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The Impact of Rural Broadband Development: Lessons from a Natural Field Experiment
Abstract
Significant public investments in rural broadband internet service authorized by the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act raise new questions regarding the impacts of broadband on rural residents and communities. The results of a natural field experiment involving broadband internet projects funded by the Community Connect program of the Rural Utilities Service are reviewed here to provide a context for future evaluations of the effects of broadband infrastructure deployment and efforts to stimulate sustainable broadband use in rural areas. Based on pre–post surveys conducted in four communities in 2005 and 2008, the implementation of broadband infrastructure grants increased broadband adoption, although penetration also increased where a grant was awarded but later terminated. Public education efforts in a community participating in the ConnectKentucky initiative had an incremental effect on broadband adoption by positively affecting residents' perceptions of broadband service. Impacts on individual economic development activities and community satisfaction were not found. Implications for rural broadband initiatives and future evaluations of their effects are drawn.
... 5 For example, in May 2022, following up on campaign trail promises, the Biden administration committed to reducing the cost of high-speed internet for low-income families (White House (2022)). 6 The prior literature focuses on the effects of internet on education and health (LaRose et al. (2011), Bauerly et al. (2019), democratic participation (Campante, Durante, and Sobbrio (2017)), economic growth (Czernich et al. (2011)), wage and employment growth (Forman, Goldfarb, and Greenstein (2012)), productivity for firms (Akerman, Gaarder, and Mogstad (2015)), and possible costs including increased sexual crime (Bhuller et al. (2013)), reduced psychological well-being (Kraut et al. (1998)), and internet addiction (Ko et al. (2012)). 7 We note that fiber-optic (fixed line) broadband is distinct from mobile broadband technology. ...
... For example, using the same survey as in Figure 5, we find that the shares of respondents who have used the internet to purchase food/take-out or to gamble also increased over the broadband reform period, from 0% and 1% to 3% and 6%, respectively (see Statistics Norway (2022) for summary statistics for other internet activities). Existing papers also show that increased internet use may have a wide range of adverse effects, such as increased sexual crime (Bhuller et al. (2013)), reduced psychological well-being (Kraut et al. (1998)), and internet addiction (Ko et al. (2012)); as well as benefits in terms of improved education and health (LaRose et al. (2011), Bauerly et al. (2019) and democratic participation (Campante, Durante, and Sobbrio (2017)). To the extent that these activities impact stock market participation, we cannot exclude the possibility that reform-induced changes to these activities may in part shape the observed effects of broadband use on stock market participation. ...
We study the effects of broadband internet use on the investment decisions of individual investors. A public program in Norway provides plausibly exogenous variation in internet use. Our instrumental variables estimates show that internet use causes a substantial increase in stock market participation, driven primarily by increased fund ownership. Existing investors tilt their portfolios toward funds, thereby obtaining more diversified portfolios and higher Sharpe ratios, and do not increase their trading activity in stocks. Overall, access to high‐speed internet spurs a “democratization of finance,” with individuals making investment decisions that are more in line with the advice from portfolio theory.
... Aunque para las comunidades rurales, la distancia y el aislamiento suelen ser parte de su vida cotidiana (LaRose et al., 2011), en un escenario de pandemia, la necesidad de conexión y comunicación está aún más presentes. ...
... En el área de la inclusión digital, la ruralidad representa una desventaja. Esto se debe a la brecha urbano-rural (LaRose et al., 2011;Correa & Pavez, 2016;Correa et al., 2017) y porque se ha establecido que la calidad del acceso sigue siendo un desafío, particularmente en el sur global (Martínez et al., 2020). ...
Los niños de zonas rurales se han enfrentado históricamente a severas desventajas tanto en el ámbito educativo como en el digital. La pandemia de COVID-19 ha sido un recordatorio de las barreras que deben sortear debido a la inestable señal de internet, carencias de dispositivos y habilidades digitales. Por ello este trabajo discute el concepto de nativos digitales, es decir, la creencia de que los menores de edad, independiente de sus circunstancias, gozan de habilidades digitales que les permite hacer uso de internet sin necesidad de guías o instrucción previa. Desde una perspectiva cualitativa se analizan discursos y construcciones sociales sobre el rol de internet en la vida diaria a niños de entre 11 y 12 años, a través de la entrevista en tríadas a los menores, sus madres y profesores jefes, además de los directivos de escuelas en cuatro localidades rurales en Chile durante el segundo año de la pandemia. Los principales hallazgos muestran que, a pesar de ser parte de un grupo desfavorecido y la precariedad de la conexión a internet, todos los participantes tienen acceso a teléfonos inteligentes desde una edad temprana. No obstante, los adultos de su entorno educativo tienden a coincidir que el escaso desarrollo de habilidades digitales obstaculiza su proceso de aprendizaje remoto, a pesar de que los niños presentan confianza en el uso de dispositivos.
... In particular, on the basis of previous research carried out in this direction, we set ourselves the objective of analysing the state of progress of ultra-wideband (FTTH) and some socio-economic and geographical variables. While there are certainly those who would not consider advanced technologies, there are also those at any price who consider them crucial to achieving a better quality of life, also highlighting four factors, such as geographic disparities, profit discrimination, technology deployment costs, and socioeconomic factors, that play an important role in the digital divide [48][49][50][51]. ...
... Based on the analysed literature, it was chosen to identify the status of construction sites as the nominal variable [48][49][50][51][52][53]. The low number of observations and the need to make the results of the statistical analyses more interpretable, necessitated a grouping of this variable. ...
The digital economy and the associated productivity gains generated by the diffusion of the Internet are considered fundamental components of growth models. Scientific reflection converges in considering balanced access to digital services as a diriment factor for the promotion of competitiveness, equity, economic development and social and environmental sustainability. Although the availability of infrastructure is not sufficient to achieve the full development of the territory and the community, it is nevertheless an unavoidable prerequisite for today's and future technological and digital applications and, therefore, investigating the type of association between the presence of communication networks and the socio-economic structure of the territories is essential to understanding the very nature of multidimensional inequalities and their spatial and geographical distribution, within a framework that sees infrastructure as a conversion factor and means of development for capabilities. Based on the theories of social exclusion, the capability approach and critical theory, the research presented aims to investigate, through the analysis of a case study, the possible association between the state of progress of broadband implementation and specific territorial configurations, considering also different variables of a geographical nature.
