaning in evolutionary perspective and its clinical implications

Article

Jan 1998

Eric Klinger

Happiness Is Everything, or Is It Explorations on the Meaning of Psychological Well-Being

Article

Jan 1989
J PERS SOC PSYCHOL

C.D. Ryff

Designing Positive Psychology: Taking Stock and Moving Forward

Book

Jan 2011

Positive psychology exploded into public consciousness ten years ago and has continued to capture attention around the world ever since. The movement promised to study positive human nature, using only the most rigorous scientific tools and theories. How well has this promise been fulfilled? This book evaluates the first decade of this fledgling field of study from the perspective of nearly every leading researcher in the field. Scholars in the areas of social, personality, clinical, biological, emotional, and applied psychology take stock of their fields, while bearing in mind the original manifesto and goals of the positive psychology movement. Chapters provide honest, critical evaluations of the flaws and untapped potential of these various fields of study. The chapters design the optimal future of positive psychology by addressing gaps, biases, and methodological limitations, and exploring exciting new questions.

Positive Psychology 2.0: Towards a Balanced Interactive Model of the Good Life

Abstract and Figures

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