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Reproduction expediting: Sexual motivations, fantasies, and the ticking biological clock
Abstract
Beginning in their late twenties, women face the unique adaptive problem of declining fertility eventually terminating at menopause. We hypothesize women have evolved a reproduction expediting psychological adaptation designed to capitalize on their remaining fertility. The present study tested predictions based on this hypothesis—these women will experience increased sexual motivations and sexual behaviors compared to women not facing a similar fertility decline. Results from college and community samples (N = 827) indicated women with declining fertility think more about sex, have more frequent and intense sexual fantasies, are more willing to engage in sexual intercourse, and report actually engaging in sexual intercourse more frequently than women of other age groups. These findings suggest women’s “biological clock” may function to shift psychological motivations and actual behaviors to facilitate utilizing remaining fertility.
... While no certain point in life is known to mark a change in sexual functioning for men, the transition into menopause is associated with a decrease in sexual functioning in women (Dennerstein et al., 2001;Petersen & Hyde, 2011). Given these age-related biological changes, evolutionary psychologists have hypothesized that women would experience an increase of sexual desire around age 35 to maximize their reproductive output before they lose their fertility (Easton et al., 2010;Schmitt et al., 2002). In Barr et al.'s (2002) survey on socially shared cognitions regarding women and men's sexual peak, participants expected female desire to be highest around age 27 and male desire to be highest around age 22. Finally, media, such as the popular TV series Sex and the City, paint a picture of women who have adventurous sexual lives and whose desire remains high through and after their thirties. ...
... For men, Schmitt et al.'s results indicated a peak of sexual desire that occurs at age 25-29, and thus earlier than for women. In a study by Easton et al. (2010), women aged 27-45 reported higher desire than younger (aged 18-26) and older (aged 46 and older) women; no men were included in this study. Whereas these studies provide first empirical support for the hypothesis that women's sexual desire is highest before fertility declines and men's desire is highest at a younger age, it is important to note some limitations: First, given that only few participants aged 30-34 (Ns ranging from 14 to 53) were included in Schmitt et al.'s (2002) study, the comparison between this group and remaining participants was likely underpowered. ...
... Partly supporting our prediction that women's sexual desire would show a zenith in mid-adulthood (Hypothesis 1b), we found significant negative quadratic age trends predicting all forms of women's sexual desire. However, patterns did not exactly meet our age predictions: Whereas women's dyadic sexual desire was positively associated with age until the mid-twenties, it was at a similar level for women between their mid-twenties and -forties, rather than being highest among women in their early thirties as predicted by evolutionary theories (Easton et al., 2010;Schmitt et al., 2002). Still, this pattern is compatible with the hypothesis that women's dyadic sexual desire is heightened during the life phase where women are most fertile. ...
While most studies on sexuality in later life report that sexual desire declines with age, little is known about the exact nature of age effects on sexual desire. Using self-reported dyadic sexual desire relating to a partner, dyadic sexual desire relating to an attractive person, and solitary sexual desire from a large (N > 8000) and age diverse (14.6–80.2 years) online sample, the current study had three goals: First, we investigated relationships between men and women’s sexual desire and age. Second, we examined whether individual differences such as gender/sex, sexual orientation, self-rated masculinity, relationship status, self-rated attractiveness, and self-rated health predict sexual desire. Third, we examined how these associations differed across sexual desire facets. On average, the associations between age and both men and women’s sexual desire followed nonlinear trends and differed between genders/sexes and types of sexual desire. Average levels of all types of sexual desire were generally higher in men. Dyadic sexual desire related positively to self-rated masculinity and having a romantic partner and solitary desire was higher in people with same-sex attraction. We discuss the results in the context of the evolutionary hypothesis that predict an increase of sexual desire and female reproductive effort prior to declining fertility. Our findings both support and challenge beliefs about gender/sex specificity of age effects on sexual desire and highlight the importance of differentiating between desire types.
... Analysing the narrative of the biological clock is important because it affects not only women's views and experiences regarding fertility and childbearing, but also their dispositions and practices regarding sexuality, family formation, educational and professional careers, and the use of assisted reproductive technologies. Previous scholarly work has shown that women's awareness of the biological clock affects their behaviour regarding sexual intercourse (Easton et al. 2010), long-term partners and union formation (Moss and Maner 2014;Wagner et al. 2019), postgraduate education and the labour market (McAlister 2008), and the use of donor oocytes (Friese et al. 2006) and egg freezing (Baldwin et al. 2019;Brown and Patrick 2018;Martin 2010). From this perspective, accounting for the narrative of the biological clock provides valuable insights to understand how women engage with reproduction and structure different life course trajectories. ...
... In social sciences, scholarly work on the biological clock has increased significantly in the past two decades as a way of addressing the problem of fertility decline and the risks of ageing in the context of late motherhood and the use of assisted reproductive technologies (Beaujouan and Solaz 2013;Easton et al. 2010;Keeney and Vernik 2007;Lavender et al. 2015;Macintosh 2015;Martin 2010;Mohapatra 2014). Despite its prevalence, the analysis of the biological clock in most studies is constrained to its use in expressions to characterise experiences of reproductive time, such as the ticking of the biological clock (McAlister 2008, p. 218), the problem of the biological clock (Keeney and Vernik 2007, p. 114), the pressure of the biological clock (Mohapatra 2014, p. 390), the struggle against the biological clock (Beaujouan and Solaz 2013, p. 63), and snoozing the biological clock (Cooke et al. 2010(Cooke et al. , p. 1325. ...
... A research strategy based on a "thick description" (Geertz 1973) of a small number of case studies is preferable for understanding complex social phenomena such as the intersection between female fertility and clock time. This approach also advances current knowledge on the biological clock given that most studies address it either from a quantitative perspective (Beaujouan and Solaz 2013;Easton et al. 2010;Keeney and Vernik 2007;Moss and Maner 2014;Wagner et al. 2019) or a literature review (Cooke et al. 2010;Macintosh 2015;Mohapatra 2014). The few studies that take on a qualitative approach do not focus on the biological clock itself but rather on egg freezing (Brown and Patrick 2018;Martin 2010), singlehood (Lahad 2012), the timing of childbearing (Lavender et al. 2015;Martin 2017), and women's narratives of age-related fertility decline (Friese et al. 2006). ...
The present article explores the social and subjective dimensions of the biological clock and its implications for reproductive time through a qualitative study based on 40 life story interviews of women from Santiago de Chile. Although the narrative of the biological clock has become a prevalent frame for addressing reproductive time in the context of late childbearing, age-related infertility, and the use of assisted reproductive technologies, few studies engage in an in-depth analysis of the biological clock—its boundaries, dynamics, and the particular ways in which it shapes women’s views and experiences of reproductive time. The present article aims to advance current knowledge on the intersection of time, reproduction, and biopolitics by arguing that the biological clock regulates reproductive time by shaping the boundaries and dynamics of female fertility through the clock. By determining reproductive time as quantitative, standardised, linear, and irreversible and by outlining the passing of time through pressure, risk, and burden, the biological clock determines when it is possible and desirable to have children and regulates reproduction, gender, and the female life course. These findings highlight the importance of critically addressing the narrative of the biological clock and its implications for women’s views and experiences of reproductive time.
... lengthened time before sexual activity with a new partner). While the original reproduction-expediting effect was studied using only three age groups of women for ease of testing (Easton et al., 2010), we use a finer timescale to reflect the variable age of onset and length of menopausal transition. Rather than divide participants into a 'reproduction-expediting' group and two pre-and post-comparison groups, we instead examine patterns holistically for overall trends. ...
... This multi-part investigation replicated and expanded recent investigations of reproduction expediting. Prior researchers suggested that women in their 30s experience a sexual peak that could lead to greater chance of conception, including more frequent sexual intercourse and more intense and more frequent sexual fantasies, as compared to younger and to menopausal/post-menopausal women (Schmitt et al., 2002;Easton et al., 2010). We failed to replicate both studies' findings of a 30s peak in sexual frequency. ...
... There was no significant interaction between sex and age group (i.e. the sexes do not differ appreciably in their decrease in sexual activity over time; p > 0.05).The roughly continual decrease in sexual thoughts and activity does not match the onset and offset of the reproduction-expediting effect expected if these factors were the primary drivers. We also failed to replicate the related findings ofEaston et al. (2010), including increased sexual thoughts and behavior. 3The lack of a female sexual peak in thoughts and activity in the early 30s is inconsistent withSchmitt et al.'s (2002) findings as well. ...
How do singles' strategies for engaging in sexual activity with a new partner vary across the adult lifespan? Using three large and independent demographically representative cross-sectional samples of heterosexual single adults in the U.S., we found that females approaching the typical age of menopause became less likely to establish relationship exclusivity prior to sexual activity with a new partner. However, after the typical age of menopausal onset, females returned to earlier levels of commitment choosiness. These changes in commitment choosiness surrounding the age of menopause were consistent across two studies (including a larger dataset combining two samples). Findings suggest that single females approaching menopause—a major life history milestone—alter their behavior to achieve reproductively relevant partnering goals but abandon this mating strategy once the typical reproductive period has ended. Males exhibited similar, though attenuated, changes in expected relationship commitment before sexual activity during midlife as well. Age-related changes in commitment corresponded with the amount of stress expressed regarding one's “biological clock”. However, reduced commitment choosiness did not vary with frequency of sexual thoughts, frequency of sexual behaviors, or external pressures to find a romantic partner. Results are discussed in terms of life history theory and sex differences in sexuality.
... We included gender because sexuality is one basis for gender and because ample evidence exists of gender differences in strength and plasticity of sexual motivation (for reviews, see Baumeister, 2000;Baumeister, Catanese, & Vohs, 2001). We included age because age-related changes in sexual desire are well established (e.g., female sexual desire peaks shortly before the reproductive phase closes; Easton, Confer, Goetz, & Buss, 2010) and also because the function of sex changes across the life span (e.g., in later life, female sexuality loses its reproductive function but may still be useful for relationship maintenance; Abramson & Pinkerton, 2002). ...
... Yet, this drop may be buffered in countries where sexual opportunities for older women are abundant, because male attention makes them feel desired and attractive despite their age. If low levels of self-perceived mate value lead to low sexual desire (rather than boosting it in a compensatory manner; see Easton et al., 2010), sexual desire should drop among older women-but only in countries where male interest is low. Male sexual desire should be less affected by Gebauer et al. 181 aging, insofar as men's self-perceived mate value does not decline so much with age, and indeed any drop in physical attractiveness could be offset by rising status and achievements, at least until old age. ...
