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Fast Food Restaurant Lighting and Music can Reduce Calorie Intake and Increase Satisfaction

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Abstract

Recent research shows that environmental cues such as lighting and music strongly bias the eating behavior of diners in laboratory situations. This study examines whether changing the atmosphere of a fast food restaurant would change how much patrons ate. The results indicated that softening the lighting and music led people to eat less, to rate the food as more enjoyable, and to spend just as much. In contrast to hypothesized U-shaped curves (people who spend longer eat more), this suggests a more relaxed environment increases satisfaction and decreases consumption.

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... It's a well-known saying that a man eats the food with his eyes first and then with his mouth, but to eat with his eyes it's important to have a proper lighting that not only provides the visibility to the guest but also enhances the art of plated food. Lighting has a psychological impact on consumption of food because they directly or indirectly influence eating duration (Brian Wansink, 2012). Food consumed in fast food restaurant is always associated with bright light, bright colors, loud music and loud noise (Brian Wansink, 2012). ...
... Lighting has a psychological impact on consumption of food because they directly or indirectly influence eating duration (Brian Wansink, 2012). Food consumed in fast food restaurant is always associated with bright light, bright colors, loud music and loud noise (Brian Wansink, 2012). Whereas lightings in fine dining restaurant is generally dim and yellow in color as yellow color enhances the food and make it look visually appealing. ...
... That is one of the reasons why fine dining restaurants use indirect lighting in their dining areas. Direct light may cast shadow on meals making them to look unattractive (Brian Wansink, 2012). (Payne, 2008) observed that bright and harsh light may decrease the eating period of a guest in any restaurant, whereas a dim and soft light increases the eating period and also increases the appetite of the guest. ...
... It's a well-known saying that a man eats the food with his eyes first and then with his mouth, but to eat with his eyes it's important to have a proper lighting that not only provides the visibility to the guest but also enhances the art of plated food. Lighting has a psychological impact on consumption of food because they directly or indirectly influence eating duration (Brian Wansink, 2012). Food consumed in fast food restaurant is always associated with bright light, bright colors, loud music and loud noise (Brian Wansink, 2012). ...
... Lighting has a psychological impact on consumption of food because they directly or indirectly influence eating duration (Brian Wansink, 2012). Food consumed in fast food restaurant is always associated with bright light, bright colors, loud music and loud noise (Brian Wansink, 2012). Whereas lightings in fine dining restaurant is generally dim and yellow in color as yellow color enhances the food and make it look visually appealing. ...
... That is one of the reasons why fine dining restaurants use indirect lighting in their dining areas. Direct light may cast shadow on meals making them to look unattractive (Brian Wansink, 2012). (Payne, 2008) observed that bright and harsh light may decrease the eating period of a guest in any restaurant, whereas a dim and soft light increases the eating period and also increases the appetite of the guest. ...
... Among the environmental factors that influence food consumption, visual cues such as color and texture are considered to be the most critical determinants of food perception and choice [1] [2] .Some evidence suggests that light sources alter the appearance of food color, thereby altering human visual evaluations.Jost-Boissard (2009) found that fruits and vegetables tend to be more appealing when their colors are highly saturated [3] .In addition, The study examined how the appearance of red, green, and yellow bell peppers is influenced by different light sources, namely incandescent (INC), fluorescent (FL), and metal halide (MH).The results showed that the color of green peppers was more acceptable under incandescent light than under halogen lamps [4] . Wansink (2012) Lighting affects consumer eating behavior [5] .Lighting conditions also affect human subjective perception and physiological rhythms [6] [7][8] [9] .Illumination level is one of the most critical parameters of lighting and some evidence suggests that it has an impact on the sensory aspects of food. Gregson (1967) Illumination has an effect on perceived sour flavor intensity [10] . ...
... Among the environmental factors that influence food consumption, visual cues such as color and texture are considered to be the most critical determinants of food perception and choice [1] [2] .Some evidence suggests that light sources alter the appearance of food color, thereby altering human visual evaluations.Jost-Boissard (2009) found that fruits and vegetables tend to be more appealing when their colors are highly saturated [3] .In addition, The study examined how the appearance of red, green, and yellow bell peppers is influenced by different light sources, namely incandescent (INC), fluorescent (FL), and metal halide (MH).The results showed that the color of green peppers was more acceptable under incandescent light than under halogen lamps [4] . Wansink (2012) Lighting affects consumer eating behavior [5] .Lighting conditions also affect human subjective perception and physiological rhythms [6] [7][8] [9] .Illumination level is one of the most critical parameters of lighting and some evidence suggests that it has an impact on the sensory aspects of food. Gregson (1967) Illumination has an effect on perceived sour flavor intensity [10] . ...
... Light has primarily been studied in the context of work environments and received less attention within consumer behavior research [1,21,22]. However, overall lighting in a retail setting can have a substantial impact on store image [23,24], perceived atmosphere [22,25], store evaluations [26], the number of products examined by customers [27], and food choice in restaurants [1]. For example, consumers evaluated a store with bright and cool lighting Sustainability 2022, 14, 5495 3 of 25 as more pleasant and lively than that same store with soft and warm lighting [26]. ...
... On the other hand, when the store had soft and warm lighting, it was perceived as more upmarket than when it had bright and cool lighting. Moreover, brightness can decrease perceived coziness and increase perceived tenseness of a store environment [25], which is in line with the observation that fast-food restaurants focusing on quick and efficient eating tend to have bright lights, whereas fine-dining restaurants are more likely to have dim lights [24]. ...
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Ambient light is inherent in the store environment, making research on the interaction effects between light and other atmospheric cues crucial to understanding how the store environment can affect consumers. This study extends existing research on multisensory congruity effects between atmospheric cues by examining whether multiple sensory associations (i.e., warmth and brightness) of ambient cues (i.e., light and scent) must match to create positive effects on consumer evaluations and behavior or whether a match of only one sensory association is sufficient. Previous research operationalized multisensory congruity primarily via the match on one specific association; however, the results of our two studies show that matching ambient light and scent (compared to a mismatch between the stimuli or compared to only one ambient cue) only led to enhanced evaluations and approach behavior when these stimuli were matched on both their perceived association with a warm or cold temperature and with a dim or bright illuminance level. Our research supports the importance of perceiving the store environment holistically and suggests that the description and selection of an atmospheric cue to create positive congruity effects on consumer evaluations and behavior is quite complex.
... In the presence of high tempo songs, a higher intake of foods has been observed [41][42][43]. Tempo has also been related to the speed of food intake, which is relevant to the volume of food consumed [44]. For example, people are likely to drink faster when listening to fast-tempo music [45], and chewing intensity, namely, the number of bites, can also increase with higher tempo music [42]. ...
... For example, neither volume nor speed of music appeared to have an effect on food intake, consistent with the results of a prior study [12]. Previous studies which have reported significant effects of volume and speed of music on food intake were mainly conducted in a restaurant environment [33,[41][42][43]. In contrast, the studies included in our meta-analysis were conducted primarily in private locations or laboratories (see [11,12,37]). ...
Article
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Food intake has been shown to be related to several environmental factors including the presence of music. However, previous findings of the relationship between music and food intake are inconsistent. In the present study, a systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted to quantitatively review the extent to which music is associated with food intake as well as to investigate potential moderators that might have contributed to the heterogeneity of the existing findings. Literature was searched on four databases (i.e., PsycINFO, Web of Science, PubMed, and ProQuest Dissertations and Theses) and Google Scholar. Nine articles published from 1989 to 2020 met our inclusion criteria. A meta-analysis was carried out via a three-level random-effects model. The overall effect size (i.e., Hedges’ g) was 0.19 (95% Confidence Interval: −0.003, 0.386; SE = 0.10, t = 1.99, p = 0.054), indicating a marginally significant but small effect size. Body Mass Index (F(1, 21) = 5.11, p = 0.035) was found to significantly contribute to the heterogeneity of effect sizes, with larger positive effects of music on food intake for individuals with higher BMI. However, music-related features did not significantly moderate the relationship between music and food intake. More experimental studies are needed to update the current meta-analysis and get a better understanding of this topic.
