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Is the dog-human relationship an attachment bond? An observational study using Ainsworth's Strange Situation
Abstract
Ainsworth's 'strange situation' procedure was used to investigate the dog (Canis familiaris) – human relationship. 38 adult dog-owner pairs were observed in an unfamiliar room, intro-duced to a human stranger and subjected to four short episodes of separation. The procedure and behavioural analyses were as similar as possible to those used in studying human infants, except for the inclusion of an extra separation period in which the dogs were left alone in the room with articles of clothing belonging to the owner and stranger. A secure base effect was suggested by the fact that the dogs accepted to play with the stranger more in the pres-ence of their owner than during his or her absence. They also explored more in the presence of their owner, but this appeared to be due to diminishing curiosity over time rather than a secure base effect. The dogs also exhibited a range of attachment behaviours, i.e. search and proximity seeking behaviours when separated from their owner, including following, scratch-ing and jumping up on the door, remaining oriented to the door or the owner's empty chair and vocalising. They also greeted their owner more enthusiastically and for longer durations compared to the stranger. Finally, they contacted the owner's clothing more often and for 3) Corresponding authors address: Prof. 4) This research was supported by funds from Università di Milano to Emanuela Prato-Previde. We are grateful to Marcello Cesa-Bianchi and Marco Poli for allowing us to carry out the work in the Psychology Institute of Università di Milano. We thank Barbara Rotta for her invaluable help in data collection and scoring, Clara Palestrini for helping in running the experiment, Marco Colombetti for reading and commenting on the preliminary draft of the paper. Finally, a special thank to Tipota, a female mongrel, for being our rst pilot subject and to all the owners and dogs that participated as volunteers.
... As mentioned before, one of the central features of the attachment bond is the secure base effect (Waters & Cummings, 2000). When tested with the strange situation procedure, pet dogs, like infants, showed more exploration and play in the presence of the owner (compared to the stranger) and proximity-seeking behaviour towards the owner when the owner re-entered the room (Mariti et al., 2013;Palestrini et al., 2005;Palmer & Custance, 2008;Prato-Previde et al., 2003;Top al et al., 1998). They also stood by the door more when the owner was outside than when the stranger was outside the room (Mariti et al., 2013;Palmer & Custance, 2008;Prato-Previde et al., 2003;Top al et al., 1998) and played less with the stranger when the owner was gone (Mariti et al., 2013;Palestrini et al., 2005;Palmer & Custance, 2008;Prato-Previde et al., 2003). ...
... When tested with the strange situation procedure, pet dogs, like infants, showed more exploration and play in the presence of the owner (compared to the stranger) and proximity-seeking behaviour towards the owner when the owner re-entered the room (Mariti et al., 2013;Palestrini et al., 2005;Palmer & Custance, 2008;Prato-Previde et al., 2003;Top al et al., 1998). They also stood by the door more when the owner was outside than when the stranger was outside the room (Mariti et al., 2013;Palmer & Custance, 2008;Prato-Previde et al., 2003;Top al et al., 1998) and played less with the stranger when the owner was gone (Mariti et al., 2013;Palestrini et al., 2005;Palmer & Custance, 2008;Prato-Previde et al., 2003). Some studies argued that order effects could account for dogs' presumed secure base effect (Prato-Previde et al., 2003;Rehn et al., 2013): the dogs were first alone with their owner and might have engaged more in exploration because the room was new to them. ...
... When tested with the strange situation procedure, pet dogs, like infants, showed more exploration and play in the presence of the owner (compared to the stranger) and proximity-seeking behaviour towards the owner when the owner re-entered the room (Mariti et al., 2013;Palestrini et al., 2005;Palmer & Custance, 2008;Prato-Previde et al., 2003;Top al et al., 1998). They also stood by the door more when the owner was outside than when the stranger was outside the room (Mariti et al., 2013;Palmer & Custance, 2008;Prato-Previde et al., 2003;Top al et al., 1998) and played less with the stranger when the owner was gone (Mariti et al., 2013;Palestrini et al., 2005;Palmer & Custance, 2008;Prato-Previde et al., 2003). Some studies argued that order effects could account for dogs' presumed secure base effect (Prato-Previde et al., 2003;Rehn et al., 2013): the dogs were first alone with their owner and might have engaged more in exploration because the room was new to them. ...
Machine-learning-based behavioural tracking is a rapidly growing method in the behavioural sciences providing data with high spatial and temporal resolution while reducing the risk of observer bias. Nevertheless, only a few canine behaviour studies have applied this method. In the current study, we used three-dimensional (3D) tracking of the dogs’ bodies to study how separation from the caregiver affected the dogs’ behaviour in a novel environment. During the study, the dogs could move freely in a room equipped with trial-unique objects. We manipulated across trials whether the owner and/or a stranger was present in the room to evaluate the secure base effect, the tendency to explore and play more in the presence of the caregiver compared to another person. This secure base effect is considered a key characteristic of human attachment bonds and has also been described for the dog–caregiver relationship. The tracking data were internally consistent and highly correlated with human scorings and measurements. The results show that both the owner and stranger significantly increased the dogs’ exploration; the dogs also spent more time in the proximity of the owner and stranger location when they were present. Even though the presence of both owner and stranger had a significant effect on the dogs’ behaviour, the effect of the owner was more pronounced. Moreover, in the presence of the stranger the dogs spent more time close to their owner and showed a reduced tail-wagging asymmetry to the right side further supporting the distinct effect of owner and stranger on the dogs’ behaviour. We conclude that machine-driven 3D tracking provides an efficient and reliable access for detailed behavioural analyses of dogs’ exploration and attachment-related behaviours.
... Multiple studies have demonstrated that humans can develop positive feelings and behaviors towards their dogs, creating a bond that has been compared to the one formed in human-infant relationships (Nagasawa et al., 2009b;Schneider et al., 2010;Udell and Brubaker, 2016). For example, at the behavioral level, humans tend to address and handle dogs and children in a similar way (Mitchell, 2001;Prato-Previde et al., 2003) and it has been shown that the limbic network (including the amygdala), which is thought to be involved in the activation of human attachment-related functions, is active when human mothers view images of their child and their dog (Stoeckel et al., 2014). ...
... These behaviors are particularly displayed towards the dog's owner. For example, several studies found that, compared to strangers, dogs were more distressed when separated from their owner, and greeted and spent more time in contact with them [i.e., displaying more behaviors such as approaching, tail wagging, jumping and physical contact; Topál et al., 1998;Prato-Previde et al., 2003;Palmer and Custance, 2008; see (Payne et al., 2015) for a review]. This suggests that individual human-dog bonds differ depending on the dyad (Cimarelli et al., 2016). ...
... Results from our third model show that the more years of experience the trainer had with an animal at the center, the more the animal wagged its tail, licked the trainer's hand or face, and demonstrated lip-licking. Tail-wagging in dogs has been referred to as a contact-seeking and communicative behavior (Norling et al., 2012;Rehn et al., 2014) and has shown to be displayed more towards the dog's owner compared to strangers (Prato-Previde et al., 2003;Kuhne et al., 2012;Norling et al., 2012). Accordingly, the higher frequency of tail-wagging with more experienced trainers might be indicative of the affiliative relationship the animals have with the trainers. ...
Introduction
To explore human-canid relationships, we tested similarly socialized and raised dogs (Canis familiaris) and wolves (Canis lupus) and their trainers in a wildlife park. The aims of our study were twofold: first, we aimed to test which factors influenced the relationships that the trainers formed with the dogs or wolves and second, we investigated if the animals reacted to the trainers in accordance with the trainers’ perceptions of their relationship.
Methods
To achieve these goals, we assessed the relationships using a human-animal bonds survey, which the trainers used to rate the bonds between themselves and their peers with the canids, and by observing dyadic trainer-canid social interactions.
Results
Our preliminary results given the small sample size and the set-up of the research center, demonstrate that our survey was a valid way to measure these bonds since trainers seem to perceive and agree on the strength of their bonds with the animals and that of their fellow trainers. Moreover, the strength of the bond as perceived by the trainers was mainly predicted by whether or not the trainer was a hand-raiser of the specific animal, but not by whether or not the animal was a wolf or a dog. In the interaction test, we found that male animals and animals the trainers felt more bonded to, spent more time in proximity of and in contact with the trainers; there was no difference based on species.
Discussion
These results support the hypothesis that wolves, similarly to dogs, can form close relationships with familiar humans when highly socialized (Canine Cooperation Hypothesis). Moreover, as in other studies, dogs showed more submissive behaviors than wolves and did so more with experienced than less experienced trainers. Our study suggests that humans and canines form differentiated bonds with each other that, if close, are independent of whether the animal is a wolf or dog.
... With regard to sex, the majority of previous studies on dog-owner attachment found either minor (Prato-Previde et al., 2003) or no differences (Fallani et al., 2007;Gácsi et al., 2001;Topál et al., 1998) in the attachment behaviour of female and male dogs tested in the SSP. However, a very recent study by D'Aniello et al. (D'Aniello et al., 2021) found that female dogs showed higher levels of sociability towards both the stranger and the owner, as well as higher levels of separation-distress when the owner was absent, compared to male dogs. ...
... A second researcher helped with moving the dog who played the attachment figure in and out of the room, according to the protocol. Different from some previous studies on dog-owner attachment (Palmer and Custance, 2008;Prato-Previde et al., 2003;Topál et al., 1998), but similar to others (D' Aniello et al., 2021;Mariti et al., 2017Mariti et al., , 2014, our protocol required the human stranger to remain passive in the interactions with the dog. This is because the behaviour of dogs towards a human stranger is not easily predictable by the way the latter behaves (Tan et al., 2018), possibly making passive behaviours preferable for the role of the stranger in the current study. ...
... Among those behaviours affected by the test episodes, environmental exploration, locomotion and escape attempts seemed to follow a similar trend, which decreased with the progression of the test. As for exploration, our results are in line with Prato-Previde et al. (2003) that found this behaviour to decrease sharply from the first to the second episode in dogs involved in the SSP. Accordingly, our findings seem to suggest that exploration behaviour patterns across SSP episodes may be affected by the novelty effect that the unfamiliar experimental environment exerts on dog dyads at the beginning of the procedure. ...
