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In vivo antimalarial activity of Ajuga remota water extracts against Plasmodium berghei in mice
Abstract
We investigated the in vivo activity of crude water extracts of Ajuga remota Benth (Labiatae) against Plasmodium berghei in mice using plants harvested from two areas in Kenya where the plant is commonly used to treat malaria. The extract was tested using a 4-day test at a dose of 30 mg/kg/day (equivalent to 0.2 ml solution per mouse). Wet leaf extract was the most effective with 90.4% suppression of parasitemia. Extract from air-dried and powdered flowers were the least effective with 17.2% suppression of parasitemia.
... According to Trotter and Logan [16], plants that are used in some repetitive fashion are more likely to be biologically active. Previous studies conducted on the plants indicated their antiplasmodial activity [17][18][19]. An in vivo study conducted on water extract of Ajuga remota, a close relative of A. integrifolia treated mice showed 90.4 % parasitaemia suppression at a dose of 30 μg/mL [17]. ...
... Previous studies conducted on the plants indicated their antiplasmodial activity [17][18][19]. An in vivo study conducted on water extract of Ajuga remota, a close relative of A. integrifolia treated mice showed 90.4 % parasitaemia suppression at a dose of 30 μg/mL [17]. Aqueous, methanol and dichloromethane extracts of the root bark of C. myricoides exhibited in vitro antimalarial activity with IC 50 values of 64 μg/mL, 48.2 μg/mL, 15. μg/mL, respectively [18]. ...
... The highest suppression was recorded for A. integrifolia at the highest test dose of 800 mg/kg/day. An investigation carried out elsewhere also indicated high level (90.4 %) of suppression of parasitaemia in mice treated with water extract of Ajuga remota, a close relative of A. integrifolia, at a dose of 30 mg/kg [17]. A study by Irungu et al. [18] revealed that aqueous, methanol and dichloromethane extracts of the root bark extracts of C. myricoides exhibited antimalarial activities in vitro with IC 50 values of 64 μg/mL, 48.2 μg/mL, 15.8 μg/mL, respectively. ...
In Ethiopia, malaria control has been complicated due to resistance of the parasite to the current drugs. Thus, new drugs are required against drug-resistant
Plasmodium
strains. Historically, many of the present antimalarial drugs were discovered from plants. This study was, therefore, conducted to document antimalarial plants utilized by Sidama people of Boricha District, Sidama Zone, South Region of Ethiopia. An ethnobotanical survey was carried out from September 2011 to February 2012. Data were collected through semistructured interview and field and market observations. Relative frequency of citation (RFC) was calculated and preference ranking exercises were conducted to estimate the importance of the reported medicinal plants in Boricha District. A total of 42 antimalarial plants belonging to 27 families were recorded in the study area. Leaf was the dominant plant part (59.0%) used in the preparation of remedies and oral (97.4%) was the major route of administration.
Ajuga integrifolia
scored the highest RFC value (0.80). The results of this study revealed the existence of rich knowledge on the use of medicinal plants in the study area to treat malaria. Thus, an attempt should be made to conserve and evaluate the claimed antimalarial medicinal plants with priority given to those that scored the highest RFC values.
... According to Trotter and Logan [16], plants that are used in some repetitive fashion are more likely to be biologically active. Previous studies conducted on the plants indicated their antiplasmodial activity [17][18][19]. An in vivo study conducted on water extract of Ajuga remota, a close relative of A. integrifolia treated mice showed 90.4 % parasitaemia suppression at a dose of 30 μg/mL [17]. ...
... Previous studies conducted on the plants indicated their antiplasmodial activity [17][18][19]. An in vivo study conducted on water extract of Ajuga remota, a close relative of A. integrifolia treated mice showed 90.4 % parasitaemia suppression at a dose of 30 μg/mL [17]. Aqueous, methanol and dichloromethane extracts of the root bark of C. myricoides exhibited in vitro antimalarial activity with IC 50 values of 64 μg/mL, 48.2 μg/mL, 15. μg/mL, respectively [18]. ...
... The highest suppression was recorded for A. integrifolia at the highest test dose of 800 mg/kg/day. An investigation carried out elsewhere also indicated high level (90.4 %) of suppression of parasitaemia in mice treated with water extract of Ajuga remota, a close relative of A. integrifolia, at a dose of 30 mg/kg [17]. A study by Irungu et al. [18] revealed that aqueous, methanol and dichloromethane extracts of the root bark extracts of C. myricoides exhibited antimalarial activities in vitro with IC 50 values of 64 μg/mL, 48.2 μg/mL, 15.8 μg/mL, respectively. ...
Background:
The majority of the Ethiopian population is at risk of malaria largely caused by Plasmodium falciparum. The resistance of the parasite to existing drugs is the main challenge in the control of the disease and thus new therapeutic drugs are required. In Ethiopia, people use different plant species to treat malaria. However, very few of them have so far been evaluated for their safety level and antimalarial activity. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate the safety and antimalarial activity of extracts of Ajuga integrifolia, Clerodendrum myricoides, Melia azedarach, Peponium vogelii and Premna schimperi, locally used by the Sidama people of Ethiopia to treat malaria.