... Independent of this, our overall results buttress recent research showing that the highest average levels of female sexual desire occur when women are in their mid-30s (Figures 1 and 2). Easton, Confer, Goetz, and Buss (2010) labeled this peak the ''reproduction expediting phase.'' They believed that peak to be evolutionarily adaptive for women, because it may help them to spread their genes in the face of declining reproductive capacity. ...
Sexual desire may change according to two principles: the satisfaction principle (high sexual opportunity/frequency decreases sexual desire) and the adaptation principle (high sexual opportunity/frequency increases sexual desire). We explore the workings of these opposing principles separately for both genders across the adult life span. Two tests within a large (N = 181,546) and cross-cultural (11 countries) data set revealed that the satisfaction principle accounts for sexual desire in men throughout the entire life and it accounts for sexual desire in women until their mid-30s. From that point onward, however, the pattern of female sexual desire becomes increasingly consistent with the adaptation principle. What sets older women apart from younger women and men of all ages? We discuss several mechanisms, with a focus on the satisfaction principle's evolutionary value in life phases of high reproductive capacity and the adaptation principle's evolutionary value in life phases of low reproductive capacity.
... Some research suggests that women reach their peak in sexual satisfaction and desire, and perceive themselves as more lustful, seductive, and sexually active in their early thirties (Barr, Bryan, & Kenrick, 2002;Schmitt, Shackleford, Duntley, & Tooke, 2002). Finally, other research indicates that women with declining fertility (aged 27-45 years) think more about sex, have more frequent and intense sexual fantasies, are more willing to and actually engage in sexual intercourse more frequently than younger and older, adult women (Easton, Confer, Goetz, & Buss, 2010). A woman's fertility status also affects her sexuality (e.g., Direkvand-Moghadam, Delpisheh, & Direkvand-Moghadam, 2015). ...
... Concerning differences between adulthood stage groups, emerging adult women (aged 18-29 years) reported slightly higher PSS scores than young adult women (aged 30-45 years). This finding is partially in contrast with previous research suggesting either that women reach their sexual peak in their early thirties (Barr et al., 2002;Schmitt et al., 2002), or that women with about a decline in their fertility experience (from their mid-late twenties) may begin to experience an increase in their sexual desire and behaviors (Easton et al., 2010). However, it is coherent with scholars' characterization of emerging adulthood as a period when identity explorations and the absence of enduring role commitments make sexual experimentation normative and potentially healthy (Arnett, 2000;Maas & Lefkowitz, 2015;Wood et al., 2016). ...
Aim and objectives
To develop and initially validate the Positive Sexuality Scale (PSS) to assess adult female positive sexuality.
Background
While traditional approaches focus on negative sexual experiences and sexual dysfunctions, within the positive psychology framework positive sexuality is a subjective experience of happiness and fulfillment with one's sexual expression, which contributes to well‐being. No measure exists that specifically measures adult female positive sexuality and can be confidently used with women of any fertility/childlessness status.
Design
Two‐stage cross‐sectional study with a 4‐week test‐retest, which follows the STROBE guidelines.
Methods
Participants were 912 Italian women aged 18‐45 (52.74% mothers, 23.79% voluntarily childless, and 23.46% primary infertile), who completed the 5‐item PSS and a self‐report of psychological well‐being. A subsample (n = 61) completed the 4‐week test‐retest.
Results
Factor analyses supported a one‐factor model with measurement invariance across adulthood stage and fertility/childlessness status and good reliability. Younger and fertile women showed higher PSS scores, and moderate‐to‐high variability in infertile women's well‐being was accounted for by PSS scores.
Conclusion
The PSS is a brief self‐report with initial evidence of validity and reliability that could be used in sex research, practice, and education.
Relevance to clinical practice
The PSS could assist health professionals to identify a positive resource to which women can draw on to deal with sex‐related issues. Implementing the assessment of positive female sexuality in infertility protocols could help professionals to identify a potential resource within couples facing infertility and its treatment.
This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
... These women, they suggested, may be (unconsciously) seeking to reproduce at the last time in their reproductive careers at which it is safe for them and their offspring to do so. Easton, Confer, Goetz, and Buss (2010) used a between-subjects design to compare women predicted to be "expediting" reproduction due to decreasing time in which to reproduce (i.e., women in their late 20s to early 40s) with younger ones. The older women were found to spend more time thinking about sex, to think about sex more frequently with such thoughts having greater intensity, to fantasize more about someone other than their current partner, to report having sex more frequently, and to report more willingness to engage in sex after knowing a potential partner for one month. ...
... A mother facing having her last child, therefore, might be predicted to especially value healthpromoting genes in a mateship producing him or her (see also Easton et al., 2010). Good resources on the part of the father would be predicted to be less relevant due to the woman's own resources, accumulated over time. ...
Previous research on female intrasexual competition, especially but not only for matings or mateships, has largely been conducted using convenience samples of women of undergraduate status and therefore generally between the ages of 17 and 22. Even among such articles including women over 25, the majority do not focus on mate competition. There is a priori reason, however, to believe that intrasexual competition for matings and mateships would extend and change beyond this life stage. This chapter provides an overview of the literature on female intrasexual competition over women’s reproductive careers, discusses factors that should result in predictable changes in female intrasexual competition as women age, and proposes testable hypotheses that
should help guide future research in this area of research. Based on this analysis, new theory concerning reproductive advantage derivable from acquiring the status of successful mother are proposed.
Keywords: female intrasexual competition, mating, parity, motherhood, age
... Even though mechanisms connecting certain contents of sexual fantasies and actual behaviour have proved to be far from simple and obvious, available evidence more often suggests a positive rather than negative relationship between them (Hicks & Leitenberg 2001, see Williams et al. 2009 for sexually deviant fantasies). It has been found, for example, that women with declining fertility have more frequent and intense sexual fantasies, are more willing to engage in sexual intercourse, and report actually engaging in sexual intercourse more frequently than women in other age groups (Easton et al. 2010). ...
... Our findings contribute to the growing body of evidence suggesting that sexual fantasies may provide an interesting perspective on the biologically understandable desires of human behaviour (Ellis & Symons 1990, Shackelford et al. 2005, Easton et al. 2010. Previous studies focusing on female fantasies have seldom separated more than one or two types of multi-partner fantasies. ...
Nummi, P. & Pellikka, J. 2012: Do female sex fantasies reflect adaptations for sperm competition? — Ann. Zool. Fennici 49: 93–102. Researchers have suggested that female strategies for sexual selection in humans include the promotion of sperm competition. Sperm competition entails the simulta-neous presence of fertile sperm from at least two males in the female's reproductive organ competing for the opportunity to fertilise the ovum. Certain behaviour patterns near ovulation may enable such competition. In this paper, we describe relative prefer-ences for female sexual fantasy types and explore the idea that these preferences may help us understand the settings and mechanisms that promote sperm competition, and discourage interfemale competition. To expand this exploration, we also examine whether preferences vary with respect to the menstrual cycle. Our preliminary findings indicate notable preferences among females for multiple male-partner fantasies over multiple female-partner fantasies or fantasies that include multiple male and female partners. This suggests that females find multipartner settings as arousing as males do, but the psychological mechanism relating to settings that include the presence of same sex competitors may differ from that of males. We also discovered some indications that the female preference for promoting sperm competition and avoiding interfemale competition is the highest and strongest near ovulation.
... From a biological perspective, a woman's reproductive functioning theoretically lasts from menarche to menopause (Virtala et al., 2011) and the optimum time period can range from 20 to 35 years (Johnson & Tough, 2012). However, the biological peak period for childbearing is generally between 20 and 25 years of age (Becker, 2001;Dunson, Baird, & Colombo, 2004;Buss, 2005;Ammer, 2009;Easton, Confer, Goetz, & Buss, 2010;Zhang, 2011;Murray & Pizzorno, 2012). Female fertility begins to significantly decline many years prior to the onset of menopause, starting at approximately age 28 onwards with the decline becoming much faster after age 35 (Lampic et al, 2006;Tough et al., 2007;Balasch & Gratacos, 2010;Bretherick, Fairbroter, Avila, Harbord, & Robinson, 2010;Virtala et al., 2011;Peterson et al., 2012). ...
... So while rates of women giving birth to their first child past age 35 have steadily increased in the last 30 years (Tough, et al., 2007;Cooke et al., 2010;Johnson & Tough, 2012), the majority of women are not delaying childbearing into this "high risk" age range. However, many are delaying past the biological peak period for childbearing (between 20 and 25 years) (Becker, 2001;Dunson et al., 2004;Buss, 2005;Ammer, 2009;Easton et al., 2010;Zhang, 2011;Murray & Pizzorno, 2012) and commencing childbearing when female fertility begins to decline (age 28 onwards) (Lampic et al, 2006;Tough et al., 2007;Balasch & Gratacos, 2010;Bretherick et al., 2010;Virtala et al., 2011;Peterson et al., 2012) ...
Knowledge levels of issues related to fertility, reproduction, and assisted reproductive technology (ART) are low among the general population. There have also been increasing trends for women to delay childbearing and for many individuals to turn to various forms of ART to aid reproduction. Many commentators assume the provision of information targeting fertility related issues and ART will be influential in altering women’s intentions related to delay childbearing, but there is a lack of both empirical and theoretical evidence to support this assumption. Further, suggestions for how to provide education related to fertility and ART have not yet been examined. The present study examined the applicability of the theory of planned behavior (TPB) for predicting women’s intentions to delay childbearing and whether the provision of detailed, accurate, and accessible information regarding reproduction, factors influencing fertility, and the limitations of fertility treatments would alter individual attitudes and levels of perceived control surrounding delayed childbearing. Participants received one of two informational interventions (i.e., fertility-related or alcohol-related information) then completed a questionnaire measuring the constructs of the theory of planned behavior. It was predicted that the theory of planned behavior would provide an adequate framework for examining women’s intentions to delay childbearing in that attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived control would all emerge as significant predictors of these intentions (hypothesis 1). It was also predicted that the provision of detailed, accurate and accessible information regarding reproduction, factors influencing fertility, and the limitations of fertility treatment would alter young women’s intentions to delay childbearing (hypothesis 2). Multiple regression analyses provided support for Hypothesis 1 and substantiated that TPB provides an adequate framework for examining women’s intentions to delay childbearing. Hypothesis 2 was partially supported such that the intervention groups significantly differed with respect to their delayed childbearing intentions. However, most of the women in this sample did not evidence intentions to delay childbearing into critical fertile periods. Future research is warranted to examine the theory of planned behavior’s ability to predict delayed childbearing over time, across cohorts, and amongst men, as well as the impact of improved reproductive technologies and media reports of fertility on intentions to delay childbearing.