Previous studies on the dog intraspecific attachment carried out with the Strange Situation Procedure (SSP) have not been able to clarify the nature of this bond. Several factors may affect the behaviour of the dog dyads involved the procedure. In the current study, fifty-five dyads of adult dogs living in the same household participated in a SSP. The duration of fifteen behaviours was measured. Data were analysed using Generalised Linear Mixed Models considering single behaviours as dependent variables. The predictors were episodes (1, 4, and 7), type of relationship (mother-offspring pairs, non-related cohabitant pairs), sex (female-female, male-female, and male-male), and age difference. Bonferroni Holmes post hoc tests were performed to allow pairwise comparison. Dog dyads spent significantly more time trying to escape from the experimental room in episodes 1 (p=0.008) and 4 (p=0.029) than episode 7, in passive behaviours in episode 7 compared to episode 1 (p=0.001), in environmental exploration in episode 1 compared to both episode 4 (p=0.001) and 7 (p=0.001), in proximity to each other in episode 4 and 7 compared to episode 1 (4 vs 1: p=0.001, 7 vs 1: p=0.001), and in locomotion in episode 1 than episodes 4 (p=0.009) and 7 (p=0.001), and in episode 4 compared to 7 (p=0.007). Mother-offspring pairs spent more time in passive behaviours (p=0.028) compared to unrelated cohabitant pairs. Male-male pairs spent more time oriented to the door/window compared to female-male (p=0.030) and female-female pairs (p=0.030). Finally, proximity to the conspecific decreased (p=0.040), while locomotion increased (p=0.027) with age difference. According to our findings, dogs involved in an intraspecific SSP seem to be primarily distressed by the initial separation from the owner. However, they may be able to use the conspecific as a buffer against stress as the test progresses. Other factors related to the subjects involved in the procedure, such as the type of relationship, sex and age difference may also affect their behaviour. Future studies should take these factors into account if they use the SSP to explore dog intraspecific attachment.
... Furthermore, we also predicted that both dogs, known for seeking comfort from owners in stressful situations Lehoczki et al., 2019;Prato-Previde et al., 2003), and pigs, recognized for their social nature and close bond with their caregivers (P erez Fraga et al., 2020), would display owner-oriented behaviours when exposed to stress-inducing stimuli. ...
... Comfort seeking is a manifestation of considering the owner a safe haven, which is one of the operational criteria of attachment (Ainsworth & Bell, 1970;Top al et al., 1998). It can appear in various forms in dogs, such as proximity seeking, orientation and physical contact and also vocalizations Prato-Previde et al., 2003). However, in the current study, we found only a tendency for dogs to interact more with the owner in the condition that induced a more negative emotional state. ...
... For dogs, the effects of familiarity on behavior typically have been tested using paradigms involving exposure to the owner and a stranger, although some studies have used a familiar person (not the owner) and a stranger and more rarely, all three types of people are included (owner, familiar person, and stranger). Dogs tested in the owner versus stranger paradigm exhibited more play and exploration in the presence of their owner than a stranger and following brief separations from their owner, displayed more contact-seeking behavior toward the returning owner than the stranger [14,15]. Dogs tied out in the yard of their home and approached by either their owner or a stranger gazed more, spent more time near, wagged their tails more, and barked less during the owner's approach than the stranger's approach [16]. ...
... For both rate of urination and likelihood of defecation, none of the two-way interactions between the walk number and sex of the dog, sex of the walker, and maturity status of the dog was significant, indicating that the effects of these variables on urination and defecation did not change over walks as the dogs become familiar with walkers. Our findings agree with those of other studies reporting little difference in the response of dogs to familiar people (not the owner) and unfamiliar people [20][21][22][23] and stand in contrast to the preferential behavior typically shown by pet dogs to their owners over strangers [14][15][16][17][18]. Even more so than dogs in homes, dogs in shelters might be expected to display similar behavior in the presence of unfamiliar and familiar people because of their novel and challenging environment. ...
Simple Summary
Many mammals behave differently with familiar people versus strangers, and sometimes the sex of the person is another important influence. We studied shelter dogs during walks to determine the effects on behavior of the dog’s sex and maturity and the walker’s sex and familiarity. In Study 1, unfamiliar men and unfamiliar women walked dogs. In Study 2, after walks with unfamiliar men and women, dogs were walked again when walkers were familiar. In both studies, mature males urinated at higher rates when walked by a woman than by a man, whereas mature females urinated at similar rates with women and men. Mature males and mature females were less likely to defecate when walked by a man than by a woman. Juvenile dogs were less affected than mature dogs by the walker’s sex, suggesting experience influenced responses in mature dogs. In Study 2, the effects on urination and defecation of a dog’s sex and maturity and the walker’s sex did not change over walks as dogs became familiar with walkers. Shelter dogs may be less responsive to the degree of familiarity with people than other mammals because they are directly exposed to so many people. Our results indicate that dog sex and maturity and human sex influence dog–human interactions.
Abstract
Many mammals living on farms, in zoos, and in research settings behave differently with familiar people versus strangers, and the sex of the person can also influence interactions. We conducted two studies to examine the influence of a dog’s sex and maturity and a walker’s sex and familiarity on the behavior of shelter dogs during leash walks. In Study 1 with unfamiliar walkers (n = 113 dogs), we found that mature males urinated at higher rates when walked by a woman than by a man, whereas mature females urinated at similar rates. Mature males and mature females were less likely to defecate when walked by a man than by a woman. Juvenile dogs were generally less affected than mature dogs by a walker’s sex, suggesting a role for experience in mature dogs’ responses. In Study 2, when dogs were walked more than once by a man and a woman (n = 81 dogs), we found patterns of urination and defecation like those in Study 1. Importantly, the effects of the dog’s sex and maturity and the walker’s sex on dogs’ patterns of urination and defecation did not change over walks as dogs became familiar with walkers. Dogs in shelters are directly exposed to so many people that they may be less responsive to differing degrees of familiarity than mammals living in other settings. Our data indicate that dog maturity and sex and human sex influence dog–human interactions.
... While much work has examined the nature of human attachment (including that of human-to-dog attachment, see [36,37]), less work has tested the nature of dog-to-human attachment and non-human-animal-to-human attachment more broadly. However, a growing body of work has hinted that dogs may exhibit stable individual differences in the attachments they set up with others, e.g., [38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49], with the characteristics of dogs' patterns of attachment to their owners closely resembling those of human infants to their primary caregivers [45,46]. Additionally, emerging evidence has suggested that dogs' relationships with their owners seem to impact their behavior in cognitive tests. ...
... Our canine findings align nicely with previous results in humans, which have demonstrated that attachment impacts how people behave in [29][30][31][32] and physiologically respond to [31] a variety of social situations. Given the evidence that a similar attachment system may be present in dogs, e.g., [38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49]51,52], it makes sense that we observed attachment playing a comparable role in dogs' evaluations of actors who help their owners. ...
Scholars have argued that social evaluation, the capacity to evaluate different potential social partners, is an important capacity not just for humans but for all cooperative species. Recent work has explored whether domesticated dogs share a human-like ability to evaluate others based on prosocial and antisocial actions toward third parties. To date, this work has shown mixed results, suggesting that individual differences may play a role in dogs’ capacity to evaluate others. In the present study, we test whether attachment—an individual difference that affects human social evaluation performance—can explain the mixed pattern of social evaluation results observed in dogs. We first tested dogs on a social evaluation task in which an experimenter either helped or refused to help the dog’s owner open a container. We then assessed dogs’ attachment strength using a subset of the C-BARQ. We found that attachment was a statistically significant predictor of dogs’ preference toward the prosocial actor but was not a predictor in antisocial or control conditions. This finding provides early evidence that attachment may drive positivity biases in dogs and that attachment might explain mixed results within canine social evaluation literature.
... Some studies show that people form strong affective bonds with their companion animals, reporting attachment to them and often viewing them as family members or even children [14,184,185]. Experimental evidence shows that dogs and cats form affectional bonds and even attachments with their human partners [24,[186][187][188][189][190]. ...
... Even though caregiving, protection and reassurance are usually provided by humans, the human-animal bond appears to be a more flexible attachment-caregiver relationship in which the human and the animal can play the role of "caregivers" or "cared for" according to the situation [14]. Companion animals may serve as "attachment figures" for people [182,184,185,198], and both dogs and cats form infant-like attachment bonds with humans, who are for them a source of protection and reassurance [24,186,188,189]. ...
The human–animal relationship is ancient, complex and multifaceted. It may have either
positive effects on humans and animals or poor or even negative and detrimental effects on animals or both humans and animals. A large body of literature has investigated the beneficial effects of this relationship in which both human and animals appear to gain physical and psychological benefits from living together in a reciprocated interaction. However, analyzing the literature with a different perspective it clearly emerges that not rarely are human–animal relationships characterized by different forms and levels of discomfort and suffering for animals and, in some cases, also for people.
The negative physical and psychological consequences on animals’ well-being may be very nuanced and concealed, but there are situations in which the negative consequences are clear and striking, as in the case of animal violence, abuse or neglect. Empathy, attachment and anthropomorphism are human psychological mechanisms that are considered relevant for positive and healthy relationships with animals, but when dysfunctional or pathological determine physical or psychological suffering, or both, in animals as occurs in animal hoarding. The current work reviews some of the literature on the multifaceted nature of the human–animal relationship; describes the key role of empathy, attachment and anthropomorphism in human–animal relationships; seeks to depict how these
psychological processes are distorted and dysfunctional in animal hoarding, with highly detrimental effects on both animal and human well-being.
... More recently, the attachment construct has been applied to relationships between individuals of other mammal species, such as canids [5][6][7][8] and primates [9], as well as to those between members of two different species, such as dogs and their owners [10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18]. This is because the dog-owner relationship appears to show similar features with the child-caregiver bond. ...
... This should not be surprising since the SSP is specifically designed to progressively increase the level of stress in the individuals tested [20]. Furthermore, dogs involved in the SSP are commonly reported to show behavioural signs of stress during the procedure (e.g., aimless wandering, vocalizations, escape attempts, scratching the door) [8,12,56,57]. Nonetheless, the increasing cortisol trend found in this study reflects that reported by Mongillo et al., [39] for aged dogs, but differs from the decreasing trend observed by Schöberl et al. [22] and Ryan et al. [40]. These conflicting findings may be due to methodological reasons. ...
The quality of the attachment bond towards the caregiver may affect the dog’s physiological responses to stressful stimuli. This study aimed to measure chronic and acute physiological parameters of stress in ten securely and ten insecurely attached dogs. The twenty experimental subjects were selected from a sample of dogs that participated with their owners in the Strange Situation Procedure. Saliva samples were collected before (T0) and after (T1) the test. Blood pressure, heart rate, respiratory rate, and rectal temperature were measured after the test, only. At this time, a hair sample was also collected. RM ANOVA was used to analyse cortisol concentrations between secure and insecure dogs at T0 and T1. Mann–Whitney U test or T test were used for other physiological parameters. Insecure dogs had significant higher salivary cortisol concentrations than secure dogs at T1 (p = 0.024), but only a non-significant trend towards higher cortisol concentrations at T0 (p = 0.099). Post-test heart rate also tended to be higher in insecure compared to secure dogs (p = 0.077). No significant differences in hair cortisol concentration were found. The quality of attachment may affect the dog’s physiological response to acute stress, at least when related to separation from the caregiver. The effect of attachment on chronic stress requires further investigation.