Methods:
The safety level of 80 % methanol extracts of the plants were evaluated using standard acute toxicity test procedure. The antiplasmodial activity of 80 % methanol extracts of the plants were assessed in vivo using Swiss albino mice against chloroquine sensitive rodent malaria parasite, Plasmodium berghei, using the standard 4-day suppressive test procedure at doses of 200,400 and 800 mg/kg/day. The 80 % methanol extract of Ajuga integrifolia that exhibited better antimalarial activity was fractionated using different solvents and screened for its phytochemical constituents and evaluated in vivo for its antimalarial activity at doses of 100, 200 and 400 mg/kg/day.
Results:
All extracts given at the three different doses caused no lethal effect on mice in 24 h and within 10 days of observation. All extracts and fractions exhibited antimalarial activity in a dose dependant manner. The highest inhibition was exhibited by the crude extracts of A. integrifolia (35.17 %) at 800 mg/kg/day (P < 0.05). Among fractions of A. integrifolia, n-butanol fraction demonstrated the highest inhibition (29.80 %) at 400 mg/kg/day (P < 0.05). The extracts and fractions prolonged the survival time and prevented weight loss of the mice, but did not prevent PCV reduction. Phytochemical test on Ajuga integrifolia indicated the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, terpenoids, anthraquinone, steroids, tannins, phenols and fatty acids.
Conclusions:
Findings show that the plants are non-toxic and demonstrate antimalarial activity in a dose dependant manner suporting claims of their traditional therapeutic value for malaria treatment. However, further in-depth investigation is required to assess the potential of the plants towards the development of new antimalarial agent.
... A single donor mouse previously infected with Plasmodium berghei ANKA donated by the KEMRI lab was bled into sterile heparinized culture medium and the blood (0.4 ml) was diluted with physiological saline (7.6 ml). The healthy experimental mice were then each inoculated intraperitoneally with 0.2 ml of the diluted blood containing 10 7 parasitized erythrocytes [13]. The infected mice were then divided into eight groups ( I to VIII ) of six mice, each group comprising of 3 males and 3 females and the groups treated according to peter's test as described below [14]. ...
... The smears were fixed with methanol, and then stained for 30 minutes with Giemsa 5% freshly prepared [15]. Parasitemia was determined microscopically by counting parasitized erythrocytes among 500 red blood cells in 4 fields per field per view of thin blood film [13]. Percent (%) parasitaemia for each mouse was calculated as a ratio of parasite infected RBCs counted to non infected RBCs counted (500 RBCs) x 100. ...
... Parasitaemia was suppressed in a dose dependent manner indicating that the plant has antimalarial activity. Similar results were obtained in studies reported from the same species of A. remota [25]. The parasite suppressive effect of plant extract might be through indirect boosting of the immune system or by inhibition of other target pathways which are not fully realized [26]. ...
... Based on this classification, the crude extract of A. remota showed very good antiplasmodial activity below 100 mg/kg/day dose level. Similarly, four day suppressive in vivo evaluation of the wet and dried leaf aqueous extracts of A. remota showed 90.35 and 82.82% suppression of parasitaemia, respectively [25]. ...
Background
Malaria is one of the most life-threatening health problems worldwide and treatment has been compromised by drug resistance. Identifying lead molecules from natural products might help to find better anti-malarial drugs, since those obtained from natural sources are still effective against malarial parasites. This study aimed at investigating the in vivo antiplasmodial activity of crude extract of the leaves of Ajuga remota together with its safety in mice models.
Methods
In vivo parasite growth inhibitory effect of crude extract was assessed in mice inoculated with Plasmodium berghei (ANKA strain). The in vivo antiplasmodial activity of the test extract was performed against early infection (4-day suppressive test), curative effect against established infection and prophylactic effect against residual infection. Acute and sub-acute toxicity were carried out according to OECD guidelines.
Results
In vivo parasite growth inhibition effect of hydroethanolic crude extract of A. remota was evaluated at 30, 50 and 100 mg/kg dose levels. It suppressed parasitaemia by 77.34% at 100 mg/kg dose level in the 4-day test. In curative and prophylactic potential tests, it suppressed parasitaemia by 66.67 and 59.66% at 100 mg/kg dose level, respectively. In vivo toxicity tests revealed no toxicity. All parasitaemia suppressions were statistically significant at P < 0.05 as compared to the vehicle-treated group. The crude extract also prolonged survival time in a dose dependent manner.
Conclusions
The investigation results suggest that the leave extract of Ajuga remota possesses antimalarial activity.
... In addition, the extract increased iron content may have significantly aided in red blood cell formation. This is in line with the study of (Gitua et al., 2012). A significantly low haemoglobin level is a reliable sign of anaemia (Mengiste et al., 2012). ...
The haematological and Biochemical effect of Cassia sieberiana and Chromolaena odorata leaf extract on mice
infected with Plasmodium berghei was evaluated. 30 Swiss albino mice (23-32g) were divided into 6 groups of
five per group. Groups PC, CC1, CC2, CC3, and CC4 were infected with blood containing the parasite. Group NC
was not infected and served as the normal control. On the 5th day after infection, the mice in each group were
treated. Mice in Groups CC2, CC3 and CC4 were administered orally with 250, 500 and 1000 mg/kg body weight
of Cassia sieberiana and Chromolaena odorata leaf respectively for five days. Group PC was not treated while
Group NC was given distilled water. Group CC1 was treated with 10 mg/kg body weight of chloroquine. After
treatment, these mice were sacrificed and blood samples were collected for haematological and biochemical
analysis. The result of the combined leaf extract on the haematological parameter indicated that packed cell
volume, haemoglobin and red blood cell, were significantly increased by the extract in a dose-dependent mode,
while White blood cell, monocytes, neutrophils and lymphocytes were significantly (p<0.05) reduced by the
extract in a dose-dependent manner when compared to the parasitized untreated group. The level of aspertate
transferase, alanine transferase, total protein concentration, urea and creatinine, alkaline phosphate and total
bilirubin in all the mice infected with the parasite significantly (p < 0.05) increased. However, on the
administration of the extract it was reduced in the treated groups. The reduction in the levels of these enzymes is
an indication that Cassia sieberiana and Chromolaena odorata have no hepatotoxic effect on the mice at the dose
levels administered.