... 2 The women felt a sense of urgency to conceive before time runs out. 2 In an analysis of women aged 10 through 65 years, Easton et al 21 found that women going through menopause, who perceive their fertility as declining, have increased sexual motivations and sexual behaviors suggesting that the women's "biological clocks" may increase psychological motivation as well as actual behaviors to facilitate fertility. 21 Women whose biological clocks are ticking think about pregnancy or try to conceive when confronted with age-related decline in fertility and bemoan the end of their fertile lives. 21,22 Hall et al 23 suggest assessing women's self-perceptions and helping women to view menopause as a new beginning and physical freedom, which involves empowering women to shift their perspectives of menopause, embracing it as a positive change. ...
... 21 Women whose biological clocks are ticking think about pregnancy or try to conceive when confronted with age-related decline in fertility and bemoan the end of their fertile lives. 21,22 Hall et al 23 suggest assessing women's self-perceptions and helping women to view menopause as a new beginning and physical freedom, which involves empowering women to shift their perspectives of menopause, embracing it as a positive change. 23 ...
Introduction:
Female fertility is commonly described as the biological nature of women, yet different meanings emerge when one takes a holistic approach to fertility while considering varying contexts and perspectives. An improved understanding of female fertility will enhance health care professionals' understanding of female fertility and improve communication with women and other health care professionals. This article presents a conceptual and dimensional analysis of female fertility.
Methods:
A search of the literature included the databases CINAHL, PsycINFO, Philosopher's Index, and Web of Science. Concept and dimensional analyses were performed using the Rogers' methodology and the Caron and Bowers' framework to define female fertility and explore the concept. Articles were examined to identify definitions, dimensions, perspectives, antecedents, and consequences of female fertility.
Results:
Biological self, psychosexual self, power, and paradox are the attributes of female fertility. The contexts of menarche, menstruation, menopause, infertility, fertility goals, society and culture, and health care were explored. Perspectives included those of women across many different fertility stages as well as perspectives of various clinicians. Necessary antecedents were sexual decision making and influences of culture and society. Consequences were realized fertility, stress, and an understanding of self. A definition of fertility was proposed: Female fertility is a paradoxical phenomenon of power between the biological and psychosexual self.
Discussion:
Antecedents, attributes, and consequences derived from the fertility literature can be used by health care providers for patient education and therapeutic interventions. This concept analysis may assist in facilitation of a greater understanding of biological and psychosexual self, as they relate to fertility across the lifespan.
... For example, studies have shown how women's understanding of the biological clock influences their decisions to use assisted reproductive technologies like egg freezing, prepare for a career, and have children (Friese et al., 2006;Baldwin et al., 2019). Moss and Maner (2014) and Easton et al. (2010) have shown that timing norms affect long-term relationships, while Cohen (2006) emphasises how age and sequence norms influence academic and professional success. When taken as a whole, these studies highlight how important it is to follow or depart from socially defined timelines to influence individual and societal results. ...
With the increasing empowerment of women in modern industrial societies, there is a growing trend of birth deferment, especially in developed parts of the world. While significant research has been conducted on delayed fertility in advanced economies, little is known about the situation in countries like Nigeria. Based on the Social Clock Theory, this study investigated predictors of fertility differentials among women giving birth at an advanced age. Using a structured questionnaire, a cross-sectional study was conducted among 400 women aged 35 and above in nine communities in Bayelsa Central Senatorial District. Data analysis utilised descriptive statistics, including frequency tables and percentages, as well as inferential statistics through logistic regression, with significance levels set at p<0.05. The average age of respondents was 46.60 ± years. Findings showed that women aged 45–54 years were 83.5% (OR=0.165, CI=0.030–0.866) less likely to exhibit higher fertility compared to those aged 35–44 years. Similarly, women aged 65–80 years were 94.8% (OR=0.052, CI=0.008–0.357) less likely to have a higher number of children than women aged 35–44 years. Women with 4–6 children via vaginal birth were 0.7 times (OR=0.786, CI=0.275–2.250) more likely to have higher fertility compared to those with 1–3 children. Key fertility predictors included age, education, employment, ethnic group, delivery mode, and births at Traditional Birth Attendant (TBA) centres. The study recommended the design of targeted interventions directed at addressing the socio-economic determinants of fertility.
... Evolutionary psychologists have also expected, and found, that women have more frequent and more arousing sexual fantasies during ovulation (Dawson et al., 2012). In addition, evolutionary theorists have expected, and found, that sexual fantasies are tied with age in ways linked to declining fertility and post-reproductive life (Easton et al., 2010). 2. Mental rehearsal and focus: In addition to their motivational function, sexual fantasies can also be seen as a form of mental rehearsal and focused attention for improving real-life sexual encounters. ...
This encyclopedia entry offers (1) a definition of sexual fantasies, (2) an overview of evolutionary and sociocultural theories related to sexual fantasies, (3) a summary of methodologies used to study sexual fantasies, and (4) a discussion of key findings from research on sexual fantasies.
... She presents her dating project as a search for a boyfriend but also seems driven to catch up with what she had missed out on with regard to short-term mating. Another motivating factor could be reproductive expediting, an increasing willingness to engage in sexual intercourse due to declining fertility (Easton et al., 2010). ...
Modern mating markets relegate a growing number of men to being incels (involuntary celibate). Increasing attention befalls another group struggling in the same markets: female insings (involuntary single). In the partly autobiographical novel, Half of Malmö Consists of Guys Who Dumped Me (2021), Amanda Romare dramatizes how urban dating and technologies like Tinder exploit women’s evolved mate preferences in a manner that drives addiction and dysfunction. Many women have practically unlimited access to serial dating and short-term sex with highly attractive men, but such experiences can leave women less able to calibrate their mating strategies, thus making it harder to acquire a long-term partner. Romare argues that incels get too much attention, as our culture blinds us to the plight of lonely women. To investigate the insing phenomenon, we apply sexual strategies theory, sexual conflict theory, and other frameworks from evolutionary psychology. Mismatch, conflicting desires, and exploitative technologies make many women prioritize mate qualities that misalign with their pair-bonding ambitions. Juxtaposing Romare’s novel with the TV series Sigurd Can’t Get Laid (2020–2022) aids us in comparing insings to incels. Our analysis illustrates how both groups fall victim to our evolved mate preferences. Communities that develop a better understanding of these preferences could improve intersexual communication, which might help them find more productive ways to mate.
... Badania Doroty Ruszkiewicz (Ruszkiewicz, 2009) wykazały, że w opinii singli największą wadą samotnego życia jest coraz mniejsza szansa na posiadanie dzieci. U kobiet spadek płodności następuje dużo szybciej niż u mężczyzn, stąd u bezdzietnych kobiet z czasem nasilają się myśli i plany prokreacyjne (Easton, Confer, Goetz, Buss, 2010;Juroszek, 2015a, s. 30), co obrazują następujące opinie: ...
The issues of the research carried out fall within the scope of the determinants of divorce
conflict and coping with it. The subject of the research are factors that condition the postponing of divorce decision (manifesting itself in the form of the suspension of divorce
proceedings).
It has been assumed that the durability of marriage is a value which needs to be protected,
hence the importance of such actions of the spouses which aim at reconstructing the bonds
of marriage. These actions include the suspension of divorce proceedings. The factors that
determine the decision concerning the suspension have been analysed. In order to do so,
the spouses who decide on the suspension of divorce proceedings and those who take the
final decision to get divorced have been compared.
In the research carried out, it has been assumed that there are specific conditions for
the suspension of divorce proceedings. They are as follows: maturity for marriage, conjugal
family of origin, marriage duration, income, duration of mediation sessions, engagement of
an attorney in the proceedings, participation in a therapy. In view of the above, the following
hypotheses have been drawn: spouses who suspend divorce proceedings, compared to those
getting divorced, are characterized by greater maturity (manifested by empathy, caring for
the well-being of the children, caring for financial security of the family, fidelity, the will to
forgive, help in difficult situations and responsibility), more frequently come from conjugal
families, more seldom declare premarital pregnancy, are characterized by a longer duration
of marriage, have higher incomes, spend less time at mediation sessions, more often decide
to participate in a therapy. A research question regarding the reasons for the deterioration
of marital relations has also been posed.
The aforementioned hypotheses have made it possible to determine research variables –
dependent and independent. The dependent variable is the type of a settlement reached, i.e.
a written contract between the disputing parties, the aim of which is to reach an agreement.
The settlement takes one of the two forms: a suspension of divorce proceedings (spouses
decide to postpone the divorce decision) or a divorce (spouses sign a divorce agreement, in
which they state that economic, physical, psychical and spiritual bonds between them have
extinguished). Independent variables, in turn, refer to other conditions for postponing the
divorce decision, which have been listed earlier.
The data for the research have been gathered from interviews. Two interviews have been
made with spouses who have filled divorce petitions and agreed to be interviewed and for
the data obtained from these interviews to be used anonymously. The data gathered from
interview 1 contained the following information regarding the characteristics of the group studied: the age of the spouse, the age of entering into marriage, the level of education, living
together or apart, the plaintiff ’s sex, the number of children, the number of siblings, the
type of marriage entered into, the marital status at the moment of entering into marriage.
The interviews have also made it possible to gather data concerning the family of origin
(conjugal/broken), premarital pregnancy, the duration of marriage, spouses’ income, the
duration of mediation sessions, hiring an attorney, the declaration to take part in a therapy.
During interview no. 1 the researcher also posed a question regarding the reasons for the
deterioration of marital relations: ‘What caused the deterioration of marital relations?’ The
researcher noted down literal responses of the persons being questioned.
Interview 2 was constructed on the basis of pilot studies and subject literature. It
concerned spouse perception of their maturity for marriage (app. 2). The interview was of
a structured character. It consisted of 10 closed questions to which the persons responded
‘yes’ or ‘no’. The questions concerned the following aspects of maturity: caring for children’s well-being, caring for financial security of the family, help in difficult situations, the
willingness to forgive, empathy, fidelity and responsibility (accepting the consequences of
one’s own actions, keeping commitments, the feeling of guilt in the case of hurting family
members, striving toward redressing the wrong).