... Les politiques de demande, moins souvent considérées, semblent donc essentielles (Hauge et Prieger, 2010 ;Szeles, 2018), en particulier lorsque les infrastructures ont atteint un certain niveau de développement (Belloc et al., 2012). Pour d'autres, une politique multidimensionnelle, associant déploiement d'infrastructures, soutien financier à l'équipement des agents, et médiation numérique, constituerait la stratégie la plus efficace (LaRose et al., 2011 ;Whitacre et al., 2015). ...
... Demand-side policies, less often considered, therefore seem essential (Hauge and Prieger, 2010;Szeles, 2018), especially when infrastructure has reached a certain level of development (Belloc et al., 2012). For others, a multidimensional policy, combining infrastructure deployment, financial support for agent equipment, and digital mediation, would be the most effective strategy (LaRose et al., 2011;Whitacre et al., 2015). ...
... Les politiques de demande, moins souvent considérées, semblent donc essentielles (Hauge et Prieger, 2010 ;Szeles, 2018), en particulier lorsque les infrastructures ont atteint un certain niveau de développement (Belloc et al., 2012). Pour d'autres, une politique multidimensionnelle, associant déploiement d'infrastructures, soutien financier à l'équipement des agents, et médiation numérique, constituerait la stratégie la plus efficace (LaRose et al., 2011 ;Whitacre et al., 2015). ...
... Demand-side policies, less often considered, therefore seem essential (Hauge and Prieger, 2010;Szeles, 2018), especially when infrastructure has reached a certain level of development (Belloc et al., 2012). For others, a multidimensional policy, combining infrastructure deployment, financial support for agent equipment, and digital mediation, would be the most effective strategy (LaRose et al., 2011;Whitacre et al., 2015). ...
... It is not surprising then that e-commerce has become increasingly prominent in the rural areas of many developing countries. E-commerce not only breaks the spatial distance amongst economic activities and significantly reduces transaction costs but also lowers the threshold of rural economic development and creates more employment opportunities for migrant workers, thereby narrowing the digital divide and increasing the information dividend (Larose et al 2011). These advantages make e-commerce a potent tool to increase farmers' income and encourage rural residents' participation. ...
Digital technology has enormous potential in rural revitalisation, thus providing impetus for improving the well-being of rural residents in underdeveloped areas. This study takes the policies of e-commerce in rural areas as an intervention in the development of e-commerce. It uses the panel data from 321 counties in the old revolutionary areas of China from 2003 to 2020 to empirically explore the impact of e-commerce development on the income of rural residents. Results show that e-commerce significantly improves the income and well-being of rural residents in old revolutionary areas. Propensity score matching and entropy balance matching are used to overcome group differences in covariate features, and the estimation results are consistently robust. In terms of mechanisms, e-commerce development increases per capita income in old revolutionary areas by promoting three aspects significantly: agricultural revitalisation, non-agricultural employment, and government support efforts. On the other hand, the heterogeneity analysis shows that e-commerce plays a diminishing role in increasing income in the eastern, central, and western regions.
... In the literature, the concept of rurality is tightly linked to a geographic gap limiting quality access to the Internet (LaRose et al., 2011). Empirical evidence consistently points to challenges such as poor access to infrastructure, signal quality, low socioeconomic status, and an abundance of manual jobs in rural populations (Roberts et al., 2016;Williams et al., 2016). ...
This study delves into the intricate challenges surrounding incorporating information and communication technologies (ICTs) in education, particularly in regions characterized by digital exclusion, such as rural areas. By recognizing the potential of ICTs to support and expand student learning opportunities, this research explores the necessity for effective implementation through tailored professional development aligned with teachers' contextual conditions and needs. In addressing these challenges, the study explores the concept of technological appropriation, underscoring the significance of individual and contextual elements in adapting ICTs to users' specific needs and environments. Through unstructured face-to-face interviews with 21 teachers immersed in a digitally vulnerable rural context, this research unveils insights into how educators’ appropriate technologies to enhance student learning. The findings of this study contribute to the development of educational practices tailored to rural contexts, focusing on providing a meaningful and effective learning experience for students. By shedding light on teachers' strategies for navigating the digital landscape in challenging environments, the research aims to inform policies and practices that bridge the technological gap, ultimately fostering equitable access and enhanced educational outcomes in rural settings.
... (Sanchez & Jara, 2019) No obstante, es preciso señalar que; en el espacio de la inclusión digital, la ruralidad simboliza una desventaja. Esto se debe a la brecha urbano-rural (LaRose et al., 2011;Correa & Pavez, 2016;Correa et al., 2017). Si bien en Latinoamérica se han procurado esfuerzos considerables para ofrecer acceso a internet a las zonas rurales, la banda ancha sigue siendo precaria, ya que suele presentar inestabilidad, por el clima u otros factores. ...
La presente investigación presenta una revisión sistemática sobre los desafíos educativos de la enseñanza en las escuelas rurales, el objetivo es identificar los distintos desafíos que tienen los maestros de escuelas rurales se tuvo como bases de referencias Scopus y Scielo entre los años 2018-2024. para el análisis se usa la metodología PPRISMA versión 2020, para el presente trabajo se usó un total de 9 artículos seleccionados. Como hallazgo se vislumbró que los docentes en formación y profesionales de la educación enfrentan distintos desafíos. Además, resalta la importancia de la función del docente como un soporte o pilar para que los obstáculos no perjudiquen a los educandos rurales. Así mismo se quiere dar conocer la realidad de los docentes y estudiantes en distintos países acerca de la educación que reciben, sobre todo en poblados alejados.
Palabras clave: Educación, enseñanza, aprendizaje, docente, capacitaciones y escuela rural.
... When high-speed Internet first began to expand, some researchers were able to quantify potentially causal impacts utilizing sources for instrumental variables capable of predicting hardwired broadband adoption. Some examples include housing patterns (Dettling, 2017), steepness of terrain (Ivus & Boland, 2015;Kolko, 2012), previous period's concentration of technology firms (Forman et al., 2012), historical telephone patterns (Czernich et al., 2011), and distance to infrastructure (Fabritz, 2013;Forman et al., 2012;Larose et al., 2011). However, these techniques are only valid for hardwired internet access and tended to work best in early periods of internet adoption, when many faced binding constraints to adoption. ...