... P. berghei has been used in studying the activity of potential antimalarials in mice (Thomas et al., 1998) and in rats (Pedroni et al., 2006). Therefore, it has been used to predict treatment 54 outcomes and is an appropriate parasite for this study (Gitua et al., 2012;Madara et al., 2012). The chemosuppressive effect by crude leaf extract and solvent fractions of M. dianthera against Plasmodium berghei compared to the negative control. ...
Malaria is a parasitic infection caused by a parasite that spends part of its life in people and the rest in mosquitos. Malaria continues to be one of the world's worst killers, threatening the lives of more than a third of the world's population. Treatments with organophosphates and insect growth regulators are the main control tools against Anopheles larvae, but they have negative effects on human health and the environment. Green control tools are a priority in this circumstance and are required for mosquito control. In this present study, Positive and negative controls were orally provided in mice for 24 hours before several tests were conducted out in the current investigation to evaluate the Treatment of Ethanolic extracts of Eichhornia crassipes. Mice were used in the Acute Toxicity Tests, the Early Malaria Infection Test, and the Established Infection Method Test. Asthenia, piloerection, ataxia, anorexia, urination, diarrhoea, lethargy, and coma were among the behavioural signs of toxicity observed in the mice. As a result, Eichhornia crassipes extract appears to have significant malarial activity. As a result, Eichhornia crassipes could be used as a natural antiplasmodial agent for the fight against Malaria.
... Similar results have been reported in literature. 31 The plant extracts also showed high chemosuppression in the curative model of malaria treatment ( Table 4). The cure by the extracts is evidenced by decreased parasitemia and high chemosuppression not significantly different from chloroquine treatment. ...
The current work investigated the chemical profile, antimalarial potential and capacity of hydroethanolic Senna alata extract (SAE) to reverse hematological and biochemical pertubation in Plasmodium berghei infected mice. Results of the phytochemical analysis revealed the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, phenolics, tannins, terpenoids, saponins, steroids and cardiac glycosides. Total phe-nolic and flavonoid content was estimated to be 45.29 ± 2.34 mg GAE/g and 25.22 ± 2.26 mg QE/g respectively. In vitro analysis of the extract also confirmed its antioxidant property. Results of the test for prophylaxis of P. berghei indicated that SAE suppressed parasitemia significantly in treated groups in a dose dependent manner when compared with negative control group. Similarly, SAE improved the mean survival time (MST) and packed cell volume (PCV) of infected mice. The test for curative effect showed that SAE significantly suppressed parasitemia to 4.50 ± 1.05% compared to untreated group 29.83 ± 3.49%. Results of liver and kidney functions indices of treated animals indicated that whereas infection with P. berghei caused increase in the levels of AST, ALT, ALP, urea and creatinine, treatment with SAE significantly reversed the perturbation. Similarly, infected mice were dyslipi-demic with concomitant increased activity of HMG CoA reductase and decreased activity of antioxidant enzymes with increase in lipid peroxides levels. However, these alterations were significantly reversed by administration of SAE. Results of this study shows that Senna alata possess antimalarial activity and therefore justify the traditional use of plant for the treatment of malaria.
... Similar results were obtained in studies reported from the same species of Ajuga remota used to treat malaria. 36,37 ...
Background
The search for new antimalarial drugs has become progressively urgent due to plasmodial resistance to most of the commercially available antimalarial drugs. As part of this effort, the study evaluated the antimalarial activity of Cucumis metuliferus and Lippia kituiensis, which are traditionally used in Tanzania for the treatment of malaria.
Materials and methods
In vivo antimalarial activity was assessed using the 4-day suppressive antimalarial assay. Mice were infected by injecting via tail vein 1×10⁷ erythrocytes infected by Plasmodium berghei ANKA. Extracts were administered orally; chloroquine (10 mg/kg/day) and dimethyl sulfoxide (5 mL/kg/day) were used as positive and negative controls, respectively. The level of parasitemia, survival time, packed cell volume (PCV) and variation in body weight of mice were used to determine the antimalarial activity of the extract.
Results
The ethyl acetate, methanolic and chloroform extracts of C. metuliferus and L. kituiensis significantly (p<0.05) inhibited parasitemia in a dose-dependent manner and prevented loss of body weight at the dose levels of 600 mg/kg and 1500 mg/kg, respectively. In addition, the extracts prolonged the mean survival time of P. berghei-infected mice compared to the non-treated control. The plant extracts did not show reduction of PCV except at the low dose of 300 mg/kg. The highest suppression was recorded at the dose level of 1,500 mg/kg. At this dose, C. metuliferus in chloroform, methanolic and ethyl acetate extracts had percentage suppression of 98.55%, 88.89% and 84.39%, respectively, whereas L. kituiensis in ethyl acetate, chloroform and methanolic extracts exhibited suppression of the pathogens of 95.19%, 93.88% and 74.83%, respectively.