It must be emphasised that (app. 1) all married couples (i.e. 333), including 46 couples
suspending divorce proceedings and 287 couples getting divorced participated in the first
interview (nevertheless, full data were not gathered from all spouses, hence different number
of persons questioned are presented in particular tables).
In the second interview concerning maturity (app. 2), 82 married couples participated,
including 46 couples getting divorced, selected in such a way that both groups (spouses
getting divorced and those suspending the divorce proceedings) were as similar to each
other as possible in terms of age, duration of marriage, the number of children, the level of
education, age when entering into marriage, marital status at the moment of entering into
marriage.
Quantity strategy has been used in the research paper. Regularities achieved by means
of the statistic analysis method have provided a general picture of the situation of spouses
getting divorced and facilitated a confrontation of the results with statistic model assumptions. These regularities have been completed with spouses’ statements, which have given
a new significance to the results obtained within the statistic analysis and have provided
interesting possibilities to interpret them. Additionally, the aforementioned statements
have enriched the contents of this thesis, as individual’s opinions often appeal more to the
reader than „dry” statistical data.
The thesis consists of three parts: theoretical, methodological and empirical. In the
theoretical part (consisting of three chapters) the following issues have been analysed:
spouses’ psychological maturity, values and their significance in spouses’ lives (with specific
consideration given to the values of education), divorce as a social problem (statistical data
illustrating the situation of divorces in Poland), the reasons for a divorce conflict, the state
of research regarding psychosocial consequences of divorce for parents and children. Taking into consideration the fact that the research describes married couples participating
in mediation, the theoretical part includes basic information about it and the procedure of
suspending divorce proceedings.
The methodological part includes research questions and hypotheses, the method of
gathering data, variables and research procedure. The research group has been described,
taking into account its characteristic features, such as the age of spouses, the age at the
moment of getting married, level of education, type of living (together/apart), the number
of children, the number of siblings, the marital status of the spouses at the moment of
getting married.
The next five chapters – empirical – refer directly to the hypotheses tested and to the
responses to research questions concerning the causes of the deterioration of marriage
relations.
It has been assumed in this thesis that marriage is a value, hence factors considered to be
especially important are those underlying the decision to suspend the divorce proceedings
for some time in order to fix the damaged relations. The results of the research carried out
have confirmed all the verified hypotheses, so it turned out that both spouses’ maturity
(including responsibility), conjugal family of origin, longer duration of marriage, higher
income, shorter mediation sessions as well as declaration to participate in a therapy favour
the suspension of divorce proceedings. In turn, the decision to get divorced coexists with
declaring premarital pregnancy and hiring an attorney in mediation. In response to the
research questions posed, such causes have also been named which in the opinion of the
spouses researched have had a decisive influence on the deterioration of marital relations,
and as such favoured divorce and not the suspension of divorce proceedings. They are as follows (listed from the most frequently to the most infrequently declared): adultery, mother-
-in-law’s interference, addiction, problems with work, child’s birth, a child from previous
relationship, illness and disability in the family, father-in-law’s interference, miscarriage,
departure abroad, others. The results of statistical analysis have shown the following reasons
for the deterioration of marital relations, which significantly differentiate the group getting
divorced from the one suspending divorce proceedings: adultery, addiction, problems with
work, child’s birth.
It must be emphasised that while both verifying the hypotheses tested and discussing
the reasons for the deterioration of marital relations, statements regarding maturity with
special concern given to the value of responsibility have been searched for in the spouses’
statements. It has been assumed that maturity and pursuing values in life have key significance for postponing the decision about divorce.
Numerous detailed issues experienced by spouses in the divorce crisis have been listed
in the thesis. Knowing these problems and the attempts to solve them may be used during
various meetings and workshops, which aim at shaping correct attitudes towards marriage
and family. Using some problem illustrations in writing educational programs for schools,
preparing young people for married life is also worth considering.
... With the biological clock ticking, and the window of fertility and reproduction closing, some women experience the loss of their fecundity as another factor in body despair. The paradox of being at their sexual prime (Easton et al. 2010) can be the tipping point, as increased interest in sexuality, role confusion, unsettling guilt, and perimenopausal changes shifting the body shape and size away from the cultural ideal occur simultaneously. ...
... Compared to Yeung et al. (2014), who reported 38% of sexters were in their 20s, we found 50% (n = 173) of sexters were in their 20s, and 35% (n = 122) of sexters were in their 30s. Additional research is needed to explore the sexting behaviors of adults, and why sexting appears to decline for both men and women in their 40s; especially since some research suggests "women with declining fertility think more about sex" (see Easton, Confer, Goetz, & Buss, 2010, p. 516). The current study also examined the method (text message vs. mobile application) used for sending sext messages. ...
This study assessed the prevalence of sexting behaviors among adults, and the relationship between sexting and moral foundations, self-esteem, and individual differences. Additionally, this study examined differences in the methods used to send sext messages (mobile applications vs. text messages) and image content (e.g., face, masturbating). Respondents solicited through Amazon's Mechanical Turk completed the anonymous survey measuring "attitudes toward sexting." The final sample included 508 adult participants; 68% of adults reported sexting behaviors, and both mobile applications and traditional text messages were used to send sext messages. In general, individuals who scored higher on extraversion and lower on conscientiousness, agreeableness, harm, and fairness were more likely to engage in sexting behaviors. Self-esteem was not associated with any sexting behaviors. Results also found significant differences between individuals who send semi-nude and nude sext messages. Limitations and future research suggestions are discussed.
... After this point, features of potential mates related to heritable benefits, such as the possession of good genes, could no longer provide fitness benefits. Accordingly, women's mating strategies appear to shift around menopause (Easton et al. 2010). These shifts are hypothesized to function in motivating women to take advantage of their fertile years. ...
... For instance, men who perceive themselves as successful in mating display a particular preference for short-term mating, and their preferences are driven by the potential partner's physical attractiveness or earning potential, whereas it is the combination of these two characteristics that elicits the best response in women [34]. On the other hand, women who are more oriented to short-term mating are more effective than men in avoiding emotional intimacy [35], may make an intentional use of sexual exploitability cues to attract mates [36], as a risky signaling strategy which is not necessarily used by women with low confidence in their mating attractiveness potential [37], and which can be further incentivized by biological clock pressures [38]. In fact, attractive women tend to have more sexual activity and a less restricted orientation [39], while at the same time setting very demanding standards on all dimensions of male partners' desirability [40], including emotionality. ...
In this paper, we propose a new approach to couple formation and dynamics that abridges findings from sexual strategies theory and attachment theory to develop a framework where the sexual and emotional aspects of mating are considered in their strategic interaction. Our approach presents several testable implications, some of which find interesting correspondences in the existing literature. Our main result is that, according to our approach, there are six typical dynamic interaction patterns that are more or less conducive to the formation of a stable couple, and that set out an interesting typology for the analysis of real (as well as fictional, as we will see in the second part of the paper) mating behaviors and dynamics.
... Indeed, during ovulation young women can erroneously judge "cads" for "good dads" (Durante et al., 2012). Nevertheless, this does not explain the pattern of mate choice in men, who are not subject to fertility time constraints (Easton, Confer, Goetz, & Buss, 2010). Considering the adversarial nature of primary and secondary psychopathic individuals, it would seem adaptive to be able to identify and avoid involvement with them on any level. ...
Despite their reputation for taking advantage of other people, previous research shows that psychopathic individuals are attractive for short-term relationships. Furthermore, individuals with psychopathic traits have been found to be attracted to other psychopathic persons in both short and long-term relationships. The current study (N = 258), is the first to extend the investigation further by examining whether these findings pertain to the affective (i.e., primary) or behavioural (i.e., secondary) aspects of psychopathy, and if this varies according to sex. Using a series of personality profiles, we found that men and women evaluated individuals higher in primary or secondary psychopathic traits unattractive for both short and long-term relationships. However, those individuals higher in primary and secondary psychopathic traits found similar partners attractive in short and long-term relationships, and this was strongest in women higher in primary psychopathic traits for long-term relationships, and in women higher in secondary psychopathic traits for short and long-term relationships. Results are discussed from an evolutionary theoretical perspective.
... It is relevant to note that these are the reasons of young students in both the USA and Norway. There is reason to believe that mating psychology varies with age, and an older sample might therefore have had more explicitly reproductive reasons (Easton, Confer, Goetz, and Buss 2010) and maybe also considered resource exchange from the sexual economics of long-term heterosexual relationships (Baumeister and Vohs 2004). A younger sample may also be more short-term oriented, although this is not certain (Bleske-Rechek, VandenHeuvel, and Vander Wyst 2009). ...
There is a large number of varied reasons for having sexual intercourse, ranging from sexual joy and pleasure to less frequent reasons such as wanting to hurt a person or feeling obliged to have sex with someone. The current paper investigated to what degree the reasons for having sex found by Meston and Buss are predicted systematically and independently by sexual strategies theory. The contribution of the paper is threefold: (1) the first reproduction of the factor structure found in the original study, (2) the reproduction in a more gender-egalitarian population investigates claims from social role theory, and (3) a novel set of contributions as preferred mating strategy and sex of respondents interact to predict reasons for having sex. We tested our predictions in a sample of 1372 students. The original factor structure was reproduced. Sex differences were abundant and showed mostly support for sexual strategies theory. Mating context also influenced reasons for having sexual intercourse in accordance with sexual strategies theory, rather than social role theory. The results are discussed with regard to both social role theory and sexual strategies theory, and the impact of studying reasons for sex in an egalitarian society.
... Especially Kennair et al. (2009) are explicit about men in relationships being more interested in sex with their partner, less satisfied with frequency of sex and taking more initiative. Buss and Schmitt (1993) are more reluctant to suggest differences in sexual interest in general, although Easton, Confer, Goetz and Buss (2010) also claim that SST, referring to Buss and Schmitt (1993), suggests that men are more interested in sex. As Schmitt, Shackelford and Buss (2001) point out, both sexes are interested in having sex, but a more specific analysis of context and the adaptive problems the sexes have had to solve will suggest that men are more interested in short-term sex in general, due to specific adaptations (Schmitt et al., 2012). ...