... According to Obegi and Berant (2008), the primary determinants of attachment formation arose from the expectations of protection, comfort, and support from attachment figures. Prato-Previde et al. (2003) conducted a study modeled after the Strange Situation experiment and found that the behaviors of owners and dogs were similar to those of infants and parents. ...
Given the prevalence of pet ownership in homes, understanding and acknowledging the role of human-animal relationships within the family is critical. Many pet owners identify as “pet parents” and actively pamper their pets with human-grade food, have birthday parties, schedule play dates, and dress them up in clothes and accessories. More homes in the United States have pets than children. In this study, a sample of 332 dog owners from the United States, stratified according to age and sex, completed an online survey. This study used several instruments such as the CENSHARE pet attachment scale, guilt about dog-parenting scale, work-dog conflict scale, making-up behavior scale, and revised adult attachment scale. Correlation analyses and linear regressions were conducted to determine the nature of the relationships between the variables. As predicted, this study found that stronger pet attachment increased dog-parent guilt, work-dog conflict, and make-up behaviors. Moreover, those with an anxious attachment style were more likely to experience dog-parent guilt, also known as disenfranchised guilt. This parental type guilt is when parents feel that work or life demands interfere with their ability to fulfill their role as parents. Pet-parent guilt was similar to that found in parents with human children. Correlation analysis revealed no relationships of pet attachment with any demographic variables, which included sex, age, race, relationship status, household income, and education and parental status. These findings were consistent with a previous study revealing that pet parents who had a strong attachment to their pets experienced dog-parent guilt and work-dog conflict. In addition, this was the first study to examine dog-parent guilt, make-up behaviors, and human attachment styles. Perhaps utilizing a multi-system approach involving educators, mental health professionals, veterinarian professionals, advocates, and organizations can help pet parents feel validated and supported regarding their feelings of guilt. Building a support network for pet parents to connect with others who share similar experiences can validate their feelings and help those who feel isolated.
... Research from the past several decades indicates that the close relationship that exists between dogs and their owners has the characteristics of an attachment bond (Topál et al., 1998). This is demonstrated through differences in behavior exhibited toward their primary caretaker when compared with unfamiliar people: seeking proximity and contact with the owner and the appearance of stress responses when separated (e.g., Prato-Previde et al., 2003;Topál et al., 2005). In line with this, humans develop caring feelings and behaviors toward their dogs. ...
... First, the dogs they tested lived in kennels with other dogs and did not have a dyadic bond with individual humans. Therefore, the relationship between the dogs and the experimenter in this study cannot be described as a parent-child correlate, whereas there are several studies that suggest the dog-owner relationship may have some parallels to the parent-child bond (e.g., Prato-Previde et al., 2003;M. A. Udell & Brubaker, 2016). ...
Dogs are able to cooperate in reciprocal exchange with humans but little is known about the extent of these abilities (Range & Virányi, 2015). In the Still Face paradigm, infants reply to a sudden nonreciprocal facial expression with gaze aversion and an increase in re-engagement and distress behaviors (E. Tronick et al., 1978). We directly adapted this method; the dog’s owner talked to the dog, then abruptly switched to a still, neutral face, maintaining eye contact. In Study 1 (N = 20), we found that dogs showed a significant decrease in the amount of looking at the owner in the Still Face phase, paralleling the results found in gaze aversion in infants, and they performed fewer pawing and vocalizations toward the person in the Still Face phase. In Study 2 (N = 60), we included one condition of continuous physical contact, and one condition that was a direct replication of the initial study without physical contact. Similar to human infants, we found a significant decrease in looking from the Interaction phase to the Still Face phase. However, in contrast to human infants, re-engagement and stress behaviors were higher in the Interaction phase than the Still Face phase. Looking and re-engagement behaviors differed based on the condition, with a smaller difference between phases in the Petting condition. These results suggest that dogs are capable of perceiving these small changes in human affect. However, unlike human infants, dogs seem to have greater expectations about physical interactions than verbal interactions, as they reacted more strongly to an Interaction phase without physical contact than the Still Face.
... One study found that during food denial situations, dogs wagged their tails more when a human was present versus not, suggesting that tail wagging may also function as a requesting signal [40]. Dogs frequently wag their tails when interacting with familiar and unfamiliar humans, but wag the most when their owners are present [34,[54][55][56][57]. Dogs also wag their tails in response to non-social stimuli, such as food [23,27], fans [49] and plastic bags [35,49], with tail wagging in these situations thought to indicate positive emotions [23,27] and/or high arousal [23], but not fear [49] or stress [35]. ...
Tail wagging is a conspicuous behaviour in domestic dogs (Canis familiaris). Despite how much meaning humans attribute to this display, its quantitative description and evolutionary history are rarely studied. We summarize what is known about the mechanism, ontogeny, function and evolution of this behaviour. We suggest two hypotheses to explain its increased occurrence and frequency in dogs compared to other canids. During the domestication process, enhanced rhythmic tail wagging behaviour could have (i) arisen as a by-product of selection for other traits, such as docility and tameness, or (ii) been directly selected by humans, due to our proclivity for rhythmic stimuli. We invite testing of these hypotheses through neurobiological and ethological experiments, which will shed light on one of the most readily observed yet understudied animal behaviours. Targeted tail wagging research can be a window into both canine ethology and the evolutionary history of characteristic human traits, such as our ability to perceive and produce rhythmic behaviours.
... In recent years, scientific interest in the cognitive and social abilities of cats has been increasing. Studies demonstrated that cats may form an attachment bond with their human caregivers [13,14], although Potter and Mills [15] did not find evidence of secure attachment as has been described in dogs [16][17][18]. Domestic cats may be able to understand human emotional expressions [19,20], can recognize owners from their vocal cues [21], and they often rely on their owners for information about non-familiar stimuli, adapting their behaviors based on the owners' emotional reactions in the "social referencing" process [22]. ...
Cat welfare is a topic of growing interest in the scientific literature. Although previous studies have focused on the effects of living style (i.e., indoor/outdoor) on cat welfare, there has been a noticeable dearth of analysis regarding the impact of lifestyle on cats' inclination and mode of communication with humans. Our research aimed to analyze the possible effect of lifestyle (e.g., living indoors only or indoor/outdoor) on cat-human communication. The cats were tested using the impossible task paradigm test, which consists of some solvable trials in which the subject learns to obtain a reward from an apparatus, followed by an impossible trial through blocking the apparatus. This procedure triggers a violation of expectations and is considered a useful tool for assessing both the decision-making process and the tendency to engage in social behaviors towards humans. A specific ethogram was followed to record the behavioral responses of the cats during the unsolvable trial. Our results show the effects of lifestyle and age on domestic cats, providing valuable insights into the factors that influence their social behaviors. Cats that can roam freely outdoors spent less time interacting with the apparatus compared to indoor-only cats. Additionally, roaming cats showed stress behaviors sooner following the expectancy of violation compared to indoor cats. The lifestyle of cats can influence their problem-solving approach while not affecting their willingness to interact with humans or their overall welfare. Future studies on this topic can be useful for improving the welfare of domestic cats.
... For instance, some owners have refused to evacuate during natural disasters because they were not allowed to bring their pets to the rescue shelters (Rosenkoetter et al., 2007;Zottarelli, 2010). The concept of the human-animal bond was extrapolated from attachment theory as the human-animal bond shares characteristics with those observed in mother-infant interactions (Ainsworth, 1989;Barba, 1995;Beck & Katcher, 2003;Bowlby, 1969;Fine & Beck, 2015;Payne et al., 2015;Prato-Previde et al., 2003, 2006. ...
... The behavioral needs of dogs that have been identified include running, resting, playing, exploring, and positive, consistent interactions with humans; the environment should be of adequate size and complexity for these purposes [99]. For companion animals, who were genetically modified by humans, human environments comprise dogs' natural ecological niche, and dog-owner attachment is functionally analogous to human infantmother attachment [100,101]. Dogs have been observed wagging their tails more when granted access to human contact compared to access to conspecifics [102], prefer petting over food when the petting is provided by their owners in unfamiliar contexts [103], play more with conspecifics when receiving owner attention [104], and can communicate with owners via "showing" behavior [12]. Dogs and humans have a mutualistic relationship, with dogs bred to serve human purposes including hunting, guarding, and herding [105]. ...
Simple Summary
Pet dogs are more prone to exhibit challenging behaviors than ever before. Dog trainers are increasingly tasked with helping pet owners resolve behavior issues, not just teach their charges good manners. The interventions used by professionals to help ameliorate behavior complaints must be evidence-based and include the effectiveness of the intervention, how the intervention is perceived by the learner, and how the intervention affects the learner’s quality of life before, during, and after behavior intervention procedures. The objective of this paper is to review literature from multiple scientific disciplines and demonstrate how concepts from applied behavior analysis and the animal welfare sciences can be used together to ensure that the animal undergoing intervention experiences good welfare during the training process.
Abstract
Social validity refers to the social significance and acceptability of intervention goals, procedures, and outcomes. Animal practitioners, who are often guided by the principles of ABA, lack the benefit of verbal participants (at least with respect to target animals) with which to assess a client’s needs and preferences. The study of a learner’s welfare is useful for determining areas where intervention is needed or how the learner feels about an intervention that is underway. Three tenets of animal welfare measurement include physiological function, naturalistic behavior, and affect, where affect refers to private events, including emotions, which are a function of the same variables and contingencies responsible for controlling public behavior. The development of new technologies allows us to look “under the skin” and account for subjective experiences that can now be observed objectively. We introduce the reader to tools available from the animal welfare sciences for the objective measurement of social validity from the learner’s perspective.
... When tested in adapted versions of the Ainsworth Strange Situation Test (ASST), originally developed to test attachment in children (Ainsworth & Wittig, 1969), dogs also display behavioral indicators of attachment. Dogs maintain proximity to their owners when present, use their owner as a secure base for exploring the novel environment, and display distress behavior when separated, and these behaviors are specific to their owners, as they generally do not demonstrate these behaviors with other familiar or unfamiliar humans (Cimarelli et al., 2021;Horn et al., 2013;Konok et al., 2015;Palmer & Custance, 2008;Prato-Previde et al., 2003;Siniscalchi et al., 2013;Topàl et al., 1998;Voith, 1985;Zilcha-Mano et al., 2011; for review see Udell et al., 2021). Like children, dogs can be classified into attachment styles based on their behavioral responses to the ASST: secure, insecure, avoidant, insecure ambivalent, insecure disorganized, and unclassifiable (Main & Solomon, 1986;Schöberl et al., 2016;Solomon et al., 2019). ...