Conclusion
It is worth reporting that the two plants induced suppression which is equivalent to that induced by chloroquine (C. metuliferus chloroform and L. Kituiensis ethyl acetate). The two plants have been demonstrated to be potential sources of antimalarial templates.
... Most of the plants used in the area are well known and are indigenous to the area. The knowledge correlates with uses reported elsewhere, for example, the leaves of Ajuga integrifolia and Senna didymobotrya are used for the treatment of malaria in other parts of Kenya [15]. Furthermore, it confirms the fact that knowledge is uniformly spread rural societies. ...
Research Article
Volume 5 Issue 1
-
July 2017
DOI:
10.19080/AIBM.2017.05.555654
Adv Biotech & Micro
Copyright © All rights are reserved by Amuka O
A Brief Ethnbotanical Survey of Some Medicinal
Plants Used by the Kanjoo Community in Meru
County, Kenya
Amuka O
1
*, Mulei JM
2
and Gatwiri BP
Plants form an integral part of human life. They have been
used from time immemorial by humans as medicines [1]. Ancient
civilizations’ in the world thrived on use of plants for their
livelihood [2]. In the recent past to date medicinal plants have
generated lots of interest [3-5]. Several compounds currently
in use as drugs or templates for synthesis of allopathic drugs
have been derived from plants such as Vincristine, Vinblastine,
Emetine, Quinine, Morphine, Codeine, and Artemisinin among
others. There is need for new drugs to manage emerging and
re-emerging diseases [6]. Currently microorganisms have a
tendency of developing resistance to antibiotics in the market
[7-9]. Large population in the world (80%) use traditional forms
of treatment [10].
The Ameru are indigenous inhabitants in sub–Saharan
Africa. They are Farmers and forest products users. The use
of wild and cultivated plants in this part of Kenya is becoming
increasingly visible in regard to medicine, food, material, social
uses, construction and fuel. Although ethnobotanical studies
have been conducted in many parts of Meru County [11,12]
little has been done in the Kanjoo Community. Traditional
practitioners are regularly consulted by the community as they
have a rich indigenous knowledge base and are always available.
There is limited documentation of the medicinal plants used
by the Kanjoo people as well as their pharmacological and
phytochemical properties. The fragile forest ecosystems are
getting disseminated due to population pressure and accelerated
reduction in the biodiversity in these areas. There is fear of loss
of valuable information due to acculturation of the present
generation. Ethnic cells in the African set-up in most may give
a completely monolithic cultural distinction with gradual
succession into the neighbors. The Meru is one such group
which the Kanjoo may serve as a representative. The study was
undertaken to explore the Ethno medicine of the Kanjoo people,
specifically to
Adv Biotech & Micro 5(1): AIBM.MS.ID.555654 (2017)
001
Abstract
Medicinal plants in Kenya are not adequately documented despite their widespread use. The threat of complete disappearance of the
knowledge on herbal medicine warrants an urgent need to document the information. An ethno botanical study on traditional use of medicinal
plants was conducted between January and February 2015 in Kanjoo location Meru County. The study focused on identification of the plants,
diseases treated, plant part used, preparation methods, administration route and other plant uses. Data collection involved semi-structured
interviews with 30 purposively selected traditional healers. Twenty eight plant species distributed in 26 genera, 22 families and three different
life forms were identified as being useful for treating 17 human aliments. Majority of the species were trees and shrubs; leaves were the most
dominant plant part used; oral route of administration was commonest and hot water decoction most preferred method of preparation. Various
non-medicinal uses of the plants were also recorded. The study reveals that the Kanjoo area is rich in medicinal plants and the knowledge on
herbal medicine is still part of the cultural heritage in the community. Preservation of this knowledge is important and phytochemical analysis of
the plants may provide some useful leads for the development of new drugs.
... The plants of the genus Ajuga have been assessed for different activities such as antiviral activity against Human Immunodeficiency Virus type 1 (HIV-1) and Type 2 (HIV-2) [21], antipyretic [22], diuretic [23], anti-inflammatory, antidepressant, anticoagulant [24], analgesic [24,25], antiarthritic [26], antifeedant, antifungal, antihypertensive, insecticidal [18,27,28], antimicrobial [29], antioxidant [24,29,30], hypoglycemic [31][32][33][34][35], antinociceptive [36], hypolipidemic [37], antimycobacterial [38], and antimalarial/antiplasmodial activities [18,19,27,28,39,40]. ...
Background: Ajuga remota Benth is traditionally used in Ethiopia for the management of diabetes mellitus. Since this claim has not been investigated scientifically, the aim of this study was to evaluate the antidiabetic effect and phytochemical screening of the aqueous and 70% ethanol extracts on alloxan-induced diabetic mice.
... The plants of the genus Ajuga have been assessed for different activities such as antiviral activity against Human Immunodeficiency Virus type 1 (HIV-1) and Type 2 (HIV-2) [21], antipyretic [22], diuretic [23], anti-inflammatory, antidepressant, anticoagulant [24], analgesic [24,25], antiarthritic [26], antifeedant, antifungal, antihypertensive, insecticidal [18,27,28], antimicrobial [29], antioxidant [24,29,30], hypoglycemic [31][32][33][34][35], antinociceptive [36], hypolipidemic [37], antimycobacterial [38], and antimalarial/antiplasmodial activities [18,19,27,28,39,40]. ...