... Ambient lighting has been shown to alter both food choice and consumption in different contexts (Biswas et al., 2017;Kasof, 2002;Scheibehenne et al., 2010;Wansink & van Ittersum, 2012). Some previous studies have found that dim/dark environments led to individuals eating more (Kasof, 2002;Scheibehenne et al., 2010) and choosing more unhealthy, calorie dense items (Biswas et al., 2017). ...
... Because humans have evolved a circadian rhythm that is heavily influenced by light conditions, both natural and artificial (Cajochen et al., 2000;Smolders & de Kort, 2014), it comes as no surprise that lighting has great impacts on human behavior, cognition, and emotion (de Kort & Veitch, 2014). More specifically, ambient lighting has been shown to influence consumer behavior (Areni & Kim, 1994;Summers & Hebert, 2001;Wansink & van Ittersum, 2012), dishonesty and self-interested behavior (Bo-Zhong et al., 2010), communication behavior (Gifford, 1988), physiological arousal and alertness (Badia et al., 1991;Rüger et al., 2006), cognitive task performance (Baron et al., 1992;Boyce et al., 1997;Huiberts et al., 2015), and emotional responses (Grillon et al., 1997(Grillon et al., , 1999Mühlberger et al., 2008;Veenstra & Koole, 2018). These findings suggest ambient lighting is particularly relevant to the human motivational systems and their evolved, automatic influences on cognition, emotion, and behavior. ...
Article
Full-text available
Ambient lighting has been identified as a motivationally relevant context that affects cognition, emotion, and behavior, including food consumption and choice. This study adds to this body of work utilizing optimal foraging theory, which predicts individuals will prefer foods that deliver the most energy while costing the least energy to obtain. The environmental contexts in which one will have to forage alter perceived energy expenditure. An experiment was performed in which young adults viewed food advertisements that varied in energy density level in either dim or bright contexts. Metrics assessing motivational activation and attitudes were obtained across and post exposure. Individuals exhibited greater motivational intensity and preference when exposed to more energy dense foods in light contexts, but preference dissipated in dark contexts. Less energy dense foods elicited more motivational preference in dark contexts compared to light. Self-reported attitudes and intentions were only affected by context. Thus, variations in lighting may have larger implications for food choice and overall health.
... Background music has been found to be an effective cue in accessing the physical environment of restaurants which further predicts restaurant patrons' quality evaluation and behaviors (Caldwell & Hibbert, 2002;Milliman, 1986;North et al., 2003;Wilson, 2003). Music played in restaurants has been found to extend the dining time (Wansink & Van Ittersum, 2012), increase food consumption and spending (North et al., 2003;Stroebele & Castro, 2006), and encourage the purchase of higherpriced items (Areni & Kim, 1993). Wilson (2003) found that playing different types of music in a restaurant resulted in different perceptions of the restaurant's atmosphere. ...
... First, the congruency between ethnic music and the restaurant theme had a more significant effect on perceived authenticity than the enjoyment of music itself. Previous studies have identified the important roles music play on customers' dining behaviors, such as extending the dining time and increasing food and beverage consumptions (Caldwell & Hibbert, 2002;Milliman, 1986;North et al., 2003;Stroebele & Castro, 2006;Wansink & Van Ittersum, 2012;Wilson, 2003). However, no research had been conducted to examine whether H. Wen, et al. ...
Article
Given the growing interest among restaurateurs in using atmospherics to enhance customers' dining experiences, this study sought to examine the impact of background music on customers’ perceptions of ethnic restaurants by applying the cue utilization and consumer socialization theories. A total of 346 valid responses were collected through an online survey sampling website. PLS-SEM was employed to validate the proposed model. Multigroup analysis was conducted to compare customers with different companions, either family or friends. The results indicated that the congruency between ethnic music and restaurant theme showed a more significant effect on perceived authenticity than the enjoyment of music itself. Perceived authenticity had a significant impact on both satisfaction and behavioral intention. The effect of music enjoyment on perceived authenticity was significantly higher for customers who dine out with families, while the effect of music congruency on perceived authenticity was significantly higher for customers who dine out with friends.
... Dim or dark ambient lighting, as compared to bright ambient lighting, can encourage individuals to enjoy an unplanned dessert or drink (Wansink 2004) and can result in a preference for unhealthy food options (Biswas et al. 2017). Dim, as opposed to bright, lighting also increases consumption volume (Scheibehenne et al. 2010;Wansink and Van Ittersum 2012). As there is evidence of dim lighting influencing consumer behavior, we extend this to the gambling environment and propose that ambient lighting will influence gambling-related behavior. ...
... We assess the direct relationship between ambient lighting (X) on game play duration and total spend (Y) in study 1. With commercial research suggesting that ambient lighting can influence consumer behavior, including making negative choices, increasing consumption volume, and staying longer in a restaurant (e.g., Wansink 2004;Wansink and Van Ittersum 2012), we introduce and propose dim ambient lighting as a factor that increases game play duration and total spend. Alternatively, we introduce and propose bright ambient lighting as a sensory factor that can decrease game play duration and total spend. ...
Article
Full-text available
It has been suggested that much like commercial environments (e.g., retailing), the situational characteristics of gambling environments form an important determinant of gambling behavior. However, no research has examined whether ambient lighting in gaming venues can have unintended consequences in terms of gambling behavior. The results of three experimental laboratory studies show that game play duration and total spend increase when ambient lighting is dim (vs. bright). Process evidence suggests that this phenomenon occurs as ambient lighting influences risk-taking, which in turn increases game play duration and total spend. Further, evidence is provided that the effect of dim (vs. bright) ambient lighting reduces risk-taking and subsequent game play duration and total spend when an individual’s self-awareness is facilitated (i.e., screening between gaming machines is removed). This research has implications in terms of public policy regarding the determination of minimum lighting levels in venues as a means to decrease gambling-related harm. Moreover, while gaming venues can use these insights and their ambient lighting switches to nudge individuals toward reducing their game play duration and total spend, gambling-afflicted consumers can opt for gambling venues with bright ambient lighting and those without screened gaming machines.
... Early research by Ross (1974) people consumed more cashew nuts when presented on a highly lit (40watt lamp) table compared to a dimly lit (7.5-watt lamp) table. Wansink and van Ittersum (2012) examined whether changing the atmosphere of a fast food restaurant could affect food consumption. One area of a fast food restaurant remained unchanged (bright lights, loud music) and the other area was converted into a fine dining room (indirect lighting, soft jazz music). ...
... Most studies either used an experimental laboratory setting, e.g. using sensory lab booths (Gregson, 1964;Katsuura et al., 2005;Rebollar et al., 2017;Wilson & Gregson, 1967) or real life settings such as bars or restaurants where lighting is only one among other influencing variables (Wansink & van Ittersum, 2012). While many experimental studies could really show the effect of illuminance level on taste perception, they were conducted in controlled laboratory settings, which raises the question of its generalizability in the real world. ...