Gains in internet access and quality have increased output and revenue for companies, but these gains are not uniformly distributed across regions, industries, or worker types. I examine county-level wage and income measures on time-dynamic broadband uptake rates, mobile internet access, and local education levels. Datasets from the Census and FCC are combined to construct a rich dataset of all counties in the continental US from 2010-2019. Interaction terms between internet access, duration of access, and educational levels are included to capture the heterogeneous relationship between internet access and wages across across different levels of education. Decompositions of these regressions indicate that only 25% of the differences in wages and income are driven by heterogeneous returns to internet access and education across metro densities, with the majority of the difference determined by the levels of these variables themselves.
... In general, the Turney sample had average digital literacy, suggesting that this was not a major barrier to usage. Other studies have found that digital literacy training, access to affordable devices, and subsidies are key programmatic elements for increasing adoption and changing internet usage behavior (LaRose et al., 2011;Whitacre et al., 2015). ...
Having adequate access to the internet at home enhances quality-of-life for households and facilitates economic and social opportunities. Despite increased investment in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, millions of households in the rural United States still lack adequate access to high-speed internet. In this study, we evaluate a wireless broadband network deployed in Turney, a small, underserved rural community in northwest Missouri. In addition to collecting survey data before and after this internet intervention, we collected pre-treatment and post-treatment survey data from comparison communities to serve as a control group. Due to technical constraints, some of Turney's interested participants could not connect to the network, creating an additional comparison group. These comparisons suggest two primary findings, (1) changes in using the internet for employment, education, and health could not be directly attributed to the internet intervention, and (2) the internet intervention was associated with benefits stemming from the ability to use multiple devices at once. This study has implications for the design of future broadband evaluation studies, particularly those examining underserved rather than unserved communities. Recommendations for identifying appropriate outcome variables, executing recruitment strategies, and selecting the timing of surveys are made.
... Specialization contributed to rural development, which greatly improved labor efficiency (Becker and Barro, 1988). In addition to providing better learning and education opportunities for farmers, EC has increased information dividends, narrowed the digital divide (Larose et al., 2011;Islam et al., 2016) and narrowed the gap between rural and urban development (Akca et al., 2007). ...
Rural E-commerce (EC) has experienced rapid growth in China since 21st century. The formation of Taobao Villages has brought considerable economic and social benefits in farmers' flexible employment and poverty reduction, which contributes to the future development direction of rural and underdeveloped areas. Adopting the panel data of Taobao Villages (TB-villages) in 57 counties of Zhejiang Province from 2010 to 2018, this paper applies the continuous difference-in-differences (DID) method to investigate the impact and mechanism of TB-villages on rural residents' incomes. As a result of empirical analysis, TB-villages significantly and positively affect rural residents' incomes. More specifically, per capita net income will increase by 3.6% for every 1% increase in the proportion of TB-villages in administrative villages. In mountainous counties, the income-increasing effect is considerably higher than that of non-mountainous counties. Furthermore, the mechanism analysis reveals that the industry structure has a considerable mediating effect, and the proportion of export to GDP has a significant suppressing effect. Local governments are expected to increase investment in industry structure and create a more conducive environment for rural economic development, according to this paper. Additionally, the policy should be oriented toward mountainous and backward areas.
... Rural communities still struggle to obtain high-speed internet connections that enable wider social participation (Vogels, 2021). The lack of access to broadband or other internet services further isolates and marginalises those communities (LaRose et al., 2011;Whitacre et al., 2014). ...
The Covid‐19 pandemic has challenged public health practitioners and clinicians at multiple levels to intentionally consider the impact of social isolation on health outcomes. Many community‐based programmes design interventions to address tangible challenges within the social determinants of health, such as asset insecurity or food insecurity, to address health inequities. The growing need to address social isolation within marginalised communities also requires organisations to collaborate and create community partnerships that strengthen their own social integration within the community. The present research reports on the results of a Social Network Analysis (SNA) of community programmes within three southern U.S. cities and their local collaborations to address social isolation. After interviewing representatives of 46 community organisations, it was found that social service organisations that also offer public health services play a central role in community efforts to improve social isolation. The participating organisations primarily collaborate through referrals and information sharing, and report inadequate resources. With a growing recognition that social services and supports play a considerable role in addressing health inequities, this study provides evidence of opportunities for interorganisational collaboration to promote individual and community health.
... As we point in the introduction of this study, the state's economy is mainly based on intensive agriculture, and industry and services are highly connected to this activity. The positive effect of broadband on agricultural sector, and rural areas is well reported in literature (Forman et al., 2005;Rose et al., 2011) agricultural and rural firms. Consequently, our results point that broadband also impacts municipal economies largely influenced by intensive agriculture activities. ...
This paper proposes an extension of the Bayesian instrumental variables regression which allows spatial and temporal correlation among observations. For that, we introduce a double separable covariance matrix, adopting a Conditional Autoregressive structure for the spatial component, and a first-order autoregressive process for the temporal component. We also introduce a Bayesian multiple imputation to handle missing data considering uncertainty. The inference procedure is described joint with a step by step Monte Carlo Markov Chain algorithm for parameters estimation. We illustrate our methodology through a simulation study and a real application that investigates how broadband affects the Gross Domestic Product of municipalities in the state of Mato Grosso do Sul from 2010 to 2017.
... Finally, a significant critique of local digital town plans and bottom-up initiatives is that the capacity to evaluate the effectiveness of actions and interventions may be missing at a local town level (Hauge & Prieger, 2010). LaRose et al. (2011) found that local community efforts to publicise and demonstrate broadband applications increased adoption, though they did not find strong evidence that local broadband availability produced greater community satisfaction or local individual economic development activities. ...
... Finally, a significant critique of local digital town plans and bottom-up initiatives is that the capacity to evaluate the effectiveness of actions and interventions may be missing at a local town level (Hauge & Prieger, 2010). LaRose et al. (2011) found that local community efforts to publicise and demonstrate broadband applications increased adoption, though they did not find strong evidence that local broadband availability produced greater community satisfaction or local individual economic development activities. ...
Realising the potential of digital technologies in smaller and rural towns is a significant organisational and management challenge involving a diverse range of stakeholders, who may have conflicting motivations. It requires substantial horizontal integration at a local level to leverage local contextual knowledge and relationships to increase participation in initiatives, while at the same time requiring vertical integration with political, social, and economic institutions and agencies, to facilitate the flow of resources. This chapter explores some of the governance challenges and mechanisms for building rural community resilience to digital technology evolution. It concludes with a discussion of how the governance of digital initiatives are measured by intergovernmental and international organisations, to the limited extent that they are at all.