Background
Ajuga remota Benth is traditionally used in Ethiopia for the management of diabetes mellitus. Since this claim has not been investigated scientifically, the aim of this study was to evaluate the antidiabetic effect and phytochemical screening of the aqueous and 70% ethanol extracts on alloxan-induced diabetic mice. Methods
After acute toxicity test, the Swiss albino mice were induced with alloxan to get experimental diabetes animals. The fasting mean blood glucose level before and after treatment for two weeks in normal, diabetic untreated and diabetic mice treated with aqueous and 70% ethanol extracts were performed. Data were statistically evaluated by using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences software version 20. P-value <0.05 was considered statistically significant. ResultsThe medium lethal doses (LD50) of both extracts were higher than 5000 mg/kg, indicating the extracts are not toxic under the observable condition. Aqueous extracts of A.remota (300 mg/kg and 500 mg/kg body weight) reduced elevated blood glucose levels by 27.83 ± 2.96% and 38.98 ± 0.67% (P < 0.0001), respectively while the 70% ethanol extract caused a reduction of 27.94 ± 1.92% (300 mg/kg) & 28.26 ± 1.82% (500 mg/kg). Treatment with the antidiabetic drug, Glibenclamide (10 mg/kg body weight) lowered blood glucose level by 51.06% (p < 0.05). Phytochemical screening of both extracts indicated the presence of phenolic compounds, flavonoids, saponins, tannins, and steroids, which might contribute to the antidiabetic activity. The extracts, however, did not contain alkaloids and anthraquinones. Conclusion
The aqueous extract (500 mg/kg) showed the highest percentage reduction in blood glucose levels and the ability of A. remota extracts in reducing blood glucose levels presumably due to the presence of antioxidant constituents such as flavonoids. The effect of the extract supported the traditional claim of the plant.
... Its leaves are known to relieve stomachache, cold, fever and gonorrhea (Githinji and Kokwaro, 1993). It has been reported that A. remota is antimalarial (Gitua et al., 2012). Its aerial parts had some potent antimycobacterial (Cantrell et al., 1999), analgesic and antipyretic activity (Debella et al., 2005). ...
The leaves of Ajuga remota benth have been utilized traditionally for the treatment of patients with diabetes mellitus. However, its use has not been scientifically validated. The present study was therefore, aimed to assess the antihyperglycemic and antihyperlipidemic activities of ethanol extract of A. remota leaves in streptozotocin (STZ) induced diabetic rats. Antihyperglycemic and antihyperlipidemic activities of ethanol extract of A. remota leaves (AREt) were studied in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats. The effect of extract on fasting blood glucose, body weight, lipid profile, serum, alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, urea, creatinine and total protein were analyzed. Glibenclamide was used as standard drug. Ethanol extract of A. remota leaves has showed significant blood glucose lowering effect as compared to the diabetic control group. After diabetic rats were treated with 200 and 400 mg/kg ethanol extract of A. remota leaves for 28 days, there were a significant decrease in fasting blood glucose, total cholesterol, triacylglycerol, low density lipoprotein cholesterol, serum alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase and alkaline phosphatase, and significant increase in body weight, serum total protein, high density lipoprotein cholesterol levels as compared to untreated control diabetic rats. The results of the present study showed that ethanol extract of A. remota leaves might be useful for management of diabetes mellitus and other associated abnormalities. The present study might support the traditional use of A. remota for diabetes mellitus treatment.
Key words: Ajuga remota benth, diabetes mellitus, streptozotocin.
... Buch.-Ham Aqueous leaf extract exhibited 90% parasite Ajugarin-1(Onguén et al., 2013) ergosterol-5,8-suppression (Gitua et al., 2012) endoperoxide (Ntie-Kang et al., 2014) Albizia gummifera (J.F.Gmel.) C.A.Sm. ...
Background:
Malaria remains a major health problem worldwide especially in sub-Saharan Africa. In Kenya, 80% of the population is at risk of contracting the disease. Pregnant mothers and children under five years are the most affected by this disease. Antimalarial drug resistance poses a major threat in the fight against malaria necessitating continuous search for new antimalarial drugs. Due to inadequate and inaccessible health facilities, majority of people living in rural communities heavily depend on traditional medicine which involves the use of medicinal plants for the management of malaria. Most of these indigenous knowledge is undocumented and risks being lost yet such information could be useful in the search of new antimalarial agents.
Aim of study:
An ethnobotanical survey was carried out among the Luhya community of Kakamega East sub-County, a malaria epidemic region, with the aim of documenting the plants used in the management of malaria.
Materials and methods:
Semi-structured questionnaires were used to collect information from 21 informants who included traditional medicine practitioners and other caregivers who had experience in use of plants in management of malaria. These were drawn from 4 villages located in Kakamega East sub-county, within Kakamega County based on their differences in topography. Information recorded included plant names, parts used, mode of preparation and administration and the sources of plant materials. A literature search was conducted using PubMed and google scholar to identify the reported traditional uses of these plants and studied antiplasmodial activities.