Although owners can act as stress buffers for their dogs, whether dogs with poor early life histories with humans will respond similarly is unknown. We tested 45 dogs, 23 of which were rescued from adverse conditions, in a social paradigm in which a threatening stranger confronted them with either their owner or an unfamiliar human present. Salivary cortisol levels were assessed at three points, and the dogs' behavior and owners' responses to questionnaires were evaluated. Dogs from adverse backgrounds engaged in greater contact and exhibited more relaxed behaviors and social referencing when their owners were present. Dogs from the comparison group explored more when accompanied by their owners. Dogs from adverse backgrounds experienced greater decreases in cortisol levels from the first to third samples relative to dogs in the comparison group. Dogs from adverse backgrounds were also more likely to respond fearfully to a threatening stranger. Their owners rated them as having higher levels of stranger-directed fear, nonsocial fear, separation-related problems, attention seeking, and lower levels of chasing and trainability. These findings from this study suggest that early adverse environments may have lasting effects on dogs' social behavior.
... We used the data obtained to perform the following analyses: Analysis 1: whether dogs gaze at their owners rather than at strangers in the SST, and whether HRV parameters of the dogs can be used to explain the duration of their gazing at humans; Analysis 2: whether the duration of a dog's gazing behavior can explain human HRV parameters and whether gazing duration of the dogs can explain the emotional synchronization between humans and dogs; and Analysis 3: whether HRV parameters change before and after the dog gazes at the human. Previous studies have pointed out the influence of repetition and order of episodes [7,38]. Episodes 4 and 7, in which the dog was with the owner (OW episodes), and episodes 3 and 6, in which the dog was with a stranger (ST episodes), were selected and used in the analysis. ...
The affiliative relationship between humans and dogs is compared to a mother–infant attachment relationship. We hypothesized that dog’s attachment behavior in negative emotional state aroused the owner’s attention toward the dog, that is, reduced parasympathetic activity. We measured heart rate variability in both dogs and humans during the Strange Situation Test to examine whether the owners' parasympathetic activity was decreased by being gazed at by their dogs. Our results in a short-term of 6 s before and after the moment the dog gazed at the human face indicated that dogs’ parasympathetic activity was lower when the dogs were gazing at their owners than when it was gazing at unfamiliar persons. Dog’s autonomic activity was also lower when the dogs were living with their owners for a longer period. However, we could not determine whether gaze from the dog affected the autonomic activity in humans as attachment behavior.
... However, the spatial distribution of Happiness (H) and Control (C) was not significantly different that can be gleaned from the discriminant functions suggest that the proximity to the owner is important in the case of fear chemosignals for both adults and puppies. Proximity seeking is a typical attachment response (Prato-Previde et al. 2003;Scandurra et al. 2016;Topál et al. 1998), inducing dogs to return toward the owner in the presence of perceived threats (safe-haven effect, see Gácsi et al. 2013). Under such circumstances, dogs look for visual and physical comfort from their owners. ...
We report an observational, double-blind, experimental study that examines the effects of human emotional odors on puppies between 3 and 6 months and adult dogs (one year and upwards). Both groups were exposed to control, human fear, and happiness odors in a between subjects' design. The duration of all behaviors directed to the apparatus, the door, the owner, a stranger, and stress behaviors was recorded. A discriminant analysis showed that the fear odor activates consistent behavior patterns for both puppies and adult dogs. However, no behavioral differences between the control and happiness odor conditions were found in the case of puppies. In contrast, adult dogs reveal distinctive patterns for all three odor conditions. We argue that responses to human fear chemosignals systematically influence the behaviors displayed by puppies and adult dogs, which could be genetically prefigured. In contrast, the effects of happiness odors constitute cues that require learning during early socialization processes, which yield consistent patterns only in adulthood.
... One of the major welfare concerns affecting pet dogs in modern society is negative emotional states caused by extended periods of separation from attachment figures such as owners or other pets. Dogs are a social species that can develop meaningful connections with their caregivers, similar to those between children and their parents [1]. When isolated for extended periods, such as when their owners are at work, dogs are likely at risk of negative emotional states, including boredom, frustration, fear and anxiety [2]. ...
Simple Summary
Dogs are a social species and may experience negative emotions when left alone even for short periods of time. This study explored the effectiveness of different food-based enrichments on engaging dogs, and alleviating potential negative emotional states caused by social isolation. The results indicated that dogs spent the most time interacting with a long-lasting chew. They also responded to this enrichment with the most positive and calm emotions when compared to a treat-dispensing toy and a smart treat-dispensing device. Long-lasting chews should be further explored as an enrichment for improving dog emotional wellbeing during periods of separation from their caregivers.
Abstract
Dogs may experience negative emotional states when isolated from human caregivers and conspecifics. This study aimed to evaluate how dogs interact with different enrichments during a short period of social isolation, as a first step towards identifying methods for improving their emotional wellbeing. Using a cross-over design, dogs (n = 20) at the Waltham Petcare Science Institute were exposed to four different food-based enrichments while left alone in a familiar room for 20 min: long-lasting chew (Chew), kibble in a treat-dispensing toy (Toy), and kibble dispensed through a smart treat-dispensing device with (Device + Voice) and without (Device) a person talking to the dog. Time spent engaging with each enrichment item and emotional valence and arousal (7-point scale collected every 5-min) were scored from videos. The results of linear mixed models indicated Chew was the most successful enrichment, with dogs having lower arousal scores (p < 0.05 vs. Device and Toy) during the first five minutes of isolation, higher positive valence scores (p < 0.05 vs. all) during the second five minutes of isolation, and spending the most total time engaged (p < 0.01 vs. all). Based on these findings, long-lasting chews should be further explored to assess their impact on dog emotional wellbeing.
... . All these elements have been proven to greatly vary among parents and the combinations of these behaviors are known as parenting styles 20,21,22,23,24 . Since the dog-owner relationship has been described as similar to the child-mother bond 1,25,26 , it is feasible to assume that the way the owners interact with their dogs can also be categorized into specific behavioral patterns (i.e. owner interaction styles), but no attempt has been made so far to create such categories. ...
... Il a par la suite été mis en évidence que les chats peuvent montrer un attachement sécure envers leurs humains et présentent même les trois patrons d'attachements définis par Ainsworth. En utilisant un test dérivé du test de « la situation étrange », Vitale et ses collaborateurs ont trouvé que 60 % des chats montrent un attachement sécure envers leur propriétaire alors qu'environ 40% des chats montrent un attachement insécure (ambivalent ou évitant), ce qui est assez proche des résultats observés chez les enfants et les chiens(Ainsworth et al. 2015, Palestrini et al. 2005, Palmer & Custance 2008, Prato-Previde et al. 2003, Rehn & Keeling 2016. Les auteurs ont trouvé cette distribution chez les chatons comme chez les chats adultes, ce qui suggère une stabilité de l'attachement dans le temps. ...
Dans une société où les animaux compagnons sont intégrés au cercle familial, beaucoup d’humains les considèrent comme des membres de la famille à part entière. La recherche doit suivre cette tendance et s’attacher à appréhender les mécanismes de relations qui se construisent entre différentes espèces amenées à cohabiter. L’objectif de cette thèse est d’enrichir et d’approfondir les connaissances scientifiques sur l’éthologie du chat compagnon (Felis catus), afin de mieux appréhender ses besoins et réponses comportementales, au sein d’un environnement souvent imposé par l’humain. Les travaux restitués sont principalement centrés sur la communication interspécifique entre l’humain et le chat. Soucieux d’explorer aussi bien la perspective de l’humain que celle du chat, nous avons étudié la façon dont chacun s’exprime et décode les messages de l’autre. Ainsi, nous nous sommes intéressés à la communication vocale et visuelle entre ces deux espèces différentes qui partagent un même milieu - et doivent apprendre à communiquer efficacement pour cohabiter sereinement. Nos études ont mis en évidence que les humains utilisaient un discours spécifique pour s’adresser à leur compagnons félins, caractérisé par l’utilisation d’une voix plus aiguë. Nous avons également rapporté que les chats étaient plus attentifs à ce type de discours, mais seulement lorsqu’il était prononcé par leur compagnon humain et non par un étranger. Dans une troisième étude, nous avons observé que les chats venaient plus volontiers au contact d’un humain peu familier si celui-ci proposait un contact bimodal ou visuel, plutôt que vocal. Enfin, nous avons vu que les humains comprenaient mieux les chats dans leurs expressions bimodales et visuelles que vocales. Ainsi, bien que communément utilisée par chaque émetteur de cette communication interspécifique, la modalité vocale ne semble pas être suffisante pour la transmission et la réception d’un signal clair. Ces résultats sont discutés à la lumière des notions d’attachement, d’anthropomorphisme et de bien-être animal.
... There may or may not be visual orientation toward the environment. The puppy may change posture in place but does not show any displacement [46] × Frozen The puppy is completely still while in any posture or position [22] × × Exploration Activity directed toward physical aspects of the environment that could include sniffing, or examination such as licking or pawing [45,[47][48][49] × × ...
Many puppies from commercial breeding kennels (CBKs) are transported by ground from their kennels of origin to a distributor. This experience may elicit fear and stress during a sensitive developmental period, which may in turn negatively impact the puppies’ short- and long-term welfare. This study aimed to measure short-term effects of transportation on puppy welfare metrics. Eight-week-old puppies (n = 383) from 12 CBKs were tested at their kennels (pre-trans) and ~48 h after arriving at a distributor (post-trans). At each location, puppies underwent an isolation test, a stranger-approach test, and a physical health assessment. Behavioral responses to testing were scored from videos. Fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (FGM), fecal secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA), and presence of intestinal parasites were also analyzed. Linear mixed-effects models identified decreased exploration (p < 0.001), and increased locomotion (p < 0.001) and escape attempts (p = 0.001) during the post-trans isolation test. Increased affiliative behavior (p < 0.001), FGM (p < 0.001) and sIgA (p = 0.014) were also observed post-trans. Findings support good physical health both pre- and post-trans, while behavioral and physiological changes suggest increased puppy distress post-trans. Higher post-transport affiliative behavior may indicate that puppies sought social support as a coping strategy after experiencing transport-related distress. Future studies should explore the efficacy of transportation-related interventions to mitigate puppy distress.