... While the overall evidence base is mixed -including examples of broadband correlated with null or even negative development impacts (LaRose et al., 2011;Belo et al., 2013;Ford, 2018) -the balance leans towards positive impacts, and that is certainly the perception driving both policy and investment. As noted in the Introduction, a central concern has therefore been the "broadband divide": a lack of access to development benefits for those unable to make effective use of broadband. ...
... While the overall evidence base is mixed -including examples of broadband correlated with null or even negative development impacts (LaRose et al., 2011;Belo et al., 2013;Ford, 2018) -the balance leans towards positive impacts, and that is certainly the perception driving both policy and investment. As noted in the Introduction, a central concern has therefore been the "broadband divide": a lack of access to development benefits for those unable to make effective use of broadband. ...
Growing broadband connectivity is central to development strategies of all countries. Thus measurement of that connectivity and associated broadband divides is an essential foundation for telecommunications and digital policy. Yet traditional broadband measures face challenges of data completeness, accuracy, relevance, timeliness and accessibility.
This paper therefore investigates the potential for measuring broadband connectivity and broadband divides between countries using aggregated crowdsourced big data, based on online survey of connectivity speeds from many millions of users. This data source exposes broadband divides between high-, middle- and low-income countries. While such divides are well known, we demonstrate that this form of big data provides a more complete and accurate picture, alongside other benefits compared to traditional data sources.
We show how this aggregated form of big data offers new insights: into divides between fixed and mobile networks, and download and upload speeds; and we show how it can be used to calculate new broadband indices and to measure readiness for broadband. Acknowledging the limitations of this type of big data to guide broadband divide measurement and related policy decisions, we argue it should be at least a complement to traditional measures given, unlike many big datasets, that it is free to access.
... Although the level of penetration in terms of Internet access is high in both developed and developing economies, the urban/rural digital gap remains strong (La Rose et al. 2011;Rivera, Lima and Castillo, 2014). There are no data measuring ICT indicators in rural areas, but rural communities deserve the same access to fast, reliable all-fibre networks as those living in urban areas. ...
Achieving the UN Sustainable Development Goal of ‘a world with zero hunger’ by 2030 will require more productive, efficient, sustainable, inclusive, transparent and resilient food systems. This requires an urgent transformation of the agrifood sector. Digital innovations may be part of the solution. The ‘Fourth Industrial Revolution’ is seeing sectors rapidly transformed by ‘disruptive’ technologies such as Internet of Things and Artificial Intelligence and there are multiple potential applications in agrifood systems.
However, there are challenges. In particular, there is the risk of a ‘digital divide’. Developing economies and rural areas with weak technological infrastructure, low levels of e-literacy and digital skills and limited access to services risk being left behind in the digitalization process. Work is needed to ensure everyone benefits in the emerging digital society.
Conditions for a digital transformation
Certain conditions will shape the digital transformation of agriculture in different contexts:
• Basic and hygienic conditions are the minimum conditions required to use technology: availability, connectivity, affordability, e-literacy levels and supporting policies.
• Enabling conditions (‘enablers’) further facilitate the adoption of technologies: internet usage and digital skills among populations and support for agripreneurship and innovation culture.
• The capacity to take advantage of digital technologies will define the extent and nature of the economic, social and environmental impacts.
Examples of the use of digital technologies in agrifood systems
Digital technologies have already been shown to deliver benefits in agrifood systems. For example: mobile applications providing price information to farmers can reduce market distortions and improve earnings; precision agriculture technologies can improve efficiency of production; and, artificial intelligence can support timely decision making.
Challenges and future work
Social, economic and policy systems will need to shift to provide the basic conditions and enablers for digital transformation of agriculture. Disparities in access to technologies and services will need to be addressed.
Work on this will require more systematic data on digital technologies and digitalisation at the regional and population level. Different models will need to be identified for the inclusion of small-scale farmers in the digitalization process. Creation of a Digital Agriculture Readiness Index to evaluate the status of digital agriculture in different countries could help identify critical next steps in the digital agriculture transformation process.
... The deployment of broadband is not taking place at the same pace as its availability. The use of broadband appears to be influenced by the educational level of the population, household income, age, previous experience with the use of information technology and the construction cost of broadband (Carare et al., 2015;Whitacre et al., 2014;LaRose, Strover, Gregg, & Straubhaar, 2011). ...
This paper estimates the effect of the expansion of broadband infrastructure, which enables high-speed Internet, on population development in panel of Finnish areas in the period 2010–2018. The study differs from previous studies in that it uses accurate statistics on the availability of broadband in 1 km * 1 km population grids. Therefore, the impact of broadband availability on rural development is evaluated more accurately than previously. The results of the Difference-in-difference (DiD) regression analysis show that the availability of broadband reduces depopulation of remote and sparsely populated rural areas. In this respect, the telecommunication policy in Finland has been successful, and the findings encourage the expansion of broadband infrastructure in rural areas.
... ey are particularly di cult to establish when the data receiving care o ce does not use the same health system with a shared provider directory, such as a private hospital or public hospital network. Finally, these large-scale datasets are di cult to share immediately due to not only limitations in bandwidth or restrictive rewall se ings, such as in rural areas, but also large volumes of data like medical images [8]. ...
... ey are particularly di cult to establish when the data receiving care o ce does not use the same health system with a shared provider directory, such as a private hospital or public hospital network. Finally, these large-scale datasets are di cult to share immediately due to not only limitations in bandwidth or restrictive rewall se ings, such as in rural areas, but also large volumes of data like medical images [8]. ...
... As summarised in Table 1, the extant literature has emphasised the plurality of roles played by public actors on both sides of the broadband markets (Gómez-Barroso & Feijóo, 2010;Ramos et al., 2009;Troulos & Maglaris, 2011). Previous research has primarily explored how the interplay between public and private players has affected the development of broadband markets, providing conflicting and ambiguous evidence (Gerli & Whalley, 2018;LaRose, Strover, Gregg, & Straubhaar, 2011;Tapia, Powell, & Ortiz, 2009). Little research has been instead conducted on the interaction among the different public actors involved in broadband markets. ...