Results:
In this study, 57% of the informants were aged above 50 years and a total of 61% had either no formal education or had only attained primary school education. A total of 42 plant species belonging to 24 families were identified. Most plants used in the management of malaria in this community belonged to Lamiaceae (18%), Leguminosae (9%) and Compositae (9%) plant families. Plants mostly used included Melia azedarach L, Aloe spp, Ajuga integrifolia Buch. Ham, Vernonia amygdalina Del., Rotheca myricoides (Hochst.) Steane and Mabb, Fuerstia africana T.C.E.Fr., Zanthoxylum gilletii (De Wild.) P.G.Waterman and Leucas calostachys Oliv. Rumex steudelii Hochst.ex A. Rich and Phyllanthus sepialis Müll. Arg are reported for the first time in the management of malaria. Although Clerodendrum johnstonii Oliv. (Jeruto et al., 2011) and Physalis peruviana L.(Ramadan et al., 2015) are reported in other studies for management of malaria, no studies have been carried out to demonstrate their antiplasmodial activity. The plant parts mostly used were the leaves (36%) and stem barks (26%). Majority of these plants were prepared as decoctions by boiling and allowed to cool before administration (66%) while infusions accounted for 28% of the preparations. The literature mined supports the use of these plants for the management of malaria since most of them have demonstrated in-vitro and in-vivo antiplasmodial activities.
Conclusion:
Most of the reported plant species in this study have been investigated for antiplasmodial activity and are in agreement with the ethnomedical use. Two (2) plants are reported for the first time in the management of malaria. There is need for documentation and preservation of the rich ethnomedical knowledge within this community given that most of the practitioners are advanced in age and less educated. There is also the danger of over-exploitation of plant species as most of them are obtained from the wild, mainly Kakamega forest. Therefore, there is need for determining the economically and medicinally important plants in this community and planning for their preservation.
... These plants contain terpenoids [9], [10], iridoids [11], ecdysteroids [12], [13], flavonoids, fatty acids, glycosides, steroids [10], [14], oligosaccharides [15] which have different effects on the human body [16]- [19]. Some species exhibit insecticidal, particularly antimalarial action [20]. ...
... Our rationale for the selection of this genus was based on the use of some Ajuga species for the treatment of malaria, as well as fever, which is a common symptom of all parasitic diseases of interest herein. We were further encouraged by the reports on the in vivo and in vitro antiplasmodial effects of the water extracts of some Ajuga species, e.g. A. remota which is traditionally used against fever and infections in Kenya (Kuria et al. 2001;Gitua et al. 2012). Herein we describe the isolation and structure elucidation of eight glycosides from A. laxmannii as well as their in vitro antiprotozoal activities. ...
Context Some Ajuga L. (Lamiaceae) species are traditionally used for the treatment of malaria, as well as fever, which is a common symptom of many parasitic diseases.
Objective In the continuation of our studies on the identification of antiprotozoal secondary metabolites of Turkish Lamiaceae species, we have investigated the aerial parts of Ajuga laxmannii.
Materials and methods The aerial parts of A. laxmannii were extracted with MeOH. The H2O subextract was subjected to polyamide, C18-MPLC and SiO2 CCs to yield eight metabolites. The structures of the isolates were elucidated by NMR spectroscopy and MS analyses. The extract, subextracts as well as the isolates were tested for their in vitro antiprotozoal activities against Plasmodium falciparum, Trypanasoma brucei rhodesiense, T. cruzi and Leishmania donovani at concentrations of 90–0.123 μg/mL.
Results Two iridoid glycosides harpagide (1) and 8-O-acetylharpagide (2), three o-coumaric acid derivatives cis-melilotoside (3), trans-melilotoside (4) and dihydromelilotoside (5), two phenylethanoid glycosides verbascoside (6) and galactosylmartynoside (7) and a flavone-C-glycoside, isoorientin (8) were isolated. Many compounds showed moderate to good antiparasitic activity, with isoorientin (8) displaying the most significant antimalarial potential (an IC50 value of 9.7 μg/mL).
Discussion and conclusion This is the first report on the antiprotozoal evaluation of A. laxmannii extracts and isolates. Furthermore, isoorientin and dihydromelilotoside are being reported for the first time from the genus Ajuga.
... were used to treat stomach ache. Ajuga integrifolia has been used for malaria treatment in Kenya (Cocquyt et al. 2011, Gitua et al. 2012, Kuria et al. 2002 while the leaves of Z. scabra have elsewhere been found to be useful for treating skin diseases, gonorrhoea, syphilis, and malaria (Moshi et al. 2012). ...
Ethnobotanical knowledge associated with wetland plants in Uasin Gishu County, Kenya, was assessed and documented. Data on the uses of plants, their local names, and parts used were collected through semi-structured interviews. Fifty wild plant species distributed across 45 genera and 23 families were cited as having traditional uses in the area. Of these, 26 were used as fodder, 14 as medicine, 12 as firewood, 9 as food, and 11 for construction. Some, like Cyperus papyrus L. and Acacia seyal Delile, had multiple uses. Thirty-one plants (62%) of the total recorded were herbs, 13 (26%) shrubs, 3 (6%) trees, and 3 (6%) climbers. Various plant parts were used for different purposes. Medicinal plants were useful in treating a total of 19 ailments and had various methods of preparation.