Article
Many ambient variables appear to impact amount and duration of food intake as well as taste perception. Two studies were conducted to determine whether changing light intensity has an impact on meal duration and volume as well as sensory and qualitative aspects of tomato soup in an experimental setting. Using a randomized crossover design in study 1, 66 participants were served tomato soup twice, under dimmed and bright light. In study 2, 159 participants were assigned to one of four randomization groups. A 2 × 2 design as a group setting was chosen adding a tablecloth as another ambient component. In both studies, participants assessed the soups’ appearance, sensory attributes, and the overall taste, quality and consistency on 100 mm visual analog scales. Meal duration and amount were also assessed. In study 1, there were no significant differences in amount, duration and sensory attributes between lighting conditions, except for the saltiness of the soup which was perceived as saltier under the low light condition (p = 0.019). In study 2, participants ate more, longer and rated sensory attributes and quality higher when seated with tablecloth. The longest duration, highest amount and quality were observed in the dimmed light condition with tablecloth. The tablecloth seemed to have a higher impact on food amount, meal duration and overall taste perception than lighting condition. The results suggest that single ambience factors such as lighting might only play a role in food intake and perception in combination with other ambient factors, such as decorative aspects.
... For example, exploring which specific shades of blue are most effective, or combining blue decor with other sensory modifications, such as lighting and music, could yield even more powerful results. Additionally, longitudinal studies could help determine the long-term effectiveness of blue environments in changing eating habits over time [5]. ...
Article
Full-text available
This essay will analyze the effect of using the color blue to influence appetite and address the rising obesity epidemic. By researching the psychological impacts of color on eating behaviors, it highlights how blue environments can suppress appetite and encourage mindful eating. Historical context shows colors have long influenced moods, with blue promoting relaxation and red stimulating hunger. Research, including studies by Charles Spence and Brian Wansink, indicates that blue, being rare in natural foods, can reduce food consumption. This could be due to evolutionary conditioning and its calming effects. Practical applications in schools, cafeterias, and homes can leverage blue decor to discourage overeating and support healthier eating habits. Although cultural perceptions of color may vary, the current evidence positions blue as a viable, cost-effective tool in public health strategies to combat obesity. Future research should focus on longitudinal studies to better understand the long-term effects of blue environments on eating habits and their potential role in comprehensive weight management programs.
... Notably, it has been reported that ambient light luminance affects the amount of food consumed by humans (Wansink and van Ittersum, 2012). For example, the consumption volume is higher when participants eat in the absence of light than in the presence of light (Scheibehenne et al., 2010). ...
Article
Light plays an essential role in a variety of physiological processes, including vision, mood, and glucose homeostasis. However, the intricate relationship between light and an animal's feeding behavior has remained elusive. Here, we found that light exposure suppresses food intake, whereas darkness amplifies it in male mice. Interestingly, this phenomenon extends its reach to diurnal male Nile grass rats and healthy humans. We further show that lateral habenula (LHb) neurons in mice respond to light exposure, which in turn activates 5-HT neurons in the dorsal Raphe nucleus (DRN). Activation of the LHb → 5-HT DRN circuit in mice blunts darkness-induced hyperphagia, while inhibition of the circuit prevents light-induced anorexia. Together, we discovered a light responsive neural circuit that relays the environmental light signals to regulate feeding behavior in mice. Significance statement Feeding behavior is influenced by a myriad of sensory inputs, but the impact of light exposure on feeding regulation has remained enigmatic. Here, we showed that light exposure diminishes food intake across both nocturnal and diurnal species. Delving deeper, our findings revealed that the LHb → 5-HT DRN neural circuit plays a pivotal role in mediating light-induced anorexia in mice. These discoveries not only enhance our comprehension of the intricate neuronal mechanisms governing feeding in response to light but also offer insights for developing innovative strategies to address obesity and eating disorders.
... Research shows adjustments to non-uniform lighting support more intimate and home-like atmospheres, can affect the feeling of a place, and can enable acclimation, such as encouraging lower voices and reducing stress in delivery rooms [4]. Similar relationships between the effects of different lighting distributions and behaviours have been observed in other public settings, such as schools [5], workspaces [6] and restaurants [7]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Light has the powerful capacity to generate a certain quality and atmosphere within a room. However, lighting design specification is often only characterized via quantitative metrics. In healthcare institutions, such as care homes, hospitals and rehabilitation centres, the use of lighting design may support a positive atmosphere, and potentially also support the health and wellbeing of patients. When people are hospitalised, they are in a difficult and often stressful situation, in which they meet nurses, physicians and relatives within new, unfamiliar surroundings. These situations call for supportive architectural spaces with atmospheres that help people relax and feel safe. Nevertheless, these spaces often lack a lighting design that supports this intent. The objective of this study is to implement two different lighting scenarios and investigate how they affect patients in a psychiatric affective healthcare unit at Copenhagen Psychiatric Centre. Two different lighting scenarios were implemented and tested in a SW-facing group therapy room, during one winter period (November 2022–March 2023). In all, the study included 12 patients. Through questionnaires, the patients were asked how they perceived the luminous environments of two lighting scenarios, one in the existing healthcare lighting vs. a new lighting setup. The patients indicated their preferences and how the lighting design affected and supported heir therapeutic session. The two lighting scenarios are: a) Four high-positioned LED-luminaires (H=2,65 m) in the ceiling; and b) Two low-positioned LED-luminaires suspended above the meeting table (H=1,50 m). The results of the survey showed that patients overall preferred the low-positioned, non-uniform lighting, which scored a total of 60 points in the semantic analysis, compared to 35 points for the high-positioned, uniform lighting. In addition, from a sustainability viewpoint, energy consumption for the low-positioned lighting scenario was only 21 W, compared to 140 W for the high-positioned lighting scenario, providing an 85% reduction in total energy consumption.
... Similar findings have been identified in a research investigation by Bilgili et al. [25] that warm lighting in restaurants improved patrons' satisfaction and length of stay. According to Wansink and van Ittersum [26], when the illumination and music were softer, people consumed less food, gave it higher ratings, and spent the same amount of money. ...
... Similar findings have been identified in a research investigation by Bilgili et al. [25] that warm lighting in restaurants improved patrons' satisfaction and length of stay. According to Wansink and van Ittersum [26], when the illumination and music were softer, people consumed less food, gave it higher ratings, and spent the same amount of money. ...
Article
Full-text available
The purpose of this research study was to examine how lighting conditions impact the perceived spatial quality, comfort, collaboration, motivation, distraction, and fatigue in a classroom studio. A survey was conducted with 124 students, and their responses were analyzed based on the overall spaciousness of the studio, the amount of natural light, and the brightness level. The results indicated that most respondents felt the studio was somewhat spacious in daylight with high colour temperatures, but cramped in low temperatures. Additionally, the majority of respondents preferred a very bright level of illumination. In terms of comfort and collaboration, students generally felt somewhat comfortable and collaborative, especially in the high colour temperature condition. The majority of respondents rarely felt distracted by external factors, particularly in the high colour temperature conditions. As for motivation and efficiency, most students felt somewhat motivated and efficient with high-colour temperature lighting, while the lowest number of respondents felt very motivated and efficient in the low colour temperature condition. Furthermore, the highest number of respondents reported feeling rarely fatigued in the high colour temperature condition. The findings suggest that lighting conditions significantly affect students' perceived comfort, collaboration, motivation, distraction, and fatigue. Therefore, educators and designers should take lighting conditions into consideration when creating a conducive and comfortable learning environment.
... Han and Zhong (2009) found that elements of the physical environment that help to build atmosphere, such as décor, spatial layout, and ambient conditions, contribute significantly to satisfaction. Other elements of atmosphere, such as lighting and music, have also been linked to satisfaction (Wansink & Van Ittersum, 2012). We found that Product Quality is also a strong predictor of satisfaction, which agrees with the previous literature (Megahed & Abbas, 2021;Namin, 2017;Namkung & Jang, 2007;Yüksel & Yüksel, 2003;Zhong & Moon, 2020). ...