... Studies focused on dog-owner attachment have shown that dogs can behave differently depending on whether their owner is present or absent (Topál et al., 1998). In particular, when dogs are left in a novel place without a familiar caregiver, they show higher activity (Tuber et al., 1996), higher circulating glucocorticoid concentrations (Tuber et al., 1996;Palestrini et al., 2005), higher heart rates (Palestrini et al., 2005), and higher anxiety (Prato-Previde et al., 2003;Palestrini et al., 2005;Parthasarathy and Crowell-Davis, 2006), even if an unknown person is present (Parthasarathy and Crowell-Davis, 2006). Miklósi et al. (2003) showed that dogs looked at their owner when facing an unsolvable task, and Kerepesi et al. (2015) demonstrated that dogs moved closer to their owner but not towards other individuals, even familiar ones, in situations provoking anxiety or fear. ...
... These adaptations and deviations potentially limit the integrity of attachment theory when applied to HAI research, and this is acknowledged in the existing literature. While some studies report that the human-dog relationship can be an attachment relationship (Kruger & Serpell, 2006), others have argued that conclusive evidence for attachment in dog-human relationships is limited (Prato-Previde, Custance, Spiezio, & Sabatini, 2003). In their comprehensive review, Crawford et al. (2006) concluded that humans' attachment to companion animals is variable and may not provide any substantial effect. ...
The relationship formed between a human and a dog can be transformative. Human-Animal Interaction (HAI) research aims to understand why these relationships are so important. Within this field, human-dog relationships have been explained through various theoretical constructs, of which the ‘biophilia hypothesis’, ‘attachment theory’ and ‘social support’ are the most common. However, none of these constructs completely explain the benefits that human-dog relationships can provide. In this paper, a new theory, the Thriving Through Relationships (TTR) theory, is applied to human-dog relationships, in order to ascertain its capacity to further explain the benefits that dogs can provide to humans. The TTR theory proposes mechanisms for immediate and long-term indicators of thriving, which may add new insight into how human-dog relationships are beneficial. Multiple dimensions of thriving are used to explain how a supportive other could assist an individual to thrive, both in the face of adversity and during times of relative normalcy. The TTR theory may, therefore, enhance understanding of the transformative potential of human-dog relationships.
... Our results indicate that the attachment system toward the familiar person was activated in our 23-week-old wolves during the SST, and the wolves expressed attachment behavior comparable to those reported in adult dogs (Gácsi et al., 2001;Prato-Previde et al., 2003;Topál et al., 1998), chimpanzees (van IJzendoorn et al., 2009) and human infants (Ainsworth & Bell, 1970) (Hennessy et al., 2009). The facilitation of comforting effects in stressful situations by familiar conspecifics is well-known in various species (von Holst, 1998;Hennessy et al., 2006) and has recently been demonstrated among captive wolf pack members (Cimarelli et al., 2021). ...
Domesticated animals are generally assumed to display increased sociability toward humans compared to their wild ancestors. Dogs (Canis familiaris) have a remarkable ability to form social relationships with humans, including lasting attachment, a bond based on emotional dependency. Since it has been specifically suggested that the ability to form attachment with humans evolved post-domestication in dogs, attempts to quantify attachment behavior in wolves (Canis lupus) have subsequently been performed. However, while these rare wolf studies do highlight the potential for wolves to express human-directed attachment, the varied methods used and the contrasting results emphasize the need for further, standardized testing of wolves. Here, we used the standardized Strange Situation Test to investigate attachment behavior expressed in wolves and dogs hand-raised and socialized under standardized and identical conditions up until the age of testing. We found that 23-week-old wolves and dogs equally discriminated between a stranger and a familiar person, and expressed similar attachment behaviors toward a familiar person. Additionally, wolves, but not dogs, expressed significantly elevated stress-related behavior during the test, but this stress response was buffered by the presence of a familiar person. Together, our results suggest that wolves can show attachment behaviors toward humans comparable to those of dogs. Importantly, our findings demonstrate that the ability to form attachment with humans exists in relatives of the wild ancestor of dogs, thereby refuting claims that this phenotype evolved after dog domestication was initiated.
... Behavioral data were recorded with a digital videocamera (Handycam ® DCR-SX33E, Sony, Minato, Tokyo, Japan). A reference ethogram, consisting of 6 behavioral categories and 16 patterns, was compiled for the behavioral analysis (Table 2) [7,27,50,[63][64][65]. Table 2. Ethogram used for behavioral analysis. ...
The veterinary visit is necessary for safeguarding the health of dogs, but it can be stressful and threaten both the welfare of the patient and the accuracy of the examination. This randomized, triple-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study aims at evaluating how dog appeasing pheromone (DAP) in a novel gel formulation influences the behavioral and physiological stress responses of 28 dogs undergoing a standardized clinical examination, while staying in the waiting room (WR) and visited in the examination room (ER). Behavioral responses were studied through behavioral categories and subjective scales (WR and ER). Autonomic response considered heart rate (WR and ER), blood pressure (WR and ER), respiratory rate (ER), and rectal temperature (ER). Neuroendocrine response considered salivary cortisol (WR and ER). In the waiting room, the use of DAP was associated with a significant reduction of lip licking (p = 0.0189), an increase in panting (p = 0.0276), and a reduction close to significance (p = 0.0584) of low body postures. No significant differences were observed within the physiological responses. In the examination room, neither behavioral nor physiological differences were found.
... Thus, they looked for their owners in their absence, rapidly made enduring contact with them after their return, preferred to play with them, and decreased their play behavior in their absence. They also greeted their owners more enthusiastically and stayed longer by the door when separated from them [43,44]. ...
Philosophers have understood propositional contents in many different ways, some of them imposing stricter demands on cognition than others. In this paper, I want to characterize a specific sub-type of propositional content that shares many core features with full-blown propositional contents while lacking others. I will call them modest propositional contents, and I will be especially interested in examining which behavioral patterns would justify their attribution to non-human animals. To accomplish these tasks, I will begin by contrasting modest propositional contents with primitive feature-placing contents: a kind of content that, according to some philosophers, can explain the behavior of non-human animals. I will examine which cognitive abilities are involved in having mental states with each of these contents and which sorts of behavioral patterns would provide evidence that an animal has one of them or another. Finally, I will present some empirical evidence which strongly suggests that some non-human animals have mental states with modest propositional contents.
... Avoidant owners are less responsive to the dog's needs and do not provide a secure-base for the dog when needed, which would result in a higher risk for the dog to develop a separation-related disorder (92). Domestic animals are also likely to show attachment patterns to their owners (93)(94)(95), but these must be empirically identified. Interestingly, there is research in social neuroscience that identifies neural pathways associated with attachment patterns (96) and how dysfunctional attachment patterns impact interpersonal interactions [see (81,97) for more details]. ...
The Integrative Model of Human-Animal Interactions (IMHAI) described herewith provides a conceptual framework for the study of interspecies interactions and aims to model the primary emotional processes involved in human-animal interactions. This model was developed from theoretical inputs from three fundamental disciplines for understanding interspecies interactions: neuroscience, psychology and ethology, with the objective of providing a transdisciplinary approach on which field professionals and researchers can build and collaborate. Seminal works in affective neuroscience offer a common basis between humans and animals and, as such, can be applied to the study of interspecies interactions from a One Health-One Welfare perspective. On the one hand, Jaak Panksepp's research revealed that primary/basic emotions originate in the deep subcortical regions of the brain and are shared by all mammals, including humans. On the other hand, several works in the field of neuroscience show that the basic physiological state is largely determined by the perception of safety. Thus, emotional expression reflects the state of an individual's permanent adaptation to ever-changing environmental demands. Based on this evidence and over 5 years of action research using grounded theory, alternating between research and practice, the IMHAI proposes a systemic approach to the study of primary-process emotional affects during interspecies social interactions, through the processes of emotional transfer, embodied communication and interactive emotional regulation. IMHAI aims to generate new hypotheses and predictions on affective behavior and interspecies communication. Application of such a model should promote risk prevention and the establishment of positive links between humans and animals thereby contributing to their respective wellbeing.
... There have been several studies on the relationship of man and animal based on the theory of attachment. There are strong supports of the emotional ties and sensitive bonds between domestic animals and their owners [39,40]. ...
Objective & background:
Human-animal interactions are considered as being valuable and beneficial for the psychological health. Recently Animal-Assisted Therapy (AAT) has been included for client-therapist interaction. The purpose of the present study was to assess the effectiveness of animal-assisted therapy in alleviation of anxiety in pre-school children.
Method:
The study was carried out as a randomized controlled trail with pre-test and post-test design and control group. The trial was registered in the Chinese Clinical Trial Registry with the registration id of ChiCTR2000034145. The study consisted of 33 anxious 5-7years old children (participated in a welfare anxiety screening plan held by Counseling Center, Tehran-Iran) between 2018 and 2019. The participants took part in the study voluntarily. The subjects were randomly divided into experimental and control groups (10 in each group). The experimental group was exposed to 8 sessions of animal therapy. The research instrument used in the present study was Spence Preschool Anxiety Scale (Parent Form) and the data were analyzed on SPSS 21 software.
Results:
The results showed that animal therapy had a significant effect on general anxiety after adjusting for post-test assessments (f = 32.49 and p = 0.001) with the effect equal to 0.70. In addition, the effect of animal therapy on anxiety of separation (f = 5.63, p = 0.03), generalized anxiety disorder (f = 8.56, p = 0.01), social phobia (f = 14.58, p = 0.002) and specific anxiety (f = 11.63, p = 0.005) was significant with effects equal to 0.30, 0.40, 0.53, and 0.47, respectively. The results also showed that the effect of animal therapy on obsession was not significant (p > 0.05).
Conclusion:
Therefore, it can be concluded that Animal therapy is effective in alleviating anxiety in children. It supports for the inclusion of AAT in therapeutic practice with children having anxiety.
Behavioral and physiological synchrony facilitate emotional closeness in attachment relationships. The aim of this pseudorandomized cross-over study was to investigate the emotional and physiological link, designated as co-modulation, between dogs and their owners. We measured the heart rate variability (HRV) and physical activity of dogs belonging to co-operative breeds (n = 29) and their owners during resting baselines and positive interaction tasks (Stroking, Training, Sniffing, Playing) and collected survey data on owner temperament and dog–owner relationship. Although overall HRV and activity correlated between dogs and their owners across tasks, task-specific analyses showed that HRV of dogs and owners correlated during free behaving (Pre- and Post-Baseline), whereas the activity of dogs and owners correlated during predefined interaction tasks (Stroking and Playing). Dog overall HRV was the only predictive factor for owner overall HRV, while dog height, ownership duration, owner negative affectivity, and dog–owner interaction scale predicted dog overall HRV. Thus, the characteristics of dog, owner, and the relationship modified the HRV responses in dog–owner dyads. The physiology and behavior of dogs belonging to co-operative breeds and their owners were therefore co-modulated, demonstrating physiological and emotional connection comparable to those found in attachment relationships between humans.