... The antioxidant, hypoglycemic, cytotoxic and antimicrobial activit ies of A. turkestanica has been reported by Kutepova et al. (2001) and Mamadalieva et al. (2013). A. remota extracts showed antimalarial and diuretic activities (Hailu and Engidawork, 2014;Gitua et al., 2012), while extracts from A. bracteosa and A. iva have demonstrated anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant and analgesic activities, as well as activity against pests (Aly et al., 2011;Makni et al., 2013;Mothana et al., 2012;Pal and Pawar, 2011;Singh et al., 2012). The ethnopharmacology of the Ajuga species is well documented by Israili and Lyoussi (2009). ...
The antioxidant and antimicrobial activities and contents of total phenolics and flavonoids of Ajuga chamaepitys (L.) Schreb. subsp. chamaepitys (Lamiaceae) were investigated. Five different extracts from aboveground flowering plant parts were obtained by extraction with water, methanol, acetone, ethyl acetate and petroleum ether. The total phenolic content was determined spectrophotometrically using the Folin-Ciocalteu reagent and expressed as the gallic acid equivalent (mg GA/g of extract). The highest value was obtained in the ethyl acetate extract (57.02 mg GA/g). The concentration of flavonoids, determined using a spectrophotometric method with aluminum chloride and expressed as the rutin equivalent (mg RU/g of extract), was highest in the ethyl acetate extract (91.76 mg RU/g). The antioxidant activity was determined in vitro using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) reagent. The highest antioxidant activity was detected in the acetone extract (SC50 value = 330.52 μg/mL). In vitro antimicrobial activities were determined using a microdilution method, and the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum microbicidal concentration (MMC) were determined. The most effective antimicrobial activity against Bacillus cereus was demonstrated by the acetone extract, with MIC and MMC values of 1.25 mg/mL. Based on the results of this study, A. chamaepitys subsp. chamaepitys could be considered as a valuable source of natural compounds with important biological activities.
... P. berghei has been used in studying the activity of potential antimalarials in mice (Thomas et al., 1998) and in rats (Pedroni et al., 2006). Therefore, it has been used to predict treatment outcomes and is an appropriate parasite for this study (Gitua et al., 2012;Madara et al., 2012). Since the parasite is sensitive to chloroquine, this drug was used as the standard treatment drug in the present study. ...
... were used to treat stomach ache. Ajuga integrifolia has been used for malaria treatment in Kenya (Cocquyt et al. 2011, Gitua et al. 2012, Kuria et al. 2002 while the leaves of Z. scabra have elsewhere been found to be useful for treating skin diseases, gonorrhoea, syphilis, and malaria (Moshi et al. 2012). ...
Ethnobotanical knowledge associated with wetland plants in Uasin Gishu County, Kenya, was assessed and documented. Data on the uses of plants, their local names, and parts used were collected through semi-structured interviews. Fifty wild plant species distributed across 45 genera and 23 families were cited as having traditional uses in the area. Of these, 26 were used as fodder, 14 as medicine, 12 as firewood, 9 as food, and 11 for construction. Some, like Cyperus papyrus L. and Acacia seyal Delile, had multiple uses. Thirty-one plants (62%) of the total recorded were herbs, 13 (26%) shrubs, 3 (6%) trees, and 3 (6%) climbers. Various plant parts were used for different purposes. Medicinal plants were useful in treating a total of 19 ailments and had various methods of preparation.
We investigated the in vivo activity of extract of Xetospongia sp against Plasmodium berghei Strain ANKA and acute toxicity in mice. The ethanolic extracts of the Xetospongia sp (50-400 mg kg-1 day) were screened for blood schizonticidal against P. berghei strain ANKA in mice during early and established infections. Acute toxicity of extracts of Xetospongia sp at the dose 5000 mg kg-1 on mice administeredorally exhibited no toxicity, as evident in that fact that no histopathological changes were observed in some essential organs, such as liver, heart, digestive tract and kidney. The ethanolic extracts (50-400 mg kg day-1) exhibited a significant antimalarial activity both in the 4-day early infection test and in the established infection and they were found to be relatively safe up to a dosage of 5000 mg kg-1, with an LD50 value of >500 mg kg-1.
We describe the epidemiology of malaria in San Dulakudar, a village in Sundargarh District in the state of Orissa in eastern India. Malaria transmission is perennial with Plasmodium falciparum, accounting for greater than 80% of malaria cases. Transmission intensity varies with season with high transmission after the monsoon rains in autumn and winter, low transmission in summer, and intermediate transmission in spring. The anthropophagic mosquito Anopheles fluviatilis was identified as the main vector for malaria transmission. Based on observations of spleen rates and supported by data on malaria parasite prevalence and malaria incidence, San Dulakudar can be classified as a hyperendemic area for P. falciparum malaria. Parasite prevalence and malaria incidence rates decrease with age, suggesting that residents of San Dulakudar develop immunity to malaria. The study demonstrates the presence of regions in the Indian subcontinent such as Sundargarh District where P. falciparum is the primary cause of malaria and where malaria transmission rates are comparable to those found in many parts of Africa.
Plants in Kenya are becoming increasingly important as sources of traditional medicines. The World Health Organization (WHO) has estimated that malaria kills about 2.7 million people every year, 90% of who are from Africa. Malaria continues to be a national concern in Kenya as it plays a major role in the high mortality rates being experienced currently. The use and miss-use of chloroquine to prevent and treat falciparium malaria has led to widespread appearance of chloroquine resistant parasites in Kenya and other tropical countries. These factors and the rising costs of non-chloroquine drugs have made the local people to turn to traditional remedies for management of this menace.