Article
Although food trucks have attracted significant attention among the dining public, little is known in the academic literature about what drives consumer satisfaction with them. Employing a grounded theory methodology, we analyzed a large set of Yelp reviews to determine whether the antecedents of satisfaction with food trucks differ from those associated with quick-service restaurants. We found that for most attributes, positive experiences at food trucks have smaller upward effects on satisfaction than they do for quick service restaurants, whereas negative experiences have larger downward effects. We further found that comments about anticipation appear far more frequently in food truck reviews, suggesting that the downward effect of negative experiences may be attributable to expectations. This has implications for theory in that it suggests some modifications to conventional instruments for measuring satisfaction. It also has implications for management practice, in that it suggests best practices with regard to managing expectations of food trucks.
... In other aspects, a higher level of noise might distract people from having a fine dining experience and could interrupt their senses of smell and taste. For instance, different diners' acceptance on music and background noise have an impact on their food and beverage perceptions and consumption, and loud music can impair food and beverage taste and consumption (Guéguen and Jacob, 2004;Musinguzi, 2010;Pellegrino et al., 2015;Reinoso Carvalho et al., 2015;Rindel, 2015;Spence, 2012;Spence and Piqueras-Fiszman, 2014;Wansink and van Ittersum, 2012;Zampini and Spence, 2010). ...
Article
Purpose This paper aims to investigate the diners’ preference and perception on six acoustic classifications in eatery places during their casual dining. These classifications’ relationship with diners’ experience and significant impacts on diners’ preferences and perceptions during casual dining will be analyzed. Design/methodology/approach The data was collected quantitatively with randomly distributed self-administrated questionnaires during the restaurants' operating hours; 449 respondents who dined in at two casual dining restaurants in Melaka city area participated. Findings Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) tests revealed that the majority of the diners were not adversely affected by the noise level, and they did not have difficulties with their conversations. The results also indicated that the respondents felt that the noise did not stop them from returning to the restaurants. This study's findings may lay the groundwork for future studies to provide the acoustic comfort classification in eatery places, which can also be integrated and synthesized to be used as a reference for acoustic design and practice. Research limitations/implications The number of participants used simple random sampling method. Therefore, the sample cannot be typical for the target population, and there is a limited possibility of generalizing the present findings. The data collection was only gathered from two eatery places with similar typologies at the similar demographic background of customers because it was collected at Melaka city. Thus, the impacts of customers may differ at other typologies and locate in different regions, and the physical environment and the quality offered are also different in other places. The measured determinant factors only focus on the diners’ characteristics; thus, future research should be done to investigate other determinant factors impacting the preference and perceived acoustical comfort in eatery places. Practical implications The findings in this study would provide a basis reference to assess and evaluate the acoustic classification in eatery places that suits the customers’ perceived satisfaction. Social implications This study identified that demographic characteristic, gender and age are not the prominent determinant factors influencing the diners’ preference and perceived acoustical comfort in eatery places. Moreover, the days and dining hours were also found to be the determinants that will influence the preferences. Originality/value This paper has developed determining factors on acoustics classification that can be applied upon designing eatery places as well as a fundamental approach in developing rating for acoustics comfort index as reference for the diners to choose where to dine based on their preference and activities.
... Measured in lumens per square meter (i.e., lux; Thimijan and Heins, 1983), luminescence has been shown to influence food preferences, perceptions, and consumption (Bschaden et al., 2020;Biswas et al., 2017;Xu and Labroo, 2014). Research has identified that inhibiting one's vision influences the quantity of food consumed and the amount spent on a dining experience (Wansink and van Ittersum, 2012). Scheibehenne et al. (2010) found that providing consumers with larger portions in a dark room led them to consume approximately 36% more food relative to participants with standard portions. ...
Article
Atmospheric factors within a retail environment provide efficient and effective methods for influencing customer behavior. Drawing on the concept of sensory compensation, this research investigates how ambient lighting influences taste perceptions. Three studies demonstrate that dim lighting enhances taste perceptions. The results of Studies 1a and 1b provide support that low lighting positively influences consumers' perceived taste of single taste dimension foods (e.g., sweet). Study 2 shows the number of taste dimensions (e.g., sweet vs. sweet and salty) stimulated serves as a boundary condition, attenuating the significant effect of dim lighting on taste perceptions.
... Maintaining fitness and a healthy diet has become a growing concern because numerous nutrition experts have suggested that people maintain an appropriate level of daily caloric intake. However, most people lose track of the quantity of food they consume because of distractions engendered by digital devices such as smartphones, computers, and TVs [1,2]; and several environmental factors such as lighting, sound, and music [3,4] as well as tableware and utensil sizes [4][5][6]. In particular, tableware and utensils play a major role in food consumption. ...
Article
In this study, we examined the influence of chopstick length on diners’ food consumption in a Chinese box restaurant. Diners were randomly offered chopstick of two lengths (23 and 19 cm), and after they finished eating, their lunch boxes were weighed to measure the actual quantity of food consumed in a real dining environment. The results indicated that diners who used the long chopsticks consumed a lower quantity of food and had fewer mouthfuls than did those who used the short chopsticks, suggesting that long chopsticks can help control the quantityof food consumed without affecting diners’ satisfaction with the dining experience. Our findings and those of previous research prove that bite size is the main factor mediating the relationship between a utensil’s physical characteristics and people’s food consumption.
... Han and Zhong (2009) found that elements of the physical environment that help to build atmosphere, such as décor, spatial layout, and ambient conditions, contribute significantly to satisfaction. Other elements of atmosphere, such as lighting and music, have also been linked to satisfaction (Wansink & Van Ittersum, 2012). We found that Product Quality is also a strong predictor of satisfaction, which agrees with the previous literature (Megahed & Abbas, 2021;Namin, 2017;Namkung & Jang, 2007;Yüksel & Yüksel, 2003;Zhong & Moon, 2020). ...
Article
Online travel agencies (OTAs) allow lodging businesses to select one cover photograph to represent itself on the OTA site. The cover photograph plays a crucial role for attracting customers’ attention from among alternatives, and lure viewers to view the webpage with detailed information. The present study investigates how the content of a business’ cover photograph on OTAs’ sites influences customers’ behavior when searching for information. The content of a cover photograph may fall within five categories according to attributes: façade, type of place, room amenities, scenery, and property amenities. Only façade and property amenities have positive impacts on customers’ viewing times of the webpages with the detailed information of businesses. In contrast, scenery has a negative influence on customers’ viewing times. The results of the study contribute, theoretically and methodologically, to OTAs’ knowledge base and can assist practitioners’ identification of effective cover photographs.
... 3 It has become apparent that to be recognized as a good catering business or restaurant, it is important to choose the appropriate temperature and lighting to display the product to its best advantage. Numerous studies have shown that environmental factors influence consumers' experience and perceptions, such as the lighting, 4 ambient illumination, 5 fragrance, 6,7 music 8,9 flooring, 10 and ceiling height. 11,12 Color can affect brain perception and change a person's appetite. ...
Article
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Appetites are strongly affected by the color of the food and it has been found that different colors can affect the brain reflexes that impact the appetite. In this study, event‐related potential was used as a measurement tool to detect brain wave responses to assess foods under different colors of light, and to compare the appetite performance of participants. The food samples were captured under incandescent lights and colored lights (red and green lights under 5200 K). The incandescent lights were divided into the differential color temperature (2700, 4000, 6500 and 7500 K). Seventeen participants were invited to the experiment. The event‐related potential results showed that the warm incandescent light (4000 K) significantly increased appetite. Moreover, the red light enhances the late positive component amplitude and enhances the consumer's visual attraction and impression. The conclusions showed that the color of lighting can affect consumers' emotions, behaviors, psychology, and even appetite, and preliminary scientific evidence has been obtained from event‐related potential.