EU broadband policy has been described as an example of multi-level governance (MLG) involving manifold actors across different sectors and levels of government. Whereas the extant literature has largely explored the interaction among public and private players and between national and supranational regulators in the context of the EU broadband markets, little attention has been paid to the MLG of state aid for broadband diffusion. This paper aims to fill such a research gap by employing multiple qualitative methods to explore how MLG has affected the implementation of public initiatives in support of broadband diffusion across Spain, Italy and the UK. The cross-country comparison reveals a trend towards the centralisation of public interventions, which created efficiencies in the management of state aid but raised tensions with local authorities. Therefore, the current MLG of state aid needs to be adjusted to balance the benefits of a greater coordination with the need to ensure the effective and active participation of local stakeholders to the implementation of broadband projects.
This chapter analyzes the various channels through which digital space influences the emergence or reduction of regional inequalities, encompassing aspects like accessibility, skills, and governance. The focus is placed on the transformative changes that digital space introduces to territorial inclusion processes, serving as a catalyst for the emergence of proximity-based opportunities through entrepreneurial discovery, while simultaneously enhancing flexibility and amplifying the effects of knowledge spillovers. Finally, the examination extends to the transformative impact of digital space on the policy landscape, with a specific focus on the EU Cohesion Policy and the Digital Decade. This analysis reveals new opportunities and, at the same time, presents fresh challenges in the pursuit of territorial inclusion.
This study analyzed the impact of the USDA's Broadband Initiatives Program on employment and business survival. While average employment declined in both program and non‐program areas, the decline was less severe in program areas, suggesting a positive impact. This impact was primarily observed in metro counties, the service sector, and employer establishments. Businesses in program areas were also less likely to fail than those outside the program areas, with variation across location, business type, and industry.
The digitalization of rural areas in Russia lags behind the EU countries. This requires an assessment of potential drivers, barriers, and consequences of this process, taking into account foreign practices. The purpose of the study is to systematize the views of foreign authors on the factors, barriers, and consequences of the digital transformation of rural areas in the context of Russian reality. Methods and materials: content analysis of articles, express analysis of statistical data. Results: socio-economic factors have a significant impact on the digitalization of rural areas. Factors are characterized by duality and can be both drivers and barriers to digitalization. By improving the quantitative parameters of “barriers”, it is possible to transfer them to the state of “drivers”. Barriers to the digitalization of rural areas in Russia are the low density of population and rural settlements, the small population of rural settlements. This complicates the creation of digital infrastructure. The competitive advantage of Russia in the development of mobile communications and broadband mobile Internet is an important driver of rural digitalization. This factor largely helps to neutralize the negative impact of “barriers” and can become the main “agenda” of digitalization in the long term.KeywordsDigitalizationFactorsDriversBarriersConsequences
This paper studies the labour market effects of the Broadband Initiatives Program (BIP), a programme authorized by the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 to promote broadband deployment, mainly in rural areas. The BIP is one of the largest USDA broadband programmes implemented to date, providing more than $3.4 billion in grants and loans in FY 2010. We investigate the impacts of BIP investments on employment outcomes in BIP‐recipient Census tracts compared to similar tracts outside of BIP project service areas between the inception of the programme in 2010 and 2019. We use a quasi‐experimental research design that combines difference‐in‐difference regression with propensity score matching estimation to identify the causal effect of the BIP investments on employment outcomes. We find that the BIP investments had a positive overall effect on employment growth that increased over time. The subsidized investments had a greater effect on employment in startups than in incumbent businesses, in the goods‐producing sector and the information and communications technology sector than other sectors, and a greater effect in micropolitan census tracts than tracts located in metropolitan areas or in small town and remote rural locations.
Rural e-commerce is a powerful tool for rural economic revitalization, and it will continue to transform and survive with the continuous promotion of rural revitalization. Analyze the mechanism and path of farmers’ connection to the e-commerce market, study its development rules, summarize the existing practical experience, and analyze emerging new models. Through the establishment of supply and marketing cooperatives, more employment opportunities would be provided, enhance the regional economic strength, and meet the diversified consumption needs of farmers. Establish a co-construction mechanism between farmers, e-commerce markets, and the government, explore the “rural e-commerce+rural tourism” model, encourage farmers to start businesses and generate income, provide theoretical support and practical experience exploration for achieving sustainable development and rural revitalization, and make positive contributions to the implementation of the rural revitalization strategy.
Many rural US communities lack access to adequate broadband services. This paper draws on semi-structured interviews conducted in 2019 with 16 Regional Planning Commissions to uncover dynamics of how these intergovernmental organizations contribute to the deployment of broadband infrastructure in rural Missouri. The proposed framework integrates the decomposed Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), the Theory of Reasoned Goal Pursuit, and Stakeholder Theory. Many participants reported a low level of involvement in broadband infrastructure initiatives even though supporting infrastructure development to promote economic growth is one of the Regional Planning Commissions' primary goals. Regional Planning Commissions are highly influenced by four primary stakeholder groups, (1) residents and businesses, (2) local governments, (3) internet service providers, and (4) state and federal government, which vary in terms of priorities and power. While defining the region's priorities with elected officials, Regional Planning Commissions often “push them forward” to recognize the necessity of broadband infrastructure. However, Regional Planning Commissions also struggle with low self-efficacy and inadequate expertise to support broadband planning efforts. The proposed framework could be generalized to understand actions and decisions by other intergovernmental organizations that have convening power and face similar power dynamics with their stakeholders.
ICT infrastructure development has become a profound influencing factor for rural society in addressing conventional deprivations such as geographical isolation and information asymmetry. Rooted in an entrenched urban-rural system, rural China has been marginalised and shared very little benefits from the urbanisation program in the country, where the ICT technologies are highly expected to trigger innovative development approach towards rural revitalisation. This study first delineates the development trajectories of rural society in China from a retrospective perspective, where four development stages has been identified in terms of the evolving policy and socioeconomic context against which rural society in China has been developing. Following the review of rural China’s development trajectories, this study examines the restructuring of rural society in contemporary China, and argued that rural restructuring in China is filled with volatility and complexity shaped by multi-forces and lies in multi-facets. Afterwards, the recent development of ICT infrastructures is investigated to understand how this emerging technological force is bringing innovative development opportunities to rural communities; meanwhile, the challenges faced by rural China in the digital era are critiqued.KeywordsRural ChinaDigital eraICT infrastructuresICT for development (ICT4D)Rural evolutionOpportunities and challenges
This study explores the impact of information and communications technology (ICT) use on rural child welfare practice using a technology‐in‐practice framework to derive the social structures that are instantiated by rural child welfare workers (CWWs) and to examine their agency as actors. ICT use was tracked, and interviews were conducted with rural CWWs who work with children and families to gain an understanding of and describe their day‐to‐day ICT use at the practice level. Findings demonstrate that CWWs enact social structures along four frames: bureaucratic structure, family centricity, ICT context and information–documentation culture. In terms of agency, CWWs not only are constrained by but also exert some influence on the social structures they enact through facilities (material resources), norms and interpretive schemes. These findings have implications for how ICT can be used to facilitate the CWW–client relationship and the need in rural areas for increased infrastructure to support CWWs.