Studies conducted with institutionalized children have consistently identified infant attachment issues and suboptimal parenting practices among their caregivers. These issues have been observed to exert a discernible impact on their socialization and executive functioning. Given the importance of these findings, it is crucial to develop novel measures to detect attachment difficulties. The primary objective of this study was to conduct a comparative analysis of attachment patterns, parenting practices, and executive functioning between institutionalized and non-institutionalized children. The study sample comprised 11 institutionalized infants and an equal number of non-institutionalized counterparts aged between 4 and 6 years. Assessment tools included a novel Virtual Strange Situation Procedure, the Neuropsychological Battery for Preschoolers, the Parenting Practices Inventory, and the Child Behavior Inventory. The findings revealed noteworthy disparities in attachment behaviors related to distance from the primary caregiver; the non-institutionalized group sustained a closer proximity to their caregivers than to strangers. Concerning executive functioning, the institutionalized group exhibited significantly lower performance levels than the non-institutionalized group across various cognitive domains, including orientation, attention, academic skills, memory, identification of emotions, inhibition, and abstraction. In terms of parenting practices, caregivers of non-institutionalized children were observed to provide inadequate positive reinforcement. These outcomes underscore the critical necessity of targeted interventions to address attachment difficulties in institutionalized infants and the imperative to rehabilitate areas of executive functioning that have been adversely affected. Additionally, it highlights the need for enhancing parenting practices among caregivers to better support child development.
Introduction: The study of the interaction between humans and companion animals has become more relevant due to changes in current social dynamics. Objective: To conduct a documentary review of the evolution of research on anthropomorphizationin animals and its impact on the human-animal bond characteristic of contemporary family dynamics. Methodology: This is a documentary review study supported by the Tree of Science (ToS) web tool for literature selection. The search was conducted inScopus and Web of Science. Thirty-one studies were included in the review. Results: The results were categorized into classical, structural and recent studies. It was found that the anthropomorphization of the animal and its inclusion in the family makes it possible to modify behaviors and establish habits in family life. The role of animals in the family scenario is directly influenced by the degree to which they are anthropomorphized, which generates both advantages and disadvantages for the family, the pets and their direct caregivers. Conclusions: Anthropomorphizing practices respond to contemporary changes in human relationships and perceived loneliness and may promote bonds in human-animal and human-human interactions.
The aim of the current study was to investigate the influence of both intra- and interspecific audiences on dogs' facial expressions and behaviours. Forty-six dogs were exposed to three test conditions in which a food reward, initially available, was denied when in the presence of either a human (Human condition) or a dog audience (Dog condition), or in the absence of a visible audience (Non-social condition). Salivary cortisol was collected to evaluate the stress/arousal activation in the different conditions. Compared to the Non-social condition, the presence of a conspecific evoked more facial expressions, according to the DogFACS (Facial Action Coding System, an anatomically based tool to analyze facial expressions in domestic dogs), (EAD105—Ears downward), displacement behaviours (AD137—Nose licking, AD37—Lip wiping), tail wagging, whining, and panting (AD126). When facing a conspecific, dogs assumed a more avoidant attitude, keeping a distance and not looking at the stimuli, compared to when in the presence of the human partner. Dogs also exhibited more facial expressions (EAD102—Ears Adductor, EAD104—Ears Rotator), displacement behaviours (AD137—Nose licking, AD37—Lip wiping), panting (AD126) and whining when facing the conspecific than the human partner. Post-test cortisol was not influenced by any condition, and no association between pre-test cortisol and behavioural variables was found, thus strong differences in the levels of stress/arousal were unlikely to be responsible for differences in behavior between conditions. Considering the current results in the context of the available literature, we suggest that the higher displacement behaviors exhibited with the conspecifics were likely due to an increased level of uncertainty regarding the situations.
Much of the demand for purebred dogs in the USA is met by commercial breeding kennels (CBKs). In CBKs, adult dogs have been reported to exhibit signs of fear towards strangers. Social fear is a particular welfare concern as it may lead to acute and chronic stress in the kennel, and later, after dogs are retired and rehomed. Studies on pet and shelter dogs have shown that the type of attachment style dogs have with their caretakers is associated with their social behavior towards strangers. Thus, the aims of this study were to characterize the attachment styles of dogs from CBKs to their caretakers, and investigate relationships between the types of attachment styles observed and social fear behaviors in the dogs. Forty-eight adult dogs were tested from three CBKs in Indiana, USA. Twenty (41.67%) dogs were classified as secure, 16 (33.33%) as insecure ambivalent, 9 (18.75%) as insecure avoidant, and 3 (6.25%) as insecure disorganized. Generalized linear mixed-effects models showed that secure and ambivalent dogs approached the stranger more frequently (X2 = 24.636, p < 0.001), and solicited contact more frequently (X2 = 13.092, p = 0.004) than did avoidant dogs. Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Tests showed that secure, ambivalent, and avoidant dogs all initially approached the stranger more quickly in the Paired-Effect test (when the caretaker was present) than in the Stranger Arena test (p < 0.05). Secure and ambivalent dogs also spent more time in proximity to (p < 0.001) and solicited more contact from (p < 0.01) the stranger in the Paired-Effect test than in the Stranger Arena test. These results suggest that there is an association between type of attachment style and fear behaviors towards a stranger in this sample of dogs. Understanding connections between attachment style and social fear, and their implications for stress and welfare in dogs from CBKs may help inform breeders’ socialization, social interactions, and related management practices. This in turn may help to reduce dogs’ social fear and enhance their long-term welfare outcomes in the kennel. These insights may also aid rehoming efforts, as breeders could potentially inform new owners about behaviors they might expect from their dogs, which might help avoid mismatches in expectations, and in so doing, help keep dogs in their homes.
Early life deprivation and stress can contribute to life‐long, problematic consequences, including epigenetic variations related to behavior and health. Domestic dogs share human environments and social–cognitive traits, making them a promising comparative model to examine developmental plasticity. We examined 47 owner–dog dyads, including dogs rescued from abusive or neglectful environments, and matched control dogs for changes in DNA methylation of glucocorticoid ( NR3C1 ) and oxytocin ( OXTR ) receptor genes previously shown to be affected by early life stress in other species including humans. We used an attachment paradigm, which included a separation event to examine cortisol levels and owner–dog attachment styles. Overall, dogs with adverse histories had different NR3C1 methylation patterns as a function of age and less OXTR methylation than comparison dogs. Dogs with adverse histories did not differ in their cortisol change from baseline to poststressor from comparison dogs, but the change in cortisol was associated with NR3C1 methylation. In addition, dogs with a history of early life stress had more insecure attachment styles; for every unit increase of OXTR methylation, the odds increased for insecure attachment style. This study demonstrates that adverse life histories lead to methylation differences, resulting in the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis's dysregulation and differences in behavioral phenotypes.
Heart rate changes and respiratory activities are vital physiological phenomena that provide valuable insights into the physiological and psychological states of family dogs. The bond between humans and their pet dogs necessitates a deeper understanding of this relationship. Therefore, the objective of this study was to investigate the human-animal bond by examining heart rate (HR), heart rate variability (HRV), respiratory rate (breathe per minute, BPM), and tidal volume (TV) using an external telemetry system. A total of ten dogs were selected as participants, and their cardio-respiratory responses were evaluated in an unfamiliar environment. The baseline data for the study was established during the first stage of the Strange Situation Test (SST), known as "dog with owner." The analysis focused on changes in HR, HRV, BPM, and TV throughout the different stages of the SST. Interestingly, the results demonstrated that changes in HR did not consistently correspond to changes in HRV across all stages. During the initial encounter with the stranger (episode b, stranger entering), there were notable percentage changes in HR, HRV, and TV, despite an overall increase in BPM, although not significant. In the third stage (stranger alone with the dog), both HR and HRV parameters, as well as TV, displayed increased percentage changes, whereas BPM exhibited a decrease. Furthermore, when the dog interacted with the stranger for the second time (episode f), HR and BPM increased, while HRV and TV decreased. This pattern suggests a shift towards a more active and alert state in response to the renewed social interaction. In contrast, when the dog was left alone (episode e), HR and BPM decreased, while HRV and TV increased. Overall, these findings provide evidence that changes in heart rate and respiratory parameters reflect the emotional stress experienced by family dogs in various social contexts. Moreover, the utilization of the external telemetry system in this study offers a promising model for investigating the effects of pharmacological interventions, behavioral interventions, and animal-assisted therapy in animals. By gaining a deeper understanding of the human-animal bond, we can further enhance the well-being and quality of life for both dogs and their human companions.
The "isolation syndrome" is a term used to describe the stress responses observed in highly social species when they lack social interactions. This syndrome affects various aspects of an individual's welfare, including hormonal, behavioral, and physiological systems. Dogs, known for their social nature, have been used as a model to study the effects of social buffering provided by conspecifics or humans. This study aims to investigate the social buffering effect of humans on dogs and determine if it is solely associated with bonding or socialization. The study selected Australian Cattle Dogs with limited social interactions with humans, ensuring that no direct bonds or human socialization were involved. The dogs were randomly assigned to either an isolation or social condition, and cortisol levels were measured before and after the tests to evaluate stress responses. The results showed that isolation led to a significant increase in cortisol levels, indicating a stress response. However, in the presence of unfamiliar humans, cortisol levels did not increase significantly, suggesting a lack of stress response. This finding suggests that humans can serve as social buffers for dogs, even without prior bonding or socialization. Therefore, dogs without systematic human socialization still benefited from the presence of unfamiliar humans.
Objective
The objective of this scoping review is to explore the implications of human-dog dyadic interactions on canine chronic pain, by investigating the mediating role of human emotion on the affective and behavioural states of dogs typically associated with canine pain.
Introduction
Canine chronic osteoarthritis pain causes significant burden of disease in pet dog populations. It is understood that chronic pain is complex and multidimensional, with poor correlation between disease severity and functional disability. Interactions with their human caregivers have measurable effects of affective and physiological states in dogs. A better understanding of how these interactions may affect functional disability in dogs with osteoarthritis pain will inform patient management approaches.
Inclusion criteria
This review included studies evaluating behavioural, physiological, affective or cognitive changes in dogs, within a human-dog dyad, in response to human caregiver behaviour, personality or emotion.