... According to Lobo and Antunes (2013), ambience is an important ingredient in creating relaxation by reducing stress and anxiety. Consequently, ambience enhances individuals' positive feelings (Slatten, Krogh & Connolley, 2009) which thereby improves and reinforces an enjoyable experience and sense of satisfaction (Wansink & van Ittersum, 2012), memory (Matsumoto & Stanny, 2006) and individuals' willingness to revisit and replicate their hotel experience (Marinkovic, Senic, Ivkov, Dimitrovski & Bjelic, 2014). The following comments support this argument: ...
... Moreover, music affects customers' willingness to spend more money and time in restaurants [93,97,[99][100][101][102]. Another portion of the study shows that customers' perceptions and consumption of food and drinks are also affected by music and background noise; loud music can harm the taste and consumption of food and drinks [9,78,[103][104][105][106][107][108][109][110]. Conversely, properties of food such as sweetness and saltiness were found to be unrelated to sound, while crunchiness was differently affected by background noise [111]. ...
Article
In the context of eatery places, it is important that people concentrate and focus on the smells and tastes of their food and drinks to ensure that they are satisfied with their meals, as this influences the positive behavior of the intent to return and can prompt them to recommend an eatery place to others later. A higher level of noise may distract people from having a fine dining experience and could interfere with their sense of smell and taste. Ultimately, long-term exposure to noise will affect not only a person’s health and well-being but also his or her social interactions, communication and preferences for acoustic comfort during the dining experience. This paper will discuss the critical literature reviews of the determining factors of this phenomenon in order to develop a conceptual framework by which to classify eatery place typologies and diners’ perceived acoustic comfort. The main goal of this paper is to clearly elucidate the different categorizations of eatery places and the determining factors that might have significant effects on human acoustic comfort. Therefore, the paper aims to develop a framework based on the determining factors of acoustic comfort classification in eatery places. This framework can be used by diners as a reference for selecting suitable eatery places based on their preferences.
... Müziğin türü de yemek yeme üzerinde farklı biçimde etkisini göstermektedir. Esasında her bir müzik türünün farklı yiyecek tüketim şekline yol açabileceği ifade edilmektedir (Wansink & Ittersum, 2012). ...
... Along with the results of the present study, we can point to Mc Elrea and Standing [32] research that increased the consumption of drinks with spicy music. This finding was also confirmed by other researchers [33][34][35][36]. ...
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Background and Study Aim. During exercise, the effects of music on the performance have been previously evaluated. However, the superiority of the type of music and during recovery is not yet clear. Therefore the aim of this study was to determine the impact of music with a spicy and light beat on changes in lactate levels, blood pressure, heart rate, and appetite during the recovery period after the endurance swimming. Material and Methods. Thirteen healthy young girls participate in three control and experimental sessions. The participants performed a swimming. Immediately after swimming, they listened to music. Also, evaluations before and after (several times) swimming were performed. Results. Five minutes after swimming there was also a significant difference between the non-sound group with the music groups (p
... The social characteristics of the customer, such as income, education, and occupation, and so on, also affect acoustic comfort [13]. Different types of restaurant may use different types of background music, which will also have a certain impact on sound comfort [14,15]. Of these music types, classical concerts encourage people to spend more [16]. ...
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While an increasing number of studies are examining the effect of the sound environment in restaurants, this study is the first to examine the effect of children on the sound environment of dining areas. We measured children's behaviour and the sound pressure level in a dining area and investigated acoustic comfort and sound source to ascertain the influence of the number of children, behaviour, and gender combinations while playing on the sound environment of a typical fast-food restaurant in Harbin City, China. The results demonstrate that, first, with fewer than four children, the sound pressure level (SPL) increases significantly when the number of children increases (e.g., by 2.8dBA per child). However, when the number of children exceeds four, the SPL is almost stabilised. Second, sound sources heard by people in the dining area can also be influenced by the number of children; the sound of communication among children increased by 12% and then decreased by 20% as the number of children increased. Finally, the number of children affects acoustic comfort by 2.2 (on a 5 point scale) due to the duration of the Max SPL, and by 1.0 due to the percentage of screaming and communicating. These results demonstrate that the sound environment can be improved by changing the number of children and their combination groups.
... The visual, olfactory, and tactile attributes of the atmosphere clearly also matter, and likely interact with the auditory soundscape in the taster's experience (see Spence, 2017b, for a recent review). Hence, researchers are now starting to assess how, for example, the visual attributes of the environment, combined with the auditory atmosphere, can influence a consumer's behaviour (e.g., Sester et al., 2013;Spence et al., 2014b, c;Wang and Spence, 2015b;Wansink and Van Ittersum, 2012). Researchers have also started to assess different ways to effectively present music as part of a food/drink product's identity. ...
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What we hear before and/or while we eat and drink often affects our tasting experiences. The focus of Auditory Contributions to Food Perception and Consume Behaviour is to provide a state-of-the-art summary on how such music and ambient inputs can influence our expectations, our purchasing behaviour, as well as our product experience. Much of the research collected together in this volume relates to 'sonic seasoning' This is where music/soundscapes are especially chosen, or else designed/composed, in order to correspond to, and hence hopefully to modify the associated taste/aroma/mouthfeel/flavour in food and beverages. The various chapters collected together in this volume provide a state-of-the-art summary of this intriguing and emerging field of research, as well as highlighting some of the key directions for future research.
... The visual, olfactory, and tactile attributes of the atmosphere clearly also matter, and likely interact with the auditory soundscape in the taster's experience (see Spence, 2017b, for a recent review). Hence, researchers are now starting to assess how, for example, the visual attributes of the environment, combined with the auditory atmosphere, can influence a consumer's behaviour (e.g., Sester et al., 2013;Spence et al., 2014b, c;Wang and Spence, 2015b;Wansink and Van Ittersum, 2012). Researchers have also started to assess different ways to effectively present music as part of a food/drink product's identity. ...
... Basic expectations associated with different types of food premises are underlying, often determinants that significantly influence customer expectation. For instance, fine dining restaurants equipped with dim lights and soft music are expected to be relaxing versus fast food joints (Wansink & van Ittersum, 2012). These assumptions are central to the foodservice culture and so ingrained that companies use different ambient properties (music, fragrance, temperature, and lighting) to create a restaurant concept based on consumers' hygiene expectation. ...
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Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to better understand the critical components of mobile viral marketing strategies. A conceptual model is proposed and empirically tested the grounded theory of social conditions, attitudinal conditions, personal conditions, consumption conditions and resource-based conditions influence consumers’ intention involve in eWOM via social media. Methodology: A questionnaire survey was administered to 150 DERMAGs consumers. Regression analysis was used to analyze the data and test the hypotheses that alliance intention to viral and the grounded theory attributes. Findings: The postulated relationships were found supported by the data. The research found that personal conditions, consumption-based condition and resource-based conditions were positively influenced customers to share experience after consuming to others. Practical Implication: This research presents a conceptually yet empirically supported framework to describe the relationship between three factors of grounded theory and sharing intention. The study is particularly useful for beauty companies to further their effort on brand awareness and increase the advertisement and promotion in order to alleviate the product recognition. Social Implication: This paper gives valuable reference to marketers of the beauty companies to engage in social media, increase the promotional strategies, focuses on the customer relationship and strengthen customers confident on the product by educating them. JEL Classification: M31
... Basic expectations associated with different types of food premises are underlying, often determinants that significantly influence customer expectation. For instance, fine dining restaurants equipped with dim lights and soft music are expected to be relaxing versus fast food joints (Wansink & van Ittersum, 2012). These assumptions are central to the foodservice culture and so ingrained that companies use different ambient properties (music, fragrance, temperature, and lighting) to create a restaurant concept based on consumers' hygiene expectation. ...