This study investigates the impacts of the Broadband Initiatives Program (BIP), established by the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act in 2009, on growth in broadband adoption and use of home telework. We find robust positive impacts across multiple econometric models and methods using census tract-level data in first differences. Across models and methods, the estimated average impact of BIP is in the range of 1.1–3.0 percentage point increase in the share of households adopting broadband and 0.2 to 0.4 percentage point increase in the share of workers using home telework. The estimated impacts of BIP represent roughly one-fourth to two-thirds of the average increase in broadband adoption and one-third to two-thirds of the average increase in home telework in the study tracts during the study period. The impacts of BIP vary across geographic contexts. Broadband and home telework adoption are also affected by prior levels of broadband availability, adoption, and telework, and by demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of the population and the industrial structure of the economy.
The main goals of this article are to promote the use of the experience sampling method (ESM) in library and information science education and research, by describing its origin in flow theory and demonstrating its use in a study of information and communication technology (ICT) use (i.e., electronic record-keeping systems, email, text messaging, social media, online meeting tools, apps) among rural child welfare workers. This article reviews the methodological considerations of ESM and demonstrates, step by step, how to structure such a study and approach data analysis. Findings, conclusions, and implications of the rural child welfare worker study are also reviewed. This paper will be of use in courses on theory, research, information behavior, information practices, technology adoption and use, and the assessment of information programs and services. It can be used to further orient students to theory, to help them make the connection between theory and method, and to promote critical thinking about research findings and conclusions.
Based on theoretical mechanism analysis and provincial panel data of China, this paper empirically examines the impact effect and mechanism of digital agriculture on urbanization from both overall and structural dimensions, and then identifies the weaknesses and restrictive reasons for digital agriculture in promoting urbanization development. The theoretical analysis shows that digital agriculture influences urbanization in four ways, namely the total factor productivity enhancement mechanism, the agricultural labor division acceleration mechanism, the marketization process mechanism, and the human capital mechanism. The empirical test suggests that digital agriculture has significantly promoted urbanization across the sample period, and the effect has shown certain stability, sustainability, and durability. According to the contribution decomposition of digital agriculture sub-indexes, the quality of agricultural operational entities contributes the most to urbanization, followed by digital agricultural infrastructure. However, contrary to expectations, digital agriculture industrialization as measured by “Taobao Village” has the least impact on urbanization. Further mechanism tests indicate that digital agriculture promotes urbanization through the agricultural labor division acceleration mechanism, which is consistent with the theoretical expectation, suggesting that it is the driving force for urbanization. However, the performances of digital agriculture in the human capital mechanism, total factor productivity enhancement mechanism, and marketization process mechanism are inconsistent with the theoretical expectations, which are the main reasons for restricting the role of digital agriculture in promoting urbanization.
Despite consensus about the positive impact of broadband expansion on the economy, from an aggregate perspective, this impact does not seem to be homogeneous for the whole economy. By using a two‐way multivariate panel data model subjected to Bayesian estimation, this study aims to determine the effect of broadband expansion on Brazilian economic sectors. To account for regional differences, the sampled data were grouped into clusters (clustering) to spot municipalities with similar characteristics. The results indicate that the impact of broadband expansion is not positive for all sectors. Actually, it was positive in more dynamic and technology‐intensive sectors (e.g., industrial and service sectors) but negative for the agricultural sector.
This study explores information and communication technology (ICT) use among rural child welfare workers. The experience sampling method (ESM) was used to collect data at five random times a day for one week from ten welfare workers. Workers reported using email, text messaging, or phone almost exclusively in their day-to-day work lives. This study demonstrates the usefulness of ESM in capturing the nuances of technology use in the day-to-day work lives of child welfare workers. Results highlight the need for agencies to explore the use of new types of ICT that may improve efficiency and expand opportunities for client contact.
Digitization by computers, like steam power and internal combustion, is widely recognized as a pervasive, disruptive engine powering new ways of living and affecting all aspects of economic life. Research on its economic impact cannot be entirely disentangled from powerful cultural stories connecting technological, educational, and economic progress. As cracks appear in the narratives of constant progress through technology, science, civilization, and economic prosperity, research on the economic impact of digital media develops nuance. This review of literature examines a wide range of perspectives on the economic impact of digital media as a basis for suggesting areas of further research and implications for education, civic, engagement, and policy.
The Internet has become an integral part of the everyday life for many Americans, yet a sizable gap still exists in household broadband adoption. Previous studies of the digital divide were restricted by the lack of sufficiently granular data on broadband availability and adoption. Recent efforts of NTIA and the FCC have made it possible for scholars to perform an exhaustive analysis of broadband diffusion. This paper examines differences in fixed location broadband adoption rates among households of various demographic and socio-economic characteristics and in different geographic locations utilizing the FCC's census tract level adoption data, demographic data from American Community Survey and the census block level broadband availability data from NTIA. Ordered probit models are estimated and used to conduct simulations in order to analyze the determinants of the broadband adoption rate. The results indicate that, although available in most tracts, the lack of broadband availability can still be a deterrent to its adoption. Furthermore, simulations indicate that, in non-metropolitan areas, policies targeting broadband availability would have a larger impact on adoption than policies targeting income or education, for instance. Additionally, where broadband is available, the census tracts with more educated, wealthy and older people who have more choices of broadband providers have higher fixed broadband subscription rates. The positive impact of older population on adoption rate contradicts the conventional belief that the older generation is left behind. Drawing from the previous literature, the older population may be more likely to have a home broadband subscription through traditional technologies, while their younger counterparts, who adapt to new technologies quicker, may be subscribing to mobile broadband.