Despite men initiating sex more than women there is considerable variance within the sexes. This study is the first to consider the impact of multiple predictors from the literature, and investigates how factors, such as relationship length, sociosexuality, and different aspects of self-perceived mate value among others, independently and interactively predict initiation of sexual intercourse in both short-term sexual and long-term romantic mating contexts, testing predictions from Sexual strategies theory. For long-term relationships, positive partner bond increased initiative to sexual intercourse for women. For men, self-perceived independence increased probability of taking the initiative, while relationship attachment decreased probability. For short-term relations, the desire component of the sociosexual orientation inventory increased probability of initiation for both sexes, while male initiative was increased by pleasure reasons for sex. The impact of individual predictors on initiating intercourse is influenced by being included in a multidimensional model, and relationship context affects the impact of the predictors.
© 2015 Scandinavian Psychological Associations and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
... For the women who have tried 'to do it all', the 'what-about-me' clock is ticking (Maine, 2010). To complicate their experience, women may be in their sexual prime at this age (Easton, Confer, Goetz, & Buss, 2010), often with a heightened interest in sexuality, resulting in unsettling guilt and confusion. Potentially transformative, this decade is also filled with endless obligations and responsibilities, leaving women little time to reflect on the impact of all these events, emotions, and changes. ...
Research and clinical practice indicate that increasing numbers of adult women are suffering from both clinical and subclinical eating disorders and are now seeking treatment. The unique needs and experiences of this population bear examination through the lens of female adult development. The rapid increase in eating disorders, the ongoing gender disparity, and the complex realities of female biology suggest that this evaluation will be best informed by a biopsychosocial perspective. Developmental transitions including marriage, divorce, pregnancies, parenting, menopause, and the ageing process all create risk in an era that promotes weight loss, thinness, and a youthful appearance as the ultimate signs of success for women. Globalisation has contributed to the emergence of eating disorders in diverse countries and cultures. Consequently, all primary mental health and medical providers must understand the risk factors, signs, and symptoms of adult eating disorders, as well as the effect of environmental stressors on these risk factors in producing illness. This patient population requires unique treatment options, especially outpatient programmes and psychoeducation and support for their families and life partners, in order to foster recovery while maintaining their roles in their families, workplaces, and communities.
... This could be explained considering that even though both groups differed in age, the older group was still young in terms of fertility . In fact, previous research has shown that premenopausal women seem to have a higher frequency of fantasies as a way of capitalizing their remaining fertility (Easton et al., 2010). Regarding NSC, we found that undergraduate students reported more frequent intimate, exploratory, and impersonal cognitions compared to the community sample . ...
The aim of this study was to explore the frequency of sexual cognitions in Spanish men and women, distinguishing between positive sexual cognitions (PSC) and negative sexual cognitions (NSC), and various subtypes of such cognitions based on their content (intimate, exploratory, dominance, submission, and impersonal). We also examined the relationship between both age and education level and Christian religion/religiosity and the frequency of all subtypes of sexual cognitions. The sample was composed of 1332 participants aged between 18 and 45 years. Results showed that the most and least frequent sexual cognitions were intimate and sadomasochistic cognitions, respectively. Overall, men reported a higher frequency of PSC than did women, except for cognitions involving submission. In addition, undergraduate students reported a higher frequency of dominant PSC than older individuals. Regarding NSC, men reported a higher frequency of dominance themes, while women reported more frequent cognitions involving submission. In addition, intimate, exploratory, and impersonal NSC were more frequently reported in the younger sample. Religion was associated with the frequency of most PSC but not with NSC. We discuss the implications of assessing both the affect and content of sexual cognitions for their training in sex therapy.
... It is reasonable to suggest that this subpopulation is aware of the social stigma associated with remaining childless. Indeed, previous work has demonstrated that both men and women are aware of the social stigma associated with remaining childless (Macklin, 1980;Miles, 2005); furthermore, women may begin to experience a change in sexual desires and behaviors in response to declining fertility (the 'ticking biological clock') as early as their mid-late twenties (Easton, Confer, Goetz, & Buss, 2010). Several of our collected tweets expressed negative emotions regarding remaining childless (e.g., ''Sometimes I feel like I'm the only one who doesn't have a baby yet. ...
The current work involves an analysis of the content of 499 tweets containing the hashtag “#babyfever” to investigate predicted relationships between certain individual differences (e.g., sex, relationship status), environmental factors (e.g., exposure to children) and the sharing of “baby fever” experiences. Our sample was almost exclusively female (95%), mostly White (67.5%; 16.2% African American, 9.0% Hispanic), and mostly childless (87%) with an average age of 20.52 (SDage = 2.21). As predicted, the majority of shared experiences of “baby fever” included positive emotional responses, and were associated with the users’ direct exposure to a baby in their life. Positive mentions of “baby fever” were more likely to include mentions of direct exposure to babies. Negative mentions of “baby fever” were associated with perceptions that most of an individual’s peer group seems to be having babies and were more common amongst tweeters who were not in committed relationships.
... Sexual psychological models suggest that as a function of their 'biological clock', women from their mid-thirties to mid-forties go through psychological shifts expressed by an increased desire and willingness to engage in sexual activity and a greater likelihood of consenting to engage in casual sexual intercourse (Easton et al., 2010). Perhaps this explains the high probabilities of unprotected casual heterosexual sex found among women aged 35-44 in this current study. ...
Summary Casual heterosexual sex remains a significant contributor to HIV transmissions in Ghana. The study used data from the 2008 Ghana Demographic and Health Survey (GDHS) to assess the socio-demographic, economic and spatial factors influencing unprotected casual heterosexual sex among men and women. The results of the binary logistic regression models revealed that women aged 35-44 had significantly higher odds of engaging in unprotected casual heterosexual sex than those aged 15-24, unlike the men. There were significantly lower odds of unprotected casual heterosexual sex for women and men with exposure to print media compared with those without exposure. Compared with men residing in the Western Region, unprotected casual heterosexual sex was significantly less likely among those in the Upper East Region. There is the need for behavioural change campaigns in Ghana that take into consideration the multiplicity of factors that determine unprotected casual heterosexual sex.
... From the perspective of evolutionary psychology, female attractiveness influences men's matechoice for short-term relationships, and this may explain why women are more focused on parts of their body that are associated with reproduction (e.g., pelvic area, breasts, hips) [50]. Furthermore, our findings may be explained by our sample's [51]. Another explanation may be that women are frequently exposed to body objectification and so-called "fat talk" (people speaking negatively about the size and shape of women's bodies) [52], which promotes the internalization of body concerns in women, according to selfobjectification theory [28]. ...
Introduction:
Cognitive distraction is a core concept in cognitive models of sexual dysfunction. Body appearance cognitive distraction during sexual activity (BACDSA) has been mainly studied among female college samples. However, the relative contribution of different indicators of body dissatisfaction among men and women from community samples, including the contribution of relationship variables to BACDSA, has yet to be examined.
Aim:
The aim of this study was to examine the extent to which aspects of body dissatisfaction and relationship variables predict BACDSA.
Methods:
A total of 669 cohabitating, heterosexual, Portuguese participants (390 women and 279 men) with no sexual problems completed an anonymous online survey. The survey included a sociodemographic questionnaire and a set of questionnaires assessing body- and relationship-related variables.
Main outcome measures:
We used a single item measure of the participant's satisfaction with the opinion that they perceive their partner has about the participant's body (PPO); the Global Body Dissatisfaction Subscale of the Body Attitudes Test (GBD); a version of the Contour Drawing Rating Scale; the Global Measure of Relationship Satisfaction; and the Inclusion of Other in Self Scale. Focus on specific body parts during sexual activity (FBP) and relationship length were assessed with an open-ended question.
Results:
Hierarchical multiple regression indicated that GBD and FBP were the only body dissatisfaction variables that significantly predicted BACDSA in both men and women. The relationship variables significantly increased the amount of variance explained in BACDSA for both men and women. However, PPO was the only significant relationship variable that predicted BACDSA and only in women.
Conclusions:
Body and relationship variables are significant factors in body appearance cognitive distraction. They require further research and assessment, particularly for clinical intervention.
... In light of the apparently later peak in sexual interest for women rather than men (Barr, Bryan, & Kenrick, 2002), research with older adults using this methodology may well find fewer differences than we found with the 18-to 25-year-olds who participated. Indeed, research suggests that middle-aged men and women are more similar to one another with regard to sexual fantasy than are late adolescents or young FREQUENCY OF SEXUAL COGNITIONS adults (Easton, Confer, Goetz, & Buss, 2010;Wilson, 1997). ...
It is commonly believed that men think about sex much more often than do women, but the empirical evidence in this area is fairly weak. By means of a golf tally counter, 283 college students kept track of their thoughts pertaining to food, sleep, or sex for one week. Males reported significantly more need-based cognitions overall, but there was no significant interaction between sex of participant and type of cognition recorded. Therefore, although these young men did think more about sex than did young women, they also thought more about food and sleep. In contrast, a retrospective estimated frequency of need-based cognitions obtained at the start of the study revealed a sex difference in sexual cognitions, but not thoughts about eating or sleeping. Erotophilia and sexual desirability responding were significant predictors of frequency of sexual cognitions for women, but not for men. Overall, erotophilia was a better predictor of sexual cognition than was sex of participant. Taken as a whole, the results suggest that, although there may be a sex difference in sexual cognitions, it is smaller than is generally thought, and the reporting is likely influenced by sex role expectations.
That women who are of child-bearing age have become mothers with known or unknown spouses is common knowledge. In the contemporary, this occurrence has acquired a trendy nomenclature-"baby-mama." The prevalence of the terminology circulates among young female socialites who often engage arbitrary coitus culminating in pregnancy and giving birth. These young ladies are often associated with male celebrities. This paper evaluates the ethics of this phenomenon in Nigerian social context. This analytical and qualitative study garners data from interviews, focus group discussion, observations and complemented with extant literature. The theoretical framework is ethical egoism, while qualitative content analysis is used to systematically categorize and analyze collected data. Findings show that self-centeredness, feminism, pop culture, poverty, among others are causative factors. The baby-mama phenomenon, which is an aberrant index that is fast gaining grounds, has ethical, cultural, social, religious as well as human rights implications for the Nigerian society. To slow down the spate of this reality that is galvanizing momentum among young people, this paper advocates a reorientation of family ideals and values in Nigeria, a conscious reawakening of the socio-cultural ideals of the society by stakeholders and other influencers. Inimical gender practices and poverty also have to be properly addressed by the Nigerian government. Egoistic actions are usually counterintuitive to the society. Therefore, ethical altruism should guide human decisions and actions.