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Purpose: This paper explores the 21st-century emerging leadership competencies in a Malaysian higher learning institution. As the forces of change are transforming the leadership landscape, new leadership capabilities are required for the 21st-century evolving globalized environment. Hence, research is needed to determine the key emerging leadership competencies in the higher learning institutions. Findings: The significance of the results were the relevance of the leadership competency concept in the context of higher learning institution, future leaders need competencies for effective leadership, and the core competencies of academic leaders are necessary. Additionally, besides the discussion on the emerging leadership competencies of visioning and strategic thinking, leadership agility, adaptability and change, relationship and collaboration, the new findings from the field data were corporate leadership and cross-cultural competence. Research limitations/implications: This qualitative case study focused on one higher learning institution. At the same time the research also provided the in-depth context-rich information. Practical implications: The knowledge and adoption of the emerging leadership competencies concept would enhance the development of progressive leadership. Originality/value: There is limited study on the emerging leadership competencies in the higher learning institutions. Hence, there is value in this research. The findings were original contributions to knowledge. Also, this study showed the link between the expected attributes of institutional leadership to the dimensions of transformational leadership and the key emerging leadership competencies. JEL Classification: L290
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The fine dining experience is a multisensory journey where taste and ambience converge to create lasting impressions and define perceptions of luxury. This paper explores how these two critical elements shape consumer experiences in the fine dining industry, emphasizing their integration through sensory marketing. Taste, as the centerpiece of culinary craftsmanship, extends beyond mere flavor to incorporate texture, presentation, and storytelling, while ambience serves as the silent influencer, engaging sight, sound, and touch to heighten the emotional and sensory impact of the meal. The interplay of taste and ambience is examined through examples, such as Japanese omakase and farm-to-table dining, to illustrate the cohesive narratives that elevate the dining experience. The paper explores the psychology of sensory marketing, highlighting how the deliberate engagement of multiple senses enhances satisfaction, fosters emotional connections, and justifies premium pricing. By weaving these elements into a seamless experience, fine dining establishments create a compelling sensory journey that transcends the act of eating, leaving an indelible mark on consumers. This study underscores the importance of taste and ambience in defining excellence in fine dining and their role in crafting memorable, emotionally resonant experiences.
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Sensory marketing has garnered significant attention from researchers due to its ability to effectively influence consumer behavior at a subconscious level. However, existing reviews are constrained by either limited scope or methodology, often focusing on specific senses, or domains, or using solely quantitative or qualitative methods. This offers an opportunity to comprehensively synthesize the existing literature and provide direction for future research. Building on this, the present study examines 535 articles assembled, arranged, and assessed using the SPAR‐4‐SLR protocol for a thorough review of sensory marketing literature spanning four decades (1984–2023). The review employs both quantitative and qualitative methods to summarize the diverse research and provide detailed insights from the existing body of literature. The quantitative approach, utilizing keyword co‐occurrence analysis identifies five thematic clusters—sensory cues as communication strategy, sensory experiences in technologically advanced era, taste perception and food consumption, visual perception, and olfactory perception. Furthermore, the qualitative review technique, utilizing the Theory, Context, Characteristics, and Methodology (TCCM) framework reveals prevalent theories and primary research contexts, along with distinctive characteristics and methodologies. Based on these analyses suggestions for potential areas of future research have been stated.
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The study of neuroscience and its relation to motivation is a dynamic and rapidly evolving field, merging insights from psychology, biology, and neurology to understand how the brain influences motivation. Motivation, fundamentally, is the process that initiates, guides and sustains goal-directed behaviors. It encompasses the drives that propel humans to act, ranging from basic physiological needs to complex psychological aspirations. The studies in this chapter explore the intricate relationship between neuroscience and motivation, how neural mechanisms underpin motivational processes, and how this understanding can be applied to enhance motivation in various contexts, including education, and personal development. Motivation is traditionally divided into intrinsic and extrinsic categories. The neural substrates of these motivational types involve distinct but overlapping circuits in the brain. Key brain regions implicated in motivation include the prefrontal cortex and various neurotransmitter systems, notably dopamine (Simpson et al, 2022) and serotonin (Yagishita, 2020).
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Bireylerin besin alımı ve beslenme alışkanlıkları pek çok faktörden etkilenmektedir. Tüketilen besinin ısısının, kokusunun, renginin, ortamın ışığının veya ortamdaki seslerin de enerji alımı ve besin tercihine ilişkin davranışlar üzerinde etkili olabileceği belirtilmektedir. Müzik ise besin alımını etkileyen önemli faktörlerden biridir. Fonda yer alan farklı tür müziklerin varlığı bireyleri duygusal, fizyolojik ve davranışsal açıdan çeşitli yollarla etkilemekte, bireyin bilişsel fonksiyonunu, akademik performansını, zekâ ve duygu durumunu da destekleyebilmektedir. Ayrıca müziğin bireylerin besin satın alma ve iştah durumu ile tükettikleri besin miktarını da etkilediği bilinmektedir. Bireylere hitap eden müzik türünün bulunduğu bir ortamda porsiyon kontrolüne dikkat edilmemesinin vücut ağırlığı denetimini güçleştireceği bilinmektedir. Bu çalışmanın amacı müziğin türü, ses seviyesi ve bunun gibi müziğe dair faktörlerin bireylerin yeme davranışı ya da besin seçimi üzerine olan etkisini güncel literatür ışığında derlemektir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Besin seçimi, müzik, yeme davranışı
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We perceive color everywhere and on everything that we encounter in daily life. Color science has progressed to the point where a great deal is known about the mechanics, evolution, and development of color vision, but less is known about the relation between color vision and psychology. However, color psychology is now a burgeoning, exciting area and this Handbook provides comprehensive coverage of emerging theory and research. Top scholars in the field provide rigorous overviews of work on color categorization, color symbolism and association, color preference, reciprocal relations between color perception and psychological functioning, and variations and deficiencies in color perception. The Handbook of Color Psychology seeks to facilitate cross-fertilization among researchers, both within and across disciplines and areas of research, and is an essential resource for anyone interested in color psychology in both theoretical and applied areas of study.
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This paper studies how music affects restaurant customers' perceptions and choices when ordering. Music is a factor that affects the operation of the human brain. The human brain has a memory system that uses the amygdala to rate experiences as positive or negative and their capacity. These memories lead humans to reconsider each experience as repeatable or non-repeatable. When evoked under specific conditions resembling a past situation, certain feelings and emotions can dredge up memories and affect behaviours accordingly. Music is a factor that relates to specific experiences more often, providing the stimulation that the brain needs. The study explores the influence of music's tempo, genre, and loudness as part of the restaurant ambience as a stimulus that guides the perception based on memory, not reality. Music develops specific feelings and emotions based on one's previous experiences. Those feelings and emotions affect one's perception and can lead to a different decision than when the influence of music is absent. The research scrutinises the role of music in affecting the emotional environment and, thus, the customer's overall perception of their needs and desires. The alternation of their perception leads to decisions depending on the specific conditions. The study's outcome is that music can affect how we perceive a situation, leading us to a different behaviour regarding menu selection.
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Diabetes Mellitus is a metabolic disease that can cause serious damage to the human body if left untreated. High blood sugar level is among the symptoms of this disease, and nutrition therapy is very important in its treatment. On the other hand, breakfast is notable for being the first meal of the day and for containing high-sugar products in terms of nutritional content. Within the scope of the present research, a study was carried out using a semi-structured interview form in order to obtain information about the consumption trends of high sugar-containing and/or diabetic breakfast products in 19 diabetic patients and their situation of producing these products at home. In the study, it was observed that there were significant differences between the participants' tendencies to purchase, produce and consume these products regarding diabetic breakfast products. As a result, when homemade diabetic breakfast products were compared with industrial diabetic foods, it was seen that taste and consistency parameters became prominent. Rapid deterioration and maintaining these products' consistency, color and sweetness were among the difficulties encountered while preparing homemade diabetic breakfast products. It was determined that the participants used stevia, honey, molasses, dates, sweetener, carob, sugar alcohol and cinnamon as sugar substitutes, and pectin, dried nuts, dates and boiling process for thickening the product in making diabetic breakfast products at home. Websites and social media were the most common platforms where participants search for diabetic breakfast recipes. Besides, the participants also stated that diabetic product options were insufficient in out-of-home breakfast places.