Financial technologies (fintech) are proposed to expand access to financial services in rural communities as bank branches decline; however, poor rural communities and rural communities of color have limited access to high-speed internet connections required for fintech. Leveraging the universe of U.S. rural zip codes, this paper investigates associations between communities’ poverty rates, racial makeup, and rates of fintech. Poor rural communities of color experience digital redlining by having the lowest fintech rates. Rural communities’ increasing white population is associated with higher high-speed internet rates, an advantage of whiteness observable even in the presence of high poverty. Implications are discussed.
In an earlier study, Parajuli and Haynes (Growth and Change 43:590–614, 2012) used Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) to assess efficiency of broadband utilization across US states. They found that a number of states in the USA assumed an efficiency score of one for broadband adoption and use. While this is not unusual, the commonly used DEA methods—the Charnes, Coopers, and Rhodes and the Banker, Charnes, and Cooper extension—do not rank relative efficient decision-making units (DMUs) across the efficient frontier. The super-efficiency estimation presented here is one method that overcomes this inherent limitation and allows for ranking the efficient DMUs. This paper uses a super-efficiency method to rank states that were efficient in broadband adoption and use in the USA from 2005 through 2007.
The growing supply of Internet access infrastructures has not matched the increase in demand, and many citizens and communities do not adopt the Internet, not fully participating in the economic, social, political and cultural activities of contemporary society. This “digital divide” is particularly relevant in rural and remote areas and is necessary to complement Internet access with integrated actions that contribute to its adoption, based on a participatory process adapted to the local reality, investing in capacity building and motivation of human capital, contextualizing the different technological solutions and using the local forces and assets as the foundation for change management. In this scenario, an innovative, integrated and inclusive rural digital economy has the potential to overcome geographic isolation, diversify business, improve competitiveness and reduce emigration, while contributing to climate change adaptation and providing products and services increasingly valued by contemporary society. This approach is taken by the “Smart Villages” initiative, gaining increasing importance in the context of EU policies and becoming a reference for change in rural areas. By analyzing a set of “learning cases” that explore the synergies and complementarities between Internet access and its adoption, we seek to identify suggestions for public policy action, aiming to contribute to a debate that promotes qualified actions and strengthens, in terms of effectiveness, the methodologies of development policies, namely within the context of the “Smart Villages”. This research identified the need for long-term policy articulation, involving local communities and covering an area considered appropriate and relevant in the local context.
Tässä Suomen Kuntaliiton koordinoiman Maaseudun INFRA -verkoston tilaamassa selvityksessä käsitellään maaseudun valokuituverkkojen tilannetta sekä valokuituinvestointien toteutusmalleja ja rahoitusta. Lisäksi selvityksessä arvioidaan valokuituinvestointien paikallisia ja alueellisia sosioekonomisia vaikutuksia. Selvityksen tavoitteena on kuvata onnistuneita ja siten laajemmin hyödynnettäviksi ja edelleen kehitettäviksi soveltuvia malleja valokuiturakentamisen edistämiseksi Suomessa ja erityisesti maaseudulla.
Blockchain is an emerging technology that is highly regarded for its potential in offering a secure and reliable method of recording and sharing sensitive data in the health sector. This chapter aims at synthesizing some current applications of this technology in the global health sector and offers an outlook. Initially, readers are introduced to the relevant global health landscape framework, notably the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UN SDGs) pertaining to health. Subsequently, it describes the role of various stakeholders, latest developments, pilots and opportunities in the application of blockchain to health that can benefit patients, providers, payers and researcher communities. A critical appraisal follows synthesizing the challenges leading into an outlook where the proliferation of blockchain technologies in health enabled further by mIoT can better support public health around the world.
Although an increasing number of countries are striving to implement broadband plans, there is a dearth of research that examines whether having a national broad plan could narrow a nation’s regional digital divide. In this study, we used data sets collected from recent national statistics to quantify the effects of China’s national broadband strategy on the regional digital divide. The results of our analysis showed that while China’s approach narrowed the regional divide in terms of the coverage of broadband infrastructure, it had a comparatively limited impact on closing both the penetration divide and the quality divide. To narrow these divisions further, it is recommended that China adjust the priorities and scope of its national broadband strategy from a supply-side, investment-driven industrial policy to a demand-side, user-centric policy.
In the mid-1990s, rural US communities began investing in local telecommunications self-development projects in anticipation of market and policy failure to provide advanced telecommunications services. This study examines whether self-development projects were effective in encouraging local adoption of new telecommunications services by businesses and residents as compared to control communities. Results show that the projects had some effect. However, the study also found that market forces provided similar services in the control communities more quickly than anticipated, and after four years, differences in adoption between project and control communities were generally not significant. This raises questions about whether investments in such projects are justified. Residents of project communities did, however, have significantly more positive attitudes towards new technologies.
In the 21st century, access to information technologies will be necessary for rural communities to attract and retain businesses and, therefore, remain economically viable. However, low population density makes it difficult for rural areas to support expensive technology investments such as are required for broadband. In addition, history shows rural adoption timelines significantly lag those in urban areas, which slows development of the demand economically necessary to support infrastructure construction.This study examined variables that influenced rural residents’ comparatively early adoption of information technologies at a time when the rural-urban digital divide in the use of basic online services was still growing. The study found employment by a company that was using specific information technologies was the strongest predictor of individual adoption. The effect was particularly strong among those with less formal education. The findings suggest rural development specialists should focus on encouraging locally owned rural businesses to adopt information technologies as a means of maximizing local diffusion and increasing demand levels.
The Internet could change the lives of average citizens as much as did the telephone in the early part of the 20th century and television in the 1950s and 1960s. Researchers and social critics are debating whether the Internet is improving or harming participation in community life and social relationships. This research examined the social and psychological impact of the Internet on 169 people in 73 households during their first 1 to 2 years on-line. We used longitudinal data to examine the effects of the Internet on social involvement and psychological well-being. In this sample, the Internet was used extensively for communication. Nonetheless, greater use of the Internet was associated with declines in participants' communication with family members in the household, declines in the size of their social circle, and increases in their depression and loneliness. These findings have implications for research, for public policy and for the design of technology.