This study investigates subjective well-being in Japan using a survey of 22,539 respondents in 46 prefectures in December 2019. We applied a Bayesian hierarchical model to the self-reported well-being respondents, supposing that well-being is decomposed into regional and individual factors. As a result, regional heteroscedasticity and individual factors are identified jointly, which clarifies the interesting features of Japanese subjective well-being. From the identified regional factors in prefectural levels, we find that Social Welfare Expenditure (SWE) per capita and Ratio of Forest Area (RFA) are positively related to subjective well-being. Some prefectures in Capital Region, which are at the bottom of happiness ranking, are correlated with lower SWE and FRA. In addition, coastal areas in Tohoku region damaged by the 2011 tsunami and nuclear plant accidents also have relatively lower subjective well-being. This finding suggests that residents in the regions have not recovered and require additional mental and physical public support.
In this article the author analyses the problem of motivation to conclude a marriage in light of the theory of conflict
of motives, particularly in relation to the approach-avoidance conflict, which is related to the impact of two contradictory
to each other motives of similar intensity. It was emphasized that young people nowadays experience more and more the
conflict of two types of motives – pro and anti –marriage. In the classification of motives internal and external motivation
was considered. Long-term influence of two antagonist forces on a person may result in depression, despondency, apathy and
helplessness. The author also presented interdependence of the approach-avoidance conflict and reluctance to marry.
Objectives: This study examines the stressors of single-person households in Korea. In particular, this research focuses on differences in the perceived level of stress, and whether the stressors are categorized differently by gender. Methods: The sample includes 500 single-person households in Seoul and Gyeonggi Province, while 18 separate stressors were surveyed. T-tests and ANOVA were conducted, as well as exploratory factor analyses. Results: Overall, female single-person households showed significantly higher stress levels. Stress from feeling unsafe/fear of being a victim of crime exhibited the highest gap by gender (females showed a higher level), while stress related to sexual needs showed the second highest gap (those of males were higher). Results from the factor analyses by gender confirmed that female and male single-person households perceived stressors differently. Conclusions: Based on the findings, this study suggests family and couple therapists in the field should be cautious in dealing with the stressors of male and female single-person households, as they may perceive stressors in a very different way, and differential approaches by gender are needed.
The routinisation of assisted reproduction in India has led to its proliferation and the easy identification of infertility. However, clinical and popular discourse tends to focus primarily on age-related deficiencies in reproduction. Here, both the "dangers" of declining reproduction as well as the facilitation of delayed reproduction are areas of focus and eulogisation. Bringing together the diverse elements of the medico-social conversation, the aim of this commentary is to examine the ways in which the ARTs are used to make sense of declining reproduction.
The article describes an innovative method of qualitative research called collective biography writing (CBW), which is not known at all in the pedagogical research of the region of Central and Eastern Europe. CBW is focused on intensively felt, suggestive memories which are analysed collectively according to a given methodological procedure. CBW may be applied to discover complex conditioning and contexts of individual’s functioning, thanks to which we may try to answer the questions about what we really know about ourselves, others and the reality. The ultimate aim of using CBW is the exposure of what “life” as such looks like, how the world functions, what reality is like and what happens in it – the aim is understanding.
In this paper the author analyses the developmental, evolutionary and planning aspects of spouse choice. The work refers to Robert Havighurst’s developmental tasks theory, Tadeusz Mądrzycki’s personality theory and the evolutionary psychology theory. According to Havighurst’s theory, failure to achieve such an important developmental task as spouse choice makes the man unhappy, which in turn makes the following developmental tasks even more difficult. Spouse choice should not only be a decree of faith but also a conscious task. The planning aspect of spouse choice is analysed referring to Mądrzycki’s theory, considering such life plans features as the essence, importance degree, conformity to social norms, realism or minuteness of detail. From the evolutionary psychology theory perspective, the short woman’s fertility time has a serious consequence – little time for spouse choice.
Across cultures, gender plays a significant role in sexual motivation and the pursuit of either short- or long-term mating strategies. Perhaps the most basic motivation for sexual behavior is the reproductive imperative (though this is not necessarily a conscious motivation). From an evolutionary perspective, men have developed an adaptive desire for sexual variety, in order to maximize their reproductive success. Because the minimum parental investment required of men (a single insemination) is much lower than that required of women (internal gestation), men can increase their reproductive capacity significantly by mating with multiple women. This desire for sexual variety is reflected in findings that men seek short-term mates much more than women do, men prefer to have more sexual partners than women do, and men require a shorter period of acquaintanceship before engaging in sex than women do. Under some circumstances, women require a shorter period of acquaintanceship than is typical for the gender. Women with declining fertility think more about sex, have more frequent and intense sexual fantasies, are more willing to engage in sexual intercourse, and report actually engaging in sexual intercourse more frequently than women of other age groups. Evidence also suggests that women sometimes preferentially engage in short-term mating relationships. They may be motivated to engage in these short-term sexual relationships for a number of reasons, including immediate acquisition of resources and an effort to determine the partner's potential suitability for a long-term mateship. It is also not uncommon for women to find a replacement mate before terminating an existing mateship.
Celebrity culture, which arose at the end of the 18th century, was based in its early stages on a deliberate process of self-aggrandizement by means of media manipulation (Morgan, 2010). However, in the past few decades a change has taken place in celeb culture that centers nowadays far more than in the past, on people who are famous for being famous (Furedi, 2010). This change - together with the rise of reality culture and broad technological developments - has paved the way for the "walk of shame," individuals who become famous by means of a shameless exposure of their past, their conduct and their behavior, individuals who achieve fame due to their complete lack of shame. This chapter, then, examines celebrities in Israel and their loss of shame on the road to fame. The examination was accomplished by using Critical Discourse Analysis of the "Israel Celebs Awards," which are bestowed by the "Gossip and Entertainment" column of the internet site Y-net since 2009 on the occasion of Israel's Independence Day
Background
Human bite can be classified as occlusive or non-occlusive. Occlusive bites are seldom reported to occur outside the facial region. This study aims to analyze cases of avulsive human bite and find which part of the face is the most frequently involved in such cases. The findings may indicate which part of the face is generally perceived as the most critical in judging attractiveness.
Methods
This retrospective study was carried out using a data review of all consecutive avulsive facial human bite cases seen in the maxillofacial surgery unit, National Hospital Abuja, between February 2001 and January 2014. Uniform protocol of prophylactic oral antibiotic and anti-tetanus cover was ensured throughout the study period.
Results
Seventeen cases were included in this study. Amorous jealousy was the cause of altercation in 15 (88.2 %) cases. Twelve (70.6 %) cases involved the lip. There were eight female and nine male victims. There were nine female and eight male assailants.
Conclusions
The lip is the most frequently affected region of the face in avulsive human bite attacks in our environment. This may be because it is considered the most important anatomical region of the face on which judgment of attractiveness is based.
Level of evidence: Level IV, prognostic/risk study.
Recently, mainstream English-language news organisations have been reporting that a 'male pill' will soon be available. A common theme running through many published articles is that women will not trust men to use these new male contraceptives, though rarely is evidence provided to support this claim. In order to understand this disconnect between women's distrust for men as a group and their trust in their male partners, this paper examines three dominant ideologies of masculinity that inhibit men's contraceptive trustworthiness as a group. First, there is a cultural belief that men have an uncontrollable sex drive, which interferes with their ability to contracept. Second, there is a commonly held idea that men are incompetent in domestic tasks, which impairs their ability to correctly use contraception. Third, there is a social perception that men are not committed to pregnancy prevention, or at least not to the degree that women are.
This quasi-experimental research investigates developmental regulation around a critical life-span transition, the “biological clock” for childbearing. The action-phase model of developmental regulation proposes contrasting control orientations in individuals approaching versus those having passed a developmental deadline. Individuals in an urgency phase close to the deadline should be invested in goal pursuit, whereas those who have passed the deadline without attaining the goal should focus on goal disengagement and self-protection. In 2 studies, women at different ages and with or without children were compared with regard to various indicators of primary and secondary control striving for goal attainment versus goal disengagement and self-protection. Findings support the action-phase model of developmental regulation. Patterns of control striving congruent with the participants' status as pre- versus postdeadline were associated with superior psychological well-being.
This research explored whether women experience a "sexual peak" during their early 30s and, if so, whether such a peak might have an evolved function. In Study 1, results from a cross-sectional sample of college students from the United States (N = 803 women, 415 men) revealed that women between 30 and 34, relative to older and younger women, described themselves as more lustful, seductive, and sexually active. In contrast, men did not experience a sexual peak between 30 and 34. In a second study (N = 611 women, 329 men), findings of an early-30s peak in women were replicated among married and single individuals from Canada. Using new measures of human sexual strategies (Schmitt & Buss, 2000), the authors were able to test 2 hypotheses about the possible functions of an early-30s peak in female sexual desire. One hypothesis is that an early-30s peak increases reproduction in monogamous, long-term relationships. A second hypothesis is that women's early-30s peak in sexual desire increases reproduction through promiscuous or extra-pair copulations. Overall, the hypothesis that the peak is designed to increase womens reproduction in monogamous, long-term relationships received the most support. Discussion focuses on limitations and alternative explanations of the current findings and on areas for future investigation.
Child death has played an important role in the evolution of humans. Of all stages of development, and at all historical times beyond Modern history, childhood has been associated with the highest levels of mortality. Compared to other evolutionary pressures such as surviving as an adult or finding a mate and having children, the odds of genetic failure (i.e., failure to directly contribute to one's genetic line) are greatest in childhood. The enormous potential evolutionary pressure exerted by child death should have significantly influenced human psychological adaptations. Despite this potential influence, child death may be one of the least studied influences on human evolutionary psychology. This paper discusses the historical rates of child mortality, the relative odds associated with passing on one's genes, adult mental adaptations to child mortality, and child mental adaptations to child mortality.
Most evolutionary theories of human mating have focused on the adaptive benefits of short-term mating for men. Men cannot pursue a strategy of short-term mating, however, without willing women. Existing empirical evidence suggests that some women engage in short-term mating some of the time and probably have done so recurrently over human evolutionary history. The current studies tested hypotheses about the potential benefits women might derive from engaging in one type of short-term mating — extra-pair liaisons — and the contexts in which they do so. These include resource hypotheses (e.g. immediate resource accrual), genetic hypotheses (e.g. having genetically diverse offspring), mate switching hypotheses (e.g. acquiring a better mate), mate skill acquisition hypotheses (e.g. mate preference clarification) and mate manipulation hypotheses (e.g. deterring a partner's future infidelity). These hypotheses were tested by examining the perceived likelihood that women would receive particular benefits through a short-term extra-pair mating (Study 1); the perceived magnitude of benefits if received (Study 2); the contexts in which women engage in short-term extra-pair mating (Study 3); and individual differences among women in proclivity to pursue short-term matings in their perceptions of benefits (Study 4). Most strongly supported across all four studies were the mate switching and resource acquisition hypotheses. Discussion focuses on the distinction between functions and beneficial effects of short-term mating, limitations of the current studies and the consequences of women's short-term mating strategies for the broader matrix of human mating.