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Background and Aim Music therapy is an established health profession where music is used to address cognitive, emotional, social, and physical needs of individuals. Stress is a reaction of an organism to stimulus that changes psychophysiological equilibrium with harmful consequences, by affecting the concentration of hormones related to homeostasis. The current study aimed to assess the possible effect of enhancing the quality of environment to alleviate stressful environmental conditions. Materials and methods A total of 45 adult male albino rats were chosen for this study. They were divided into five groups as follows: group 1, uncrowded control rats; group 2, rats exposed to crowding; group 3, rats exposed to crowding and listening to instrumental music; group 4, rats exposed to crowding and listening to soft songs; and group 5, rats exposed to crowding and listening to rallying songs. After 90 days, all rat groups were anesthetized, and a blood sample was collected for measurement of glucagon-like peptide 1 level, insulin level, and leptin level for these groups. Results Music had no significant ( P <0.05) effect on water and food consumption, but it had a significant ( P <0.01) effect on body weight in music listening groups in comparison with the control crowded group. Music listening can significantly ( P <0.01) increase the level of glucagon-like peptide 1 and leptin but significantly ( P <0.01) decrease the level of insulin in comparison with the control uncrowded group. Conclusions Music may alleviate stressful situations and improve the quality of life.
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Neurogastronomy is a new formation that includes many researches to provide a connection between gastronomy and neurology. The existence of biological, emotional and cultural factors as flavor in the brain can be explained as neurogastronomy. The data received with the five senses are collected in the brain and perceived in its relevant parts. Research on what kind of perception is created with the formation of missing sensory data in the brain has been increasing day by day. In addition, by considering the different reflections of sensory data from reality, it is examined how they lead to perceptions in the brain. Plate design is very important in terms of visual presentation. What kind of an effect the presentation types of plate design have on customers and what kind of plate design they prefer is a matter of curiosity for researchers. Every stage of life continues in the light of technological developments. One of these technological developments is virtual reality. With the use of virtual reality in the field of neurogastronomy, it is possible to simulate the senses differently. This situation creates the possibility of causing different perceptions in the brain. In this study, neurogastronomy, the concepts of taste and flavor and the parameters affecting the perception of taste were addressed, the studies on the effect of plate presentation and atmosphere were examined, and information was conveyed by making a comprehensive literature review.
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Dining establishments are an essential part of the social experience. However, they are often characterized by high levels of background noise, which represents a barrier to effective communication. This particularly affects people suffering from hearing problems. Moreover, noise level exceeding normal conversational levels causes a phenomenon called the Lombard Effect, an involuntary tendency to increase the amount of vocal effort when talking in the presence of noise. Adults over 60 years represent the second largest population in the US and the majority of them suffer from some degree of hearing loss. The primary aim of the current study was to understand the effect of noise on vocal effort and speech intelligibility in a restaurant setting for adults over 60 years old with and without hearing loss. The secondary aim was to evaluate their perception of disturbance in communication and their willingness to spend time and money in a restaurant was affected by the varying levels of background noise. The results of this study showed background noise levels lower than 50 dB(A) will allow senior customers to minimize their vocal effort and to maximize their understanding of conversations, even for those with moderate to severe hearing loss. By setting a limit, it will also keep perceived disturbance low and willingness to spend time and money high among dining patrons.
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Background The role of music on energy intake is conflicting, and recent research has suggested a positive association between classical music listening and mindfulness. Objective The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effect of music, specifically classical music on state mindfulness and calorie intake of energy-dense foods. Method One hundred participants were randomly assigned to either a classical, popular or no music condition, and were served a variety of sweet (i.e., chocolate and cookies) and savoury (i.e., crisps) energy-dense foods. Results: The results found no significant differences in state mindfulness, overall calorie intake, or intake of sweet foods across the three conditions. However, participants in the classical music condition did consume significantly less savoury food than those in the no music condition. Conclusion Playing classical music may be beneficial in reducing intake of savoury foods, but not through the association to changes in state mindfulness. Future research should explore extended sessions of music listening on state mindfulness and other experiential evaluations of mindfulness to conclude on the direct and indirect effects of music on sweet and savoury foods.
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This research considers the meal experience literature and explores consumer´s motivations in the dark-dining setting. The notions of discussion relate to experience economy and consumptionscape theories highlighting that sensory-cues in the meal experience constrain each other. The sense of touch, although scientifically explored, is yet being further explored in the dark-dining meal experience and reflects dominance in the dark-dining meal experience. Conclusively, despite the effects of the meal experience in a light restaurant, customers re-discover their senses in a dark restaurant. In conclusion, it remains questionable whether repeat business will occur due to post-experienced, preserved and prolonged perceptions.
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The effects of music tempo on number of bites per minute and total time of meal were studied. Eleven subjects unknowingly participated in the study. Three music conditions were used: fast tempo, slow tempo, and no music. A significant increase in the number of bites per minute was found; the effect was largest for fast-tempo music, which suggests arousal as a possible mediator. No difference was found in total time of meal. A questionnaire revealed no evidence that subjects were aware of the music.
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This paper will critically review the limited literature available on the topic and present an empirical study that examines the effect of background music on the behavior of restaurant customers. It was found that music tempo variations can significantly affect purchases, length of stay, and other variables examined.
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Investigated whether liking for music is related to responses to the environment in which the music is experienced and the role of musical complexity. A loudspeaker by an advice stall in a university cafeteria played new-age music of low, moderate, or high complexity; organ music of moderate complexity; or silence. 285 uni versity students completed questionnaires about liking for the atmosphere, how happy they would be to return to the cafeteria, likelihood of visiting the stall, a nd liking for the music. Liking for the music correlated with liking for the atmosphere, desire to return to the cafeteria, and reported likelihood of visiting the advice stall. More Ss visited the stall when moderate-complexity new-age rather than high-complexity, newage, or no music was playing. The music's style and complexity influenced responses to the listening situation. Variations in musical style may mediate the effect of musical complexity on responses. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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The article reports research into the effect of music tempo and musical preference on consumer behavior in a restaurant. The research investigates the extent to which these two variables influence actual and perceived time spent dining, the amount of money spent, and outcomes in terms of enjoyment of the experience and future behavioral intentions. The results show that music preference provided a better explanation of actual time spent dining than tempo, although neither variable had a significant effect on perceived time. Time spent in the restaurant was the most powerful predictor of money spent in the restaurant. Finally, the outcomes of the restaurant encounter were found to be significantly related to musical preference, but the effects of music tempo were nonsignificant. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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This paper integrates a series of interesting findings related to how one responds to a musical stimulus. In particular, this paper focuses on one's affect toward a musical stimulus (Affect(ms)) and uses information theory to examine the complexity of a music stimulus. Two models are then developed which provide a general framework for understanding applause duration and for understanding the perceived time duration of a musical stimulus. Few topics in marketing are of wider appeal than those which examine the impact of music on processing, preference, and behavior. Though much of the work done in this area is either inconclusive or methodologically flawed, the three papers described below provide solid methodological advances toward better understanding of music on culture (Blair and Hatala 1992), on time perception (Kellaris and Altsech 1992), and on affect (Kellaris 1992). In further examining the contributions of the issues raised by these papers, this paper will raise additional insights related to the results of the studies in the latter two papers.