The effects of community attachment of geographic mobility are examined. Data on heads of households' perceptions about their community were collected in a 1970 survey of 3101 Washington (State) residents. A follow-up was made in 1974 to determine whether each respondent had moved from his or her community. Contingency analysis shows that both community identification and satisfaction are associated with mobility. Partial correlation analysis with age, years in county, community size, sex, career, family and household ties as controls shows that community satisfaction influences mobility behavior except for those over 60. Partial associations for other community attachment indicators were not significant.-from Authors
This chapter reviews the empirical and theoretical literature on migration to analyze the extent and manner in which "motivation for migration" and related concepts have been employed proposes a new theoretical approach (the value-expectancy model) and presents a general causal framework in which the value-expectancy model is integrated with individual-level household-level and societal-level determinants of migration. To understand the motivation for migration it is necessary to adopt the perspective of the individual. A complete model of migration shows linkages between macro and microlevels of behavior. Motivation is defined as a function of the value placed on certain goals and the perceived likelihood that a behavior will lead to those goals. Motivation for migration has been employed in volume distance and direction models ecological theory and migration systems approaches to migration the mobility transition hypothesis proposed by Zelinsky and economic maximization theory. Different motives are described for migration: economic motives in household decision models the social mobility/social status migration motive the residential satisfaction motive the family and friend influences as motives and the motive of life style preferences. A decision making framework is proposed as a model for understanding migration behavior. The value-expectancy model specifies the personally valued goals that might be met by moving and an assessment of the perceived linkage between migration behavior and the attainment of goals in alternative locations. Values and goals consist of wealth status comfort stimulation autonomy affiliation and morality. Microlevel migration theory can suggest ways in which policy interventions may alter the expectation that potential migrants have about obtaining their goals in alternative locations.
This study applies to interstate migration the notion that dissatisfaction with residence or community presages movement.
The other side of the coin, the view that disposition to move is inhibited by satisfaction with job and place of residence,
and by social bonds, is tested using data from a panel study in Rhode Island for the period 1969–79. Results of a multivariate
analysis show that noneconomic factors influence decisions to move. Strong social bonds inhibit migration, but employment
(except for two-job families) did not. Measures of satisfaction with community and job failed to reveal the expected strong
relationship. The effects of three background variables, age, sex-marital status, and place of birth were mediated by level
of satisfaction and social bonds. But duration of residence and education of household head had significant direct effects
on migration. Possible reasons for these findings are explored.
The role of telecommunications technologies in economic development has received increased focus in recent years. This study assesses the level of use of various telecommunications technologies by rural residents and identifies the community characteristics and individual attributes that are conducive to the adoption and use of these technologies. Data are from surveys of nearly 2,000 residents in 20 communities representing 6 states in the Midwest. The study findings reveal relatively high levels of use of a number of telecommunications technologies -- levels that may rival or even exceed urban rates. The findings also indicate that economic development that involves growth of the service sectors will likely increase the use of telecommunications technologies in rural areas.
The Internet could change the lives of average citizens as much as did the telephone in the early part of the 20th century and television in the 1950s and 1960s. Re- searchers and social critics are debating whether the Internet is improving or harming participation in com- munity life and social relationships. This research exam- ined the social and psychological impact of the lnternet on 169 people in 73 households during their first i to 2 years on-line. We used longitudinal data to examine the effects of the Internet on social involvement and psycho- logical well-being. In this sample, the Internet was used extensively for communication. Nonetheless, greater use of the Internet was associated with declines in partici- pants'communication with family members in the house- hold, declines in the size of their social circle, and in- creases in their depression and loneliness. These findings have implications for research, for public policy, and for the design of technology.
Kraut et al. (1998) reported negative effects of using the Internet on social involvement and psychological well-being among new Internet users in 1995–96. We called the effects a “paradox” because participants used the Internet heavily for communication, which generally has positive effects. A 3-year follow-up of 208 of these respondents found that negative effects dissipated. We also report findings from a longitudinal survey in 1998–99 of 406 new computer and television purchasers. This sample generally experienced positive effects of using the Internet on communication, social involvement, and well-being. However, consistent with a “rich get richer” model, using the Internet predicted better outcomes for extraverts and those with more social support but worse outcomes for introverts and those with less support.
Even as geographic disparities in high speed Internet access narrow, an urban–rural broadband gap persists, pointing to the importance of individual differences in motivations to adopt broadband as the key to closing the gap. Diffusion of innovation is reconceptualized through contemporary perspectives of the digital divide and social cognitive theory and tested on a survey sample drawn from four rural communities. Path analysis was used to examine the factors that cause broadband Internet service adoption in rural communities. Prior experience with the Internet, the expected outcomes of broadband usage, direct personal experience with broadband, and self-efficacy had direct effects on broadband intentions. Age and income, but not education or ethnicity, also had direct impacts. Efforts that promote the personal benefits of broadband and advanced ICT literacy skills among Internet users are recommended.
Two years have passed since the completion of the National Exchange Carriers Association’s (NECA) Broadband Study.1 This paper examines two of its conclusions: (1) the prediction that 65% of rural telephone company lines would be broadband capable by 2002, and (2) the $5.6 billion price tag for upgrading remote lines. The “remote line” issue is especially important because these lines were classified on the other side of the digital divide as the “have nots” of the high-speed Internet age. As this article demonstrates, the “capability” prediction was accurate, but rapid technological breakthroughs have reduced the cost of upgrading remote lines considerably. A rural telephone company can now offer many of its remote customers broadband service where in the past the cost was prohibitive.
Abstract A consistent gap exists between home Internet use in metropolitan areas and in non-metropolitan areas in the U.S. This digital divide may stem from technology differences in home Internet connectivity. Alternatively, differences in education, income, and other household attributes may explain differences in metropolitan and non-metropolitan area home Internet access. Effective programs to reduce the metropolitan-non-metropolitan digital divide must be based on an understanding of the relative roles that technology and household characteristics play in determining differential Internet usage. The household Internet adoption decision is modeled using a logit estimation approach with data from the 2001 U.S. Current Population Survey Internet and Computer Use Supplement. A decomposition of separate metropolitan and non-metropolitan area estimates shows that differences in household attributes, particularly education and income, account for 63 percent of the current metropolitan-non-metropolitan digital divide. The result raises significant doubts that policies which focus solely on infrastructure and technology access will mitigate the current metropolitan-non-metropolitan digital divide. Copyright 2003 Gatton College of Business and Economics, University of Kentucky..
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Rebutting misrepresentations and inaccuracies from Art Brodsky's recent post regarding ConnectKentucky and Connected Nation
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