This paper examines the current utilization of traditional plant medicines in managing malaria menace in Central Kenya. The results show both indigenous and introduced species are in use indicating traditional medicinal practices in this region are dynamic. In total 58 species in 54 genera and 33 families were identified. The family Rubiaceae was found to have the highest number of reported species. Use of the various taxa is compared between five districts within Central Province of Kenya. The commonest species in this pharmacopoeia are: Caesalpinia volkensii Harms, Strychnos henningsii Gilg, Ajuga remota Benth., Warbugia ugandensis Sprague and Olea europaea L. The first three species are used in all the five districts while the others are restricted in some of the districts. In 74% of the anti-malarial plant species reported in this study, the remedies are obtained in destructive manner and may need conservation measures to ensure sustainable utilization. The results of this study become a basis for selecting plants for further pharmacological and phytochemical studies in developing new and locally relevant anti-malarial agents.
To find a new anti-malarial medicine derived from natural resources, we examined the leaves of 13 common Japanese plants in vitro. Among them, a leaf-extract of Hydrangea macrophylla, a common Japanese flower, inhibited the parasitic growth of Plasmodium falciparum. The IC50 of Hydrangea macrophylla leaf extract to Plasmodium falciparum was 0.18 microg/ml. The IC50 to NIH 3T3-3 cells, from a normal mouse cell line, was 7.2 microg/ml. Thus, selective toxicity was 40. For the in vivo test, we inoculated Plasmodium berghei, a rodent malaria parasite, to ddY mice and administered the leaf-extract of Hydrangea macrophylla (3.6 mg/0.2 ml) orally 3 times a day for 3 days. Malaria parasites did not appear in the blood of in the treated mice, but they did appear in the control group on day 3 or 4 after inoculation with the parasites. When leaf extract was administered to 5 mice 2 times a day for 3 days, malaria parasites did not appear in 4 of the mice but did appear in 1 mouse. In addition, the leaf-extract was administered orally 3 times a day for 3 days to Plasmodium berghei infected mice with a parasitemia of 2.7%. In the latter group, malaria parasites disappeared on day 3 after initiating the treatment, but they appeared again after day 5 or 6. Although we could not cure the mice entirely, we confirmed that the Hydrangea macrophylla leaf extract did contain an anti-malarial substance that can be administered orally.
Field trips to herbalists' practices in an area about 200 miles around Nairobi (Kenya) enabled us to make a list of medicinal plant species preferentially used to treat malaria. Ajuga remota and Caesalpinia volkensii were further investigated as being the most frequently used species. Aqueous decoctions, ethanol macerates, and petroleum ether, methanol and water Soxhlet extracts of these plants were further tested for their in vitro antimalarial properties in a chloroquine sensitive (FCA/20GHA) and resistant (W2) strain of Plasmodium falciparum. The activity was assessed by the parasite lactate dehydrogenase (pLDH) assay method. There was a concentration-dependent inhibition by the vegetal extracts of both plants. The IC(50) of the most active A. remota extract (ethanol macerate) was 55 and 57 microg/ml against FCA/20GHA and W2, respectively. For C. volkensii, it was the Soxhlet-water extract which was most active against FCA/20GHA with an IC(50) of 404 microg/ml while the petroleum ether extract exhibited the most activity against W2 with an IC(50) of 250 microg/ml. Further phytochemical work is being done in order to identify the active principles.
Seven plant species, belonging to different families, were collected in the eastern part of the Republic of Congo (Kivu) based on ethnopharmacological information. Their dichloromethane and methanolic extracts were tested for biological activity. Five of the seven collected plants exhibited antiplasmodial activity with IC(50) values ranging from 1.1 to 9.8 microg/ml. The methanolic extract of Cissampelos mucronata was the most active one showing activity against chloroquine sensitive (D6) and chloroquine resistant (W2) Plasmodium falciparum strains with IC(50) values of 1.5 and 1.1 microg/ml, respectively. Additionally, this extract significantly inhibited the enzyme tyrosine kinase p56(lck) (TK). The dichloromethane extract of Amorphophallus bequaertii inhibited the growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis with a MIC of 100 microg/ml and the methanolic extract of Rubus rigidus inhibited the activity of both enzymes HIV1-reverse transcriptase (HIV1-RT) and TK p56(lck).
Malaria is the most important parasitic disease worldwide, affecting more than 500 million people and causing close to 1 million deaths per annum. This serious fact is mainly attributable to the emergence of drug resistant strains of Plasmodium falciparum. The advances made in malaria chemotherapy based on unique aspects of the biochemistry and physiology of the responsible agents for this disease, parasites of Plasmodium genus, are covered in this review. Increasing resistance to conventional antimalarial drugs constitutes the main drawback for the persistence of this disease. In the present article, a comprehensive analysis of selected molecular targets is depicted in terms of their potential utility as chemotherapeutic agents. Our review focuses on different and important molecular targets for drug design that include proteases that hydrolyze hemoglobin, protein farnesyltransferase, heme detoxification pathway, polyamine pathways, dihydrofolate reductase, artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs), etc. Therefore, rational approaches to control malaria targeting metabolic pathways of malaria parasites which are essential for parasites survival are presented.