Methods
The databases searched included PUBMED, SCOPUS, CINAHL, SOCINDEX, PSYCHARTICLES AND PSYCHINFO, and articles were screened by two independent reviewers for assessment against the inclusion criteria for the review.
Results
55 Full text articles were included in the results.
Conclusions
The data support the hypothesis that human affective states influence canine affect, physiology, cognition and behavioural adaptation.
The domestic dog (Canis familiaris) plays a unique role in human society, functioning primarily as a social companion in millions of households worldwide. Considering this special relationship, researchers have examined the various ways in which dogs interact with humans and how these interactions may facilitate or even stem from an underlying attachment between dogs and humans. As a result, many different measures have been developed to evaluate how various factors influence dog-human attachment and interactions. Current advancements in the use of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in dogs have also allowed researchers to explore relationships between neural and behavioral responses, demonstrating additional evidence for dog-human attachment. In this chapter, we discuss different measures that have been used to evaluate various aspects of the dog-human bond and how fMRI can provide new insights in this area of research. Specifically, multimodal approaches combining behavioral and cognitive measures with fMRI provide the most comprehensive method of evaluating dog-human attachment. Additional considerations, such as utilizing neural models of human attachment as a reference for canine models and specific study designs that could be used to measure the neural attachment network in dogs, are also discussed to help inform future research on the dog-human bond.KeywordsDog fMRIDog-human attachmentDomestic dogSocial cognition
Dogs and cats are popular companion animals that live together with humans. This special issue provides topics about the scents and olfaction of dogs and cats from the viewpoint of ethology. The first half introduces the significance of odors of feces, urine, and body, which is easily perceived as unpleasant odors, and how to deal with them. The second half mainly introduces the olfactory ability, the application of “Nosework” to animal welfare, and the effects of the owner’s body odor on the attachment behavior, in dogs and cats.
Much of the literature on owner-dog attachment and the influence of personality on the owner-dog relationship has originated in Europe, with few studies in North America. To address this imbalance, 29 owner-dog dyads from a Canadian population were tested in the Strange Situation Test (SST) and owners completed assessments of their own personalities (NEO-FFI-3), the personalities of their dogs (MCPQ-R), and their level of attachment to their dogs (DAQ). Attachment scores were comparable to those in previous research, and all owner-dog dyads were deemed to be securely attached. However, no predicted “matching” of seemingly analogous personality traits (e.g., human and dog Neuroticism) was found, and there was no relationship between dog personality and attachment behaviours during the SST. In contrast, owners with higher Extraversion scores initiated more contact with their dogs in the first reunion episode of the SST (following separation). Owners scoring low on Openness and/or Neuroticism had dogs with higher scores for Training Focus, suggesting that these dogs could more easily attend to a calm, stable owner. Owners who scored high in Openness had dogs with lower Amicability scores, possibly indicating more tolerance of a less desirable dog trait by such owners. Differences between the findings of this study and those conducted in Europe suggest that more emphasis should be given to the possible impact of cultural variation on the behaviours of and perceived relationships between owners and their dogs.
There is a need for evidence-based interventions that can contribute to more positive treatment outcomes for substance use disorders. Animal-assisted therapy is a supplementary intervention in which certified animals are used in a structured and goal directed manner in the treatment of various health problems. This review aims to systematically investigate and evaluate the available literature and thus hopefully contribute to future research. The electronic searches were performed in the databases PsycInfo, Medline, and Web of Science. Searches of reference lists were also performed. As the research on this particular field is scarce, the inclusion criteria had to allow for a relatively great variation in methods, interventions, and populations. Still, only ten studies were included, of which three were quantitative, six were qualitative, and one was a mixed methods study. All of the included articles examined the effect of AAT in the treatment of substance use disorders. The populations investigated included both women and men aged 13 to 55 years undergoing treatment for substance use disorder. A segregated design was applied, where the quantitative results were pooled using narrative synthesis and the qualitative using metasummary, all of which were combined in a final configuration. Three of the quantitative studies found significant correlations, and the metasummary indicated several reoccurring themes across the qualitative studies. However, a general lack of systematic investigation and an excess of explorative research were identified, and the majority of the articles neglected to report information important for replication. More thorough and systematic investigations are needed. A tentative explanatory model, with a hypothesis generating aim, is presented, in which the qualitative findings function as moderators or mediators of the relationships indicated by the quantitative studies.
The domestic dog has attracted notable attention in relation to the welfare benefits of auditory stimulation. Studies carried out in rescue kennels, an environment in which dogs are prone to chronic stress, have pointed to a calming influence of both classical music and audiobooks. The benefits of auditory stimulation for dogs experiencing more immediate types of stress, however, are still unknown. This investigation thus examined the effect of classical music and the spoken voice in the form of an audiobook on the behaviour of pet dogs in response to separation from their owners, a known short-term stressor. Three conditions of auditory stimulation were employed: (1) a control (the normal environment of the university research room), (2) classical music (Mozart’s Sonata K.448) and (3) an audiobook (Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone). The effect of these conditions was explored using two approaches. Study 1 explored the effects of auditory stimulation using a between-subjects design. Sixty dogs were assigned to one of the 3 conditions and exposed to the relevant auditory stimulus for 1-hour. Each dog’s behaviour was recorded every 10 s using a purpose-designed ethogram. Latency data were recorded by video. Results revealed a significant effect of auditory condition on latency to lie down, latency to settle (i.e., lie down for >30 s) and speaker-directed gaze. Dogs exposed to classical music were significantly faster to lie down than animals in the audiobook condition and quicker to settle than animals in the audiobook and control conditions. Subjects in the audiobook condition spent significantly more time gazing at the speaker than animals in the classical music and control conditions. Dogs in the classical music condition also spent significantly more time looking towards the speaker than control animals. Study 2 examined the effects of auditory stimulation using a repeated measures design. Twenty-two dogs were exposed to each condition of auditory stimulation for 30 min, with a period of 10 min between conditions. Each animal’s behaviour was recorded as per Study 1. Only speaker-directed gaze differed significantly between conditions, with animals spending more time looking at the speaker in the audiobook and classical music conditions than the control. Overall, findings point to only a moderately calming effect of classical music, and no apparent welfare benefits of an audiobook, on dogs separated from their owners. The research points to auditory stimulation having little value to dogs in situations of short-term acute stress. Further research is recommended in this field, ideally in a wider variety of contexts than studied thus far.
In chapter 6 we review studies exploring how wolves and dogs related to humans. Taken together results show that initial differences between wolves and dogs in their interactions with humans, when revisited, do not often hold up to closer inspection. Moreover, since the first comparisons almost 15 years ago, research on different dog populations has highlighted the strong effect of experience and raising on the human-related behaviours under investigation. Accordingly, when comparisons are carried out on similarly raised, intensely socialized wolves and dogs, differences are either smaller than expected or disappear altogether. Both wolves and dogs have the capacity to establish close preferential bonds with specific people, and this is evident both in tests with puppies and adults. Nevertheless, some differences do emerge. Both in studies at the WSC and in other populations, dogs appear to seek out, and stay in physical contact with humans (whether bonded, familiar, or strangers) more than wolves, even if in some cases this is associated with higher behavioural and physiological signals of stress. Pilot results also suggest that dogs show more greeting, tail wagging, and submissive behaviours towards humans than wolves. Such results point to the possibility that the hierarchical elements of the relationship with humans may differ in wolves and dogs, and this needs further, more direct investigation.
Providing behavioral care to animals in special circumstances, such as following a natural disaster or after removal from a cruelty or neglect situation, presents a variety of unique challenges. Following disasters, animals are often held in rudimentary field shelters until they are reunited with their owners or considered unclaimed. Cruelty cases involve populations of animals, such as dogs from organized dogfighting operations and animals from hoarding situations, that present with behavioral needs for safe and humane sheltering. Long‐term holds, often due to legal cases, compound shelter stress over time, which can lead to behavioral decline. These special circumstances represent substantial challenges to maintaining animal welfare. Even when faced with less‐than‐ideal conditions and other limitations, best efforts should be made to prevent, mitigate, or eliminate negative welfare and to facilitate psychological well‐being.
Why do dogs behave in the ways that they do? Why did our ancestors tame wolves? How have we ended up with so many breeds of dog, and how can we understand their role in contemporary human society? Explore the answers to these questions and many more in this study of the domestic dog. Building on the strengths of the first edition, this much-anticipated update incorporates two decades of new evidence and discoveries on dog evolution, behavior, training, and human interaction. It includes seven entirely new chapters covering topics such as behavioral modification and training, dog population management, the molecular evidence for dog domestication, canine behavioral genetics, cognition, and the impact of free-roaming dogs on wildlife conservation. It is an ideal volume for anyone interested in dogs and their evolution, behavior and ever-changing roles in society. The ultimate book about the domestic dog, ideal for anyone interested in their evolution, behavior and ever-changing roles in society A new edition of a classic text, presenting the latest research on dog behavior, training, domestication, genetics and cognition Includes seven entirely new chapters by leading experts in the field, incorporating two decades of new evidence and discoveries.
Despite the popular idea that dog owners are often responsible in some way for their animals' behaviour problems, the scientific evidence is scarce and contradictory. Some studies have failed to detect any links between the quality of the owner-dog relationship and the occurrence of behaviour problems, while others suggest that some behaviour problems may be associated with certain aspects of owner personality, attitudes and/or behaviour.Using retrospective data from a sample of 737 dogs, the present study investigated the association between the prevalence of different behaviour problems and various aspects of either owner behaviour or owner-dog interactions. A number of statistically significant associations were detected: (a) between obedience training and reduced prevalence of competitive aggression (P < 0.02), separation-related problems (P < 0.001), and escaping and roaming (P < 0.05); (b) between the timing of the dogs' meal times and the occurrence of territorial-type aggression (P < 0.01); (c) between sleeping close to the owner and increased prevalence of competitive aggression (P < 0.01) and separation-related problems (P < 0.01); (d) between first-time ownership and the prevalence of dominance-type aggression (P < 0.001), separation-related problems (P < 0.05), fear of loud noises (P < 0.001), and various manifestations of overexcitability (P < 0.001); (e) between owners' initial reasons for acquiring a dog and the prevalence of dominance-type (P < 0.001), competitive (P < 0.01) and territorial aggression (P < 0.01). The possible practical implications of these findings are discussed.