The nature and frequency of men's and women's sexual fantasies were investigated by surveying 307 students (182 females, 125 males) at a California state university or junior college via a paper‐and‐pencil questionnaire. The questionnnaire was inspired by modern evolutionary theory and was designed to investigate sex differences in sexual fantasies. Substantial sex differences were found in the salience of visual images, touching, context, personalization, emotion, partner variety, partner response, fantasizer response, and inward versus outward focus. These data, the scientific literature on sexual fantasy, the historically‐stable contrasts between male‐oriented pornography and female‐oriented romance novels, the ethnographic record of human sexuality, and the ineluctable implications of an evolutionary perspective on our species, taken together, imply the existence of profound sex differences in sexual psychologies.
Context While recent pharmacological advances have generated increased public interest and demand for clinical services regarding erectile dysfunction, epidemiologic data on sexual dysfunction are relatively scant for both women and men. Objective To assess the prevalence and risk of experiencing sexual dysfunction across various social groups and examine the determinants and health consequences of these disorders. Design Analysis of data from the National Health and Social Life Survey, a probability sample study of sexual behavior in a demographically representative, 1992 cohort of US adults. Participants A national probability sample of 1749 women and 1410 men aged 18 to 59 years at the time of the survey. Main Outcome Measures Risk of experiencing sexual dysfunction as well as negative concomitant outcomes. Results Sexual dysfunction is more prevalent for women (43%) than men (31%) and is associated with various demographic characteristics, including age and educational attainment. Women of different racial groups demonstrate different patterns of sexual dysfunction. Differences among men are not as marked but generally consistent with women. Experience of sexual dysfunction is more likely among women and men with poor physical and emotional health. Moreover, sexual dysfunction is highly associated with negative experiences in sexual relationships and overall wellbeing. Conclusions The results indicate that sexual dysfunction is an important public health concern, and emotional problems likely contribute to the experience of these problems.
Female and male mate choice preferences in humans both vary according to the menstrual cycle. Women prefer more masculine, symmetrical and genetically unrelated men during ovulation compared with other phases of their cycle, and recent evidence suggests that men prefer ovulating women to others. Such monthly shifts in mate preference have been suggested to bring evolutionary benefits in terms of reproductive success. New evidence is now emerging that taking the oral contraceptive pill might significantly alter both female and male mate choice by removing the mid-cycle change in preferences. Here, we review support for such conclusions and speculate on the consequences of pill-induced choice of otherwise less-preferred partners for relationship satisfaction, durability and, ultimately, reproductive outcomes.
The association among sexual daydreaming and sexual attitudes and activity was examined in a cross-sectional life-span sample of women (N = 117, 26 to 78 years). Sexual daydreaming was measured using the Imaginal Processes Inventory (IPI) while sexual history measures of sexual activity, sexual drive, and sexual attitudes were derived from a comprehensive personal interview. A factor analysis and varimax rotation of the sexual history variables, age, and the Sexual Daydream Scale of the IPI revealed three primary factors representing dimensions of sexual activity and drive, attitudes toward sexual activity, and sexual satisfaction. Age was associated with less sexual daydreaming, less sexual drive, less sexual activity, and more negative sexual attitudes. Sexual daydreaming varied directly with sexual drive and sexual activity and with a positive sexual attitude.
This article reviews the research literature on sexual fantasy, a central aspect of human sexual behavior. Topics include (a) gender similarities and differences in the incidence, frequency, and content of sexual fantasies and how they relate to sociocultural and sociobiological theories of sexual behavior; (b) the association between frequency or content of sexual fantasies and variables such as age, sexual adjustment and satisfaction, guilt, sexual orientation, personality, and sexual experience; and (c) "deviant" sexual fantasies (i.e., what they are, whether they play a role in the commission of sexual crimes, and whether they can be modified). The article ends with a summary of major findings and suggestions for future research.
This article proposes a contextual-evolutionary theory of human mating strategies. Both men and women are hypothesized to have evolved distinct psychological mechanisms that underlie short-term and long-term strategies. Men and women confront different adaptive problems in short-term as opposed to long-term mating contexts. Consequently, different mate preferences become activated from their strategic repertoires. Nine key hypotheses and 22 predictions from Sexual Strategies Theory are outlined and tested empirically. Adaptive problems sensitive to context include sexual accessibility, fertility assessment, commitment seeking and avoidance, immediate and enduring resource procurement, paternity certainty, assessment of mate value, and parental investment. Discussion summarizes 6 additional sources of behavioral data, outlines adaptive problems common to both sexes, and suggests additional contexts likely to cause shifts in mating strategy.
The authors prospectively studied the effect of demographic, reproductive, stress-related, and health behavior factors measured at study entry on age of natural menopause in 185 healthy US women. At study entry, women were 42.5-47.5 years old and premenopausal. After a baseline examination (1983-1985), women were followed for 7-9 years, during which time they reported on a monthly basis their menstrual status and whether they were taking hormones. Menopausal age was defined as age at the last menstrual period prior to stopping menstruation for 12 months (and not taking hormones). Estimated median age at menopause was 51.5 years for the whole sample. Median age at menopause was earlier for women who reported irregular menstrual cycles at study entry (50.2 years), were African-American (49.3 years), were smokers (50.6 years), or were currently on a weight reduction diet (50.5 years). Psychosocial stress was predictive of an even earlier median age at menopause in African Americans (48.4 years) and in those with irregular cycles at baseline (49.4 years). Results suggest that premenopausal women in their forties who are experiencing irregular menstrual cycles, are smokers, are dieting, or are African-American are likely to reach menopause earlier than their contemporaries. African-American women may have a different "biological clock" than white women, especially when under stress, or they may experience more stress of longer duration.
While recent pharmacological advances have generated increased public interest and demand for clinical services regarding erectile dysfunction, epidemiologic data on sexual dysfunction are relatively scant for both women and men.
To assess the prevalence and risk of experiencing sexual dysfunction across various social groups and examine the determinants and health consequences of these disorders.
Analysis of data from the National Health and Social Life Survey, a probability sample study of sexual behavior in a demographically representative, 1992 cohort of US adults.
A national probability sample of 1749 women and 1410 men aged 18 to 59 years at the time of the survey.
Risk of experiencing sexual dysfunction as well as negative concomitant outcomes.
Sexual dysfunction is more prevalent for women (43%) than men (31%) and is associated with various demographic characteristics, including age and educational attainment. Women of different racial groups demonstrate different patterns of sexual dysfunction. Differences among men are not as marked but generally consistent with women. Experience of sexual dysfunction is more likely among women and men with poor physical and emotional health. Moreover, sexual dysfunction is highly associated with negative experiences in sexual relationships and overall well-being.
The results indicate that sexual dysfunction is an important public health concern, and emotional problems likely contribute to the experience of these problems.
The influence of sex, sex guilt, and sexual experience on college students sexual fantasies was examined. Twenty-one males and forty-nine females handed in at least three written-out sexual fantasies which were rated on a fantasy checklist. Male fantasies were found to be more explicit, and mention group sex more often than female fantasies. Females mentioned themes of romance and commitment more often than males. Sexually experienced subjects tended to have more explicit fantasies than sexually less experienced subjects. The level of sex guilt did not discriminate among subjects. Subjects who defined themselves as nonreligious had more explicit and richer sexual fantasies.
Reports that the effects of erotic content and S's sex on sexual fantasy are mediated by general sexual attitudes. When erotic content consisted of mild erotica featuring males rather than females, 123 male undergraduates expressed significantly more negative themes in briefer fantasy productions than 123 female undergraduates. Analyses of affective and arousal responses to single-sex and heterosexual erotica indicated patterns generally consistent with the fantasy outcomes. Negative sexual attitudes determined via a sexual opinion survey were associated with negatively toned fantasies, more negative affect, and less sexual arousal. Variations in affective and arousal responses to erotic stimuli, as discussed by the theory of the sexual behavior sequence, are demonstrated to extend to the production of sexual fantasy. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This . . . book is the first to present a unified theory of human mating behavior. [It] is based on the most massive study of human mating ever undertaken, encompassing more than 10,000 people of all ages from thirty-seven cultures worldwide.
If we all want love, why is there so much conflict in our most cherished relationships? To answer this question, we must look into our evolutionary past, according to David M. Buss.
The book discusses casual sex and long-term relationships, sexual conflict, the elusive quest for harmony between the sexes, and much more.
Buss's research leads to a radical shift from the standard view of men's and women's sexual psychology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Reports some conculsions and implications from a study, but no methodological details are given. It is stated that men are more frequently aroused by perceptual cues, e.g., vision and olfaction, while women are more stimulated by thought processes, feelings, emotions, and touch. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study is concerned with the role of fantasy. Prior research has studied the role of fantasy by investigating the content or types of fantasy and fantasy frequency with the reasoning that such knowledge provides implications as to fantasy's role in human functioning. The present study examined fantasy frequency and content in relation to the variables of gender and the social attitude of liberalism/conservatism (N = 304). It was proposed that (a) liberals would engage in more sexual, and bizarre-improbable fantasies than conservatives; (b) males would be more liberal and engage in sexual fantasy more frequently than females; (c) subjects would engage in less sexual and bizarre-improbable fantasies as age increased; and (d) fantasies would be present oriented. The study yielded mixed results. Using an adapted version of the Imaginal Processes Inventory, it was found that the second and third research questions were supported entirely, while the first and fourth research questions were supported only partially.
Is a man’s sexual peak earlier than a woman’s? Three studies were conducted to examine (a) whether the perception that men achieve their sexual peak at a younger age than do women is shared across individuals of different ages and sexes, (b) whether sexual peak is defined differently for men and women, and (c) whether differences between definitions contribute to differences in the age at which men and women are perceived to reach sexual peak. Study 1 suggested that participants believed that females reach their sexual peak at an older age than do males. Study 2 indicated that the defining feature of sexual peak for males was sexual desire and for females was sexual satisfaction. Study 3 suggested that predictions of male sexual peak coincided with participants’ predictions of male age of highest desire and frequency, but not satisfaction, and that female sexual peak coincided with participants' predictions of female age of highest satisfaction but not frequency or desire. Discussion focuses on potential reasons for differences between the perception of male and female sexuality, as well as the social and evolutionary importance of each of the dimensions of sexuality for both males and females.