Attachment theory is based on the joint work of J. Bowlby (1907–1991) and M. S. Ainsworth (1913– ). Its developmental history begins in the 1930s, with Bowlby's growing interest in the link between maternal loss or deprivation and later personality development and with Ainsworth's interest in security theory. Although Bowlby's and Ainsworth's collaboration began in 1950, it entered its most creative phase much later, after Bowlby had formulated an initial blueprint of attachment theory, drawing on ethology, control systems theory, and psychoanalytic thinking, and after Ainsworth had visited Uganda, where she conducted the 1st empirical study of infant–mother attachment patterns. This article summarizes Bowlby's and Ainsworth's separate and joint contributions to attachment theory but also touches on other theorists and researchers whose work influenced them or was influenced by them. The article then highlights some of the major new fronts along which attachment theory is currently advancing. The article ends with some speculations on the future potential of the theory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Fifty-one owner-dog pairs were observed in a modified version of M. D. S. Ainsworth's (1969) Strange Situation Test. The results demonstrate that adult dogs (Canis familiaris) show patterns of attachment behavior toward the owner. Although there was considerable variability in dogs' attachment behavior to humans, the authors did not find any effect of gender, age, living conditions, or breed on most of the behavioral variables. The human-dog relationship was described by means of a factor analysis in a 3-dimensional factor space: Anxiety, Acceptance, and Attachment. A cluster analysis revealed 5 substantially different classes of dogs, and dogs could be categorized along the secure-insecure attached dimensions of Ainsworth's original test. A dog's relationship to humans is analogous to child-parent and chimpanzee-human attachment behavior because the observed behavioral phenomena and the classification are similar to those described in mother-infant interactions.
Abstract
The possibility of linking physiology and observable behaviour is of great importance in gaining a better understanding of the dog's reactions to environmental changes and potential stressors. Many studies of human-dog interactions explored the issues concerning attachment of people to their pets, whereas only few studies investigated the nature of the dog-human relationship or the dog's level of attachment to its owner. The aim of this study was to investigate dog’s reactions to different emotional situations integrating physiological (heart rate) and behavioural measures. 17 adult dogs were tested in a "strange" environment using a modified version of Ainsworth's Strange Situation Test. The procedure consisted of an introductory episode followed by 8 consecutive experimental episodes in which the dogs were placed in an unfamiliar environment, introduced to an adult stranger and subjected to separations from the owner. During each observational session the behaviour of each dog was videorecorded and heart rate was measured in order to allow a comparison between heart rate and behaviour. The level of activity of each dog in each experimental episode was assessed recording 12 different behavioural categories. The heart rate values during the first experimental episode were analysed to obtain a baseline for each subject and the dogs’ heart rate across episodes was assessed and compared to the baseline values. Furthermore, the effect of specific events (stranger’s entrance and owner’s return) on dogs’ heart rate was evaluated.
The results of the present pilot study show that socioemotional conditions induce changes in both behaviour and heart rate in adult dogs and that these changes, especially those at the behavioural level, indicate emotional stress.
Keywords: dogs; behaviour; heart-rate; attachment; stress
Attachment theory is based on the joint work of John Bowlby (1907-1991) and Mary Salter Ainsworth (1913- ). Its developmental history begins in the 1930s, with Bowlby's growing interest in the link between maternal loss or deprivation and later personality development and with Ainsworth's interest in security theory Although Bowlby's and Ainsworth's collaboration began in 1950, it entered its most creative phase much later, after Bowlby had formulated an initial blueprint of attachment theory, drawing on ethology, control systems theory, and psychoanalytic thinking, and after Ainsworth had visited Uganda, where she conducted the first empirical study of infant-mother attachment patterns. This article summarizes Bowlby's and Ainsworth's separate and joint contributions to attachment theory but also touches on other theorists and researchers whose work influenced them or was influenced by them. The article then highlights some of the major new fronts along which attachment theory is currently advancing. The article ends with some speculations on the future potential of the theory.
The purpose of this study was to determine if dogs that were treated ‘like a person’ or that had not been obedience trained were more likely to exhibit owner-reported behavior problems than dogs not treated in those ways. A questionnaire, comprising 75 items, was available in the waiting room of the Veterinary Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania throughout 1981. Responses to 11 questions answered by 711 different respondents, each from a different household, were analyzed. Nine questions related to treating the dog ‘like a person’ (either spoiling the dog or viewing it anthropomorphically), and the other two asked whether or not the dog had had formal obedience training and whether or not the dog had engaged in a behavior that the owner considered a problem. Results of a series of chi-square analyses failed to reveal that problem behaviors were related to obedience training, ‘spoiling’, or anthropomorphic activities. Further, a discriminant analysis was unable to identify any variable (item), including obedience training, ‘spoiling’ activities, or anthropomorphic attitudes, that distinguished between dogs engaging and not engaging in problem behaviors. Eight variables were then factor analyzed, resulting in four factors which counted for 71.15% of the variance. The factors, which pertained to owners sharing food with their dog, taking the dog along on trips or errands, dog comfort or resting places, and anthropomorphic attitudes, were analyzed along with the obedience training and behavior problem variables in an ANOVA. The results showed that dogs whose owners interacted with them in an anthropomorphic manner, ‘spoiled’ them in certain ways, or did not provide obedience training were no more likely to engage in behaviors considered a problem by the owner than were dogs not viewed anthropomorphically, ‘spoiled’ by their owner, or given obedience training.
The wide consensus in research with regard to the modernity of keeping companion animals lies behind the prevailing conclusions about attitudes toward the canine species in pre-modern societies. These were reviewed mainly from a utilitarian perspective. Characterized, in part, by the protective shelter of the extended household and, as such, free of the tensions affecting the nuclear family in industrial cities, pre-modern societies supposedly lacked in the emotional stress and indigence that condition or encourage dog keeping. A careful examination of the sources, both narrative and pictorial, however, suggests more ambivalent attitudes thus challenging widespread research premises and justifying further analysis. This study, covering rural and urban societies in the ancient and medieval periods, examines references to dogs as companion animals in traditional societies.
This article examines whether the human-companion animal relation, and in particular attachment, can be explained and understood with the help of attachment theory and the “internal working model.” The (perceived) social support and responsivity of the human-animal bond and how these relate to the attachment theory are also discussed. The research, however, found only weak relationships between owning a companion animal and attachment. Other factors that could influence the attachment of owners toward their animals are discussed.
The first section, "Overview of Attachment Theory," provides an updated primer on the theory. The second section of the volume, "Biological Perspectives," stems from J. Bowlby's reliance on ethology and primate research in the creation of attachment theory. The third section of the volume, "Attachment in Infancy and Childhood," contains 3 chapters that provide an overview of empirical research on patterns of attachment in infancy and childhood. The fourth section, "Attachment in Adolescence and Adulthood," contains chapters growing out of Bowlby's early contention that attachment characterizes humans "from the cradle to the grave." The fifth section of the volume, "Clinical Applications of Attachment Theory and Research," contains chapters that reflect the strong roots of attachment theory in clinical psychology and psychiatry, and the contributions that the theory and associated research can now make to clinical work. The final section of the volume,"Emerging Topics and Perspectives," provides a sampling of the wide array of areas into which attachment theory and research are being extended. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In observations of African babies 13 patterns of attachment behavior toward the mother as a special person were catalogued. The baby is active and takes initiative in forming attachments. Attachment can be maintained through a middle distance through distance receptors. Babies become attached to others than the mother, people who merely play and interact with them. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Various studies have established the importance of olfactory cues in the relational systems between conspecifics by the canids and humans. The study of the behaviour of dogs towards children with clothes impregnated with body odours has led to the definition of different functions of olfaction in interspecific relational systems. An experimental situation in kennels details the behaviour of dogs in response to different combinations of visual and olfactory stimulations reproduced with a realistic child dummy. The discussion of the results deals with the contingent socio-cognitive abilities of pet dogs and their relational strategies based on the integration of different sensory modalities present in the ‘social’ stimulations.
Centuries of domestication of animals by civilised man have had many measurable effects on the various species involved, but only in relatively recent history has scientific curiosity been directed to assessing their extent. The process of domestication is analysed and its known effects on animals reviewed through observations of and experiments with various species of domesticated animals conducted by researchers into animal psychology and biology. The known facts on the effects of domestication in animals are extrapolated in an attempt to determine to what extent modern man himself has been domesticated in the urban environment.
Attachment theory is extended to pertain to developmental changes in the nature of children's attachments to parents and surrogate figures during the years beyond infancy, and to the nature of other affectional bonds throughout the life cycle. Various types of affectional bonds are examined in terms of the behavioral systems characteristic of each and the ways in which these systems interact. Specifically, the following are discussed: (a) the caregiving system that underlies parents' bonds to their children, and a comparison of these bonds with children's attachments to their parents; (b) sexual pair-bonds and their basic components entailing the reproductive, attachment, and caregiving systems; (c) friendships both in childhood and adulthood, the behavioral systems underlying them, and under what circumstances they may become enduring bonds; and (d) kinship bonds (other than those linking parents and their children) and why they may be especially enduring.
Cat and dog owners appear to be equally attached to their pets, engage in similar behaviors, and hold similar opinions regarding their pets. The universality and strength of this attachment may be because household pets fit into the biological attachment system that exists to bond parents and children. Additionally, pets may convey a feeling of security or a sense of well-being that is rooted in our evolutionary past.
3 theoretical approaches to the origin and development of the infant-mother relationship are reviewed: psychoanalytic theories of object relations, social learning theories of dependency (and attachment), and an ethologically oriented theory of attachment. "Object relations," "dependency," and "attachment," although overlapping, are seen to differ substantially. Among the concepts in regard to which there are significant intertheoretical differences, the following are discussed: genetic "biases," reinforcement as compared with activation and termination of behavioral systems and with feedback, strength of attachment behavior versus strength of attachment, inner representation of the object, intraorganismic and environmental conditions of behavioral activation, and the role of intraorganismic organization and structure. Finally, the relation between theory and research methods is considered.
The concepts of attachment and attachment behavior are considered from an ethological-evolutionary viewpoint. Attachment behavior and exploration are viewed in balance, and the biological functions of each are discussed. As an illustration of these concepts, a study is reported of 56 white, middle-class infants, 49-51 weeks of age, in a strange situation. The presence of the mother was found to encourage exploratory behavior, her absence to depress exploration and to heighten attachment behaviors. In separation episodes such behaviors as crying and search increased. In reunion episodes proximity-seeking and contact-maintaining behaviors were heightened. In a substantial proportion of Ss, contact-resisting behaviors were also heightened in the reunion episodes, usually in conjunction with contact-maintaining behaviors, thus suggesting ambivalence. Some Ss also displayed proximity-avoiding behavior in relation to the mother in the reunion episodes. These findings are discussed in the context of relevant observational, clinical, and experimental studies of human and nonhuman primates, including studies of mother-child separation. In conclusion, it is urged that the concepts of attachment and attachment behavior be kept broad enough to comprehend the spectrum of the findings of this range of studies.
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Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation
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