Patterns in the data on human sexuality support the hypothesis that the bases of sexual emotions are products of natural selection. Most generally, the universal existence of laws, rules, and gossip about sex, the pervasive interest in other people's sex lives, the widespread seeking of privacy for sexual intercourse, and the secrecy that normally permeates sexual conduct imply a history of reproductive competition. More specifically, the typical differences between men and women in sexual feelings can be explained most parsimoniously as resulting from the extraordinarily different reproductive opportunities and constraints males and females normally encountered during the course of evolutionary history. Men are more likely than women to desire multiple mates; to desire a variety of sexual partners; to experience sexual jealousy of a spouse irrespective of specific circumstances; to be sexually aroused by the sight of a member of the other sex; to experience an autonomous desire for sexual intercourse; and to evaluate sexual desirability primarily on the bases of physical appearance and youth.
The evolutionary causes of human sexuality have been obscured by attempts to find harmony in natural creative processes and human social life and to view sex differences as complementary. The human female's capacity for orgasm and the loss of estrus, for example, have been persistently interpreted as marriage-maintaining adaptations. Available evidence is more consistent with the view that few sex differences in sexuality are complementary, that many aspects of sexuality undermine marriage, and that sexuality is less a unifying than a divisive force in human affairs.
Direct evidence on age patterns of infecundity and sterility cannot be obtained from contemporary populations because such large fractions of couples use contraception or have been sterilized. Instead, historical data are exploited to yield upper bounds applicable to contemporary populations on the proportions sterile at each age. Examination of recent changes in sexual behavior that may increase infecundity indicates that sexually transmitted infections, the prime candidate for hypothesized rises in infertility, are unlikely to have added to infecundity to any great extent. These results imply that a woman in a monogamous union faces only moderate increases in the probability of becoming sterile (or infecund) until her late thirties. Nevertheless, it appears that recent changes in reproductive behavior were guaranteed to result in the perception that infecundity is on the rise.
Men with deviant sexual behavior, or paraphilia, are usually treated with psychotherapy, antidepressant drugs, progestins, and antiandrogens, but these treatments are often ineffective. Selective inhibition of pituitary-gonadal function with a long-acting agonist analogue of gonadotropin-releasing hormone may abolish the deviant sexual behavior by reducing testosterone secretion.
In an uncontrolled observational study, we treated 30 men (mean age, 32 years) with severe long-standing paraphilia (25 with pedophilia and 5 with other types of abnormal behavior) with monthly injections of 3.75 mg of triptorelin and supportive psychotherapy for 8 to 42 months. The efficacy of therapy was evaluated monthly by the Intensity of Sexual Desire and Symptoms Scale and yearly by the Three Main Complaints questionnaire.
All the men had a decrease in the number of deviant sexual fantasies and desires, from a mean (+/-SD) of 48+/-10 per week before therapy to zero during therapy (P<0.001), and a decrease in the number of incidents of abnormal sexual behavior (from 5+/-2 per month to zero, P<0.001) while receiving triptorelin. These effects were evident after 3 to 10 months of therapy (P<0.001) and persisted in all 24 men who continued therapy for at least 1 year. The men's mean serum testosterone concentration fell from 545+/-196 ng per deciliter (18.9+/-6.8 nmol per liter) before therapy to 23+/-14 ng per deciliter (0.8+/-0.5 nmol per liter, P<0.001) after 42 months of triptorelin. The main side effects were erectile failure, hot flashes, and decrease in bone mineral density in some men.
Continuous administration of triptorelin, a long-acting agonist analogue of gonadotropin-releasing hormone, together with supportive psychotherapy, may be an effective treatment for men with severe paraphilia.
This quasi-experimental research investigates developmental regulation around a critical life-span transition, the "biological clock" for childbearing. The action-phase model of developmental regulation proposes contrasting control orientations in individuals approaching versus those having passed a developmental deadline. Individuals in an urgency phase close to the deadline should be invested in goal pursuit, whereas those who have passed the deadline without attaining the goal should focus on goal disengagement and self-protection. In 2 studies, women at different ages and with or without children were compared with regard to various indicators of primary and secondary control striving for goal attainment versus goal disengagement and self-protection. Findings support the action-phase model of developmental regulation. Patterns of control striving congruent with the participants' status as pre- versus postdeadline were associated with superior psychological well-being.
Most analyses of age-related changes in fertility cannot separate effects due to reduced frequency of sexual intercourse from effects directly related to ageing. Information on intercourse collected daily through each menstrual cycle provides the data for estimating day-specific probabilities of pregnancy for specific days relative to ovulation, and these estimates allow unconfounded analysis of ageing effects.
A total of 782 healthy couples using natural family planning methods contributed prospective data on 5860 menstrual cycles. Day of ovulation was based on basal body temperature measurements. Estimates of day-specific probabilities of pregnancy and the length of the fertile window were compared across age groups.
Nearly all pregnancies occurred within a 6 day fertile window. There was no evidence for a shorter fertile window in older men or women. On average, the day-specific probabilities of pregnancy declined with age for women from the late 20s onward, with probabilities of pregnancy twice as high for women aged 19-26 years compared with women aged 35-39 years. Controlling for age of the woman, fertility was significantly reduced for men aged >35 years.
Women's fertility begins to decline in the late 20s with substantial decreases by the late 30s. Fertility for men is less affected by age, but shows significant decline by the late 30s.
This article considers the relationships between selected demographic structures (total fertility, infant and child mortality, sex-age distribution, divorce rate, causes of death) and childcare patterns among hunter-gatherers, horticulturalists, and pastoralists. Demographic data from fifty-seven preindustrial societies indicate that the demographic structure of a population can be useful for understanding intercultural variability in caregiving practices identified in "traditional" characterizations of childcare in these populations (e.g., indulgent care, multiple caregivers, multiage play groups). Analysis of demographic structures also identifies two "emergent" features of childcare in preindustrial populations that are infrequently mentioned in socialization studies of these populations: stepparent-stepchild relations and differential investment in sons and daughters.
THE HETEROSEXUAL-HOMOSEXUAL BALANCEConcerning patterns of sexual behavior, a great deal of the thinking done by scientists and laymen alike stems from the assumption that there are persons who are “heterosexual” and persons who are “homosexual,” that these two types represent antitheses in the sexual world, and that there is only an insignificant class of “bisexuals” who occupy an intermediate position between the other groups. It is implied that every individual is innately—inherently—either heterosexual or homosexual. It is further implied that from the time of birth one is fated to be one thing or the other, and that there is little chance for one to change his pattern in the course of a lifetime.It is quite generally believed that one’s preference for a sexual partner of one or the other sex is correlated with various physical and mental qualities, and with the total personality which makes a homosexual male or female physically, psychically, and perhaps spiritually distinct from a heterosexual individual. It is generally thought that these qualities make a homosexual person obvious and recognizable to any one who has a sufficient understanding of such matters. Even psychiatrists discuss “the homosexual personality” and many of them believe that preferences for sexual partners of a particular sex are merely secondary manifestations of something that lies much deeper in the totality of that intangible which they call the personality. . . .The histories which have been available in the present study make it apparent that the heterosexuality or homosexuality of many individuals is not an all-or-none proposition. It is true that there are persons in the population whose histories are exclusively heterosexual, both in regard to their overt experience and in regard to their psychic reactions. And there are individuals in the population whose histories are exclusively homosexual, both in experience and in psychic reactions. But the record also shows that there is a considerable portion of the population whose members have combined, within their individual histories, both homosexual and heterosexual experience and/or psychic responses. There are some whose heterosexual experiences predominate, there are some whose homosexual experiences predominate, there are some who have had quite equal amounts of both types of experience. . . .Males do not represent two discrete populations, heterosexual and homosexual. The world is not to be divided into sheep and goats. Not all things are black nor all things white. It is a fundamental of taxonomy that nature rarely deals with discrete categories. Only the human mind invents categories and tries to force facts into separated pigeon-holes. The living world is a continuum in each and every one of its aspects. The sooner we learn this concerning human sexual behavior the sooner we shall reach a sound understanding of the realities of sex. . . .
To estimate the effects of aging on the percentage of outwardly healthy couples who are sterile (completely unable to conceive without assisted reproduction) or infertile (unable to conceive within a year of unprotected intercourse).
A prospective fecundability study was conducted in a sample of 782 couples recruited from 7 European centers for natural family planning. Women aged 18-40 years were eligible. Daily intercourse records were used to adjust for timing and frequency of intercourse when estimating the per-menstrual-cycle probability of conception. The number of menstrual cycles required to conceive a clinical pregnancy and the probability of sterility and infertility were derived from the estimated fecundability distributions for men and women of different ages.
Sterility was estimated at about 1%; this percent did not change with age. The percentage infertility was estimated at 8% for women aged 19-26 years, 13-14% for women aged 27-34 years and 18% for women aged 35-39 years. Starting in the late 30s, male age was an important factor, with the percentage failing to conceive within 12 cycles increasing from an estimated 18-28% between ages 35 and 40 years. The estimated percentage of infertile couples that would be able to conceive after an additional 12 cycles of trying varied from 43-63% depending on age.
Increased infertility in older couples is attributable primarily to declines in fertility rates rather than to absolute sterility. Many infertile couples will conceive if they try for an additional year.
Various predictors of fertility have been described, suggesting that none are ideal. The literature on tests of ovarian reserve is largely limited to women undergoing in vitro fertilization, and is reliant on the use of surrogate markers, such as cycle cancellation and number of oocytes retrieved, as reference standards. Currently available prediction models are far from ideal; most are applicable only to subfertile women seeking assisted reproduction, and lack external validation. Systematic reviews and meta-analyses of predictors of fertility are limited by their heterogeneity in terms of the population sampled, predictors tested and reference standards used. There is an urgent need for consensus in the design of these studies, definition of abnormal tests, and, above all, a need to use robust outcomes such as live birth as the reference standard. There are no reliable predictors of fertility that can guide women as to how long childbearing can be deferred.
Women’s sexual strategies: The hidden dimension of short-term mating
- Greiling