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Judgments in one sensory modality or dimension are often affected by information in other sensory dimensions even if they do not physically or physiologically interact. Examples of such psychological contextual effects are the enhancing effects of color and odor on judgments of sweetness. Children might be expected to be more influenced by irrelevant dimensions and thus might show increased context effects when asked about specific attributes. Two experiments investigated the effect of color change in a fruit beverage on sweetness judgements and the effects of an added aromatic flavor (vanilla) on judgments of sweetness, creaminess and liking of milk. Three groups of American children were tested, in age groups of 5 to 7, 8 to 10 and 11 to 14-years-old, and their responses and contextual effects were compared to those of adults. The strongest and most consistent effect across age groups was the enhancement of rated sweetness by added vanilla flavor in milk. Children did not show the expected effect of darker red colors raising sweetness judgments in the fruit beverage, and the 11 to 14-year-old group showed a trend in the opposite direction from adults (lighter red color judged as sweeter). The concept of sweetness may be more strongly associated to sweet aroma characteristics at an early age than to specific colors. The differences between adults and the 11 to 14-year-old group could arise from a number of sources, including product experiences, developmental and/ or cohort effects, and are worthy of further study.
Article
The influence of display lighting, a component of store atmospherics, on consumer approach–avoidance behavior was studied. Supplemental lighting was temporarily installed and manipulated on merchandise displays in two retail stores to test for effects on consumer behaviors of Time at Display, Number of Items Touched and Number of Items Picked Up. Video cameras recorded the consumers' actions. Subjects consisted of an accidental sample of consumers in the stores who passed within the measurement zones of the cameras. A total of 2367 subjects were recorded; behaviors and demographics were coded by two raters. Data were analyzed using correlations, Analysis of Variance, and Bonferroni paired comparisons. Supplemental lighting treatments had a positive effect on consumer behavior, as qualified by display. Interactions between lighting and display were found to be statistically significant. Findings could be useful to retailers in developing in-store lighting as part of a store's atmospherics to aid in attracting and retaining consumer patronage.
Article
How important are visual cues for determining satiation? To find out, 64 participants were served lunch in a "dark" restaurant where they ate in complete darkness. Half the participants unknowingly received considerably larger "super-size" portions which subsequently led them to eat 36% more food. Despite this difference, participants' appetite for dessert and their subjective satiety were largely unaffected by how much they had consumed. Consistent with expectations, participants were also less accurate in estimating their actual consumption quantity than a control group who ate the same meal in the light.
Article
Plate shapes and package sizes, lighting and layout, color and convenience: these are a few of hidden persuaders that can contribute to how much food a person eats. This review first posits that these environmental factors influence eating because they increase consumption norms and decrease consumption monitoring. Second, it suggests that simply increasing awareness and offering nutrition education will be disappointingly ineffective in changing mindless eating. Third, promising pilot results from the National Mindless Eating Challenge provide insights into helping move from mindless eating to mindlessly eating better. The paper represents an invited review by a symposium, award winner or keynote speaker at the Society for the Study of Ingestive Behavior [SSIB] Annual Meeting in Portland, July 2009.
Article
The aim of this study was to investigate whether the eating behaviors of people at all-you-can-eat Chinese buffets differs depending upon their body mass. The resulting findings could confirm or disconfirm previous laboratory research that has been criticized for being artificial. Trained observers recorded the height, weight, sex, age, and behavior of 213 patrons at Chinese all-you-can-eat restaurants. Various seating, serving, and eating behaviors were then compared across BMI levels. Patrons with higher levels of BMI were more likely to be associated with using larger plates vs. smaller plates (OR 1.16, P < 0.01) and facing the buffet vs. side or back (OR 1.10, P < 0.001). Patrons with higher levels of BMI were less likely to be associated with using chopsticks vs. forks (OR 0.90,P < 0.05), browsing the buffet before eating vs. serving themselves immediately (OR 0.92, P < 0.001), and having a napkin on their lap vs. not having a napkin on their lap (OR 0.92, P < 0.01). Patrons with lower BMIs left more food on their plates (10.6% vs. 6.0%, P < 0.05) and chewed more per bite of food (14.8 vs. 11.9, P < 0.001). These observational findings of real-world behavior provide support for laboratory studies that have otherwise been dismissed as artificial.
Article
An experiment was conducted in which 66 male subjects were given access to alcohol (20% vol.) and fruit juice to be mixed and tasted ad lib. A factorial design included social vs. solitary drinking conditions, laboratory vs. informal setting, and variable exposure to music. The amount of ethanol consumed (g/kg body weight) was used as an unobtrusive measure of preferred intake. The reciprocal relationship between mood and consumption was analyzed by LISREL. While euphoria has usually been perceived as a consequence of drinking, the only plausible fit to a LISREL model was obtained by assuming that the disposition to drink would be increased by positive mood changes occurring during the drinking session. An analogy between social drinking and adjunctive behaviour was supported, as alcohol consumption was directly affected by time-dependent environmental factors such as company and music. Since the presence of company also stimulated positive mood and alleviated boredom, consumption was precipitated by company indirectly as well as directly. These results emphasize the importance of direct as well as indirect environmental influences on spontaneous alcohol intake during social drinking.
Article
The influence of dinner music on food intake and symptoms common in dementia such as depressed mood, irritability and restlessness was studied. The study was carried out in a nursing-home ward in Sweden. Soothing music was played as dinner music for weeks, Swedish tunes form the 1920s and 1930s for two weeks and pop music for two weeks. Prior to these periods, there was one week without music, and at the end of the intervention there was a two-week control period. The effects of the intervention were assessed by psychological ratings and by weighing the food helpings. It was found that during all three music periods the patients ate more in total. The difference was particularly significant for the dessert. The staff were thought to be influenced by the music, as they served the patients more food, both main course and dessert, whenever music was played. The patients were less irritable, anxious and depressed during the music periods. The results of the study suggest that dinner music, particularly soothing music, can reduce irritability, fear-panic and depressed mood and can stimulate demented patients in a nursing-home ward into eating more.
Article
Homosexuality is now considered an alternative lifestyle occurring with some regularity as a variant of human sexuality, rather than a pathological disorder. It is important to understand the attitudes of medical professionals toward homosexuality, as their attitudes may influence their approach to gay men and lesbians as patients. It is also important to understand the current attitudes of medical students who will be the future generation of health care providers. To study Chinese medical students' attitudes toward and personal experiences with homosexuality. A cross-sectional study was conducted at a university medical school. Medical students were asked 16 questions according to an anonymous survey questionnaire. Of the 780 medical students (42% male, 49% female, 10% sex anonymous) who received the questionnaire, 627 (80%) returned it. Of these students, 72% were age 18 to 22 years; 38% reported that they had homosexual friends. Only 16 students described themselves as homosexuals and 20 as bisexuals. A total of 249 students (40%) reported that they had a religion; 542 (86%) reported that they would accept their friends to be homosexuals. Two thirds thought that homosexual and heterosexual partners should have equal legal rights in terms of marriage, whereas slightly less than half (46%) thought they should have equal legal rights in adopting children. With regard to learning or working abilities, 93% thought homosexuals are not any different from heterosexuals. Two thirds thought homosexuals are not different from heterosexuals in terms of sexual behaviour such as promiscuity or loyalty. One fourth thought homosexuality is a psychological disorder that requires therapy. These findings did not differ significantly with seniority, but students with a religion held different attitudes than those without, and were more likely to believe that homosexuality is a psychological disorder, odds ratio (OR) = 2.33, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.59 .43, p < .001. Female students were more likely to have homosexual friends, OR = 1.72, 95% CI = 1.20 .48, p = .003, and more accepting attitudes, OR = 1.78, 95% CI = 1.24 .57, p = .002. The attitudes and experiences do not vary significantly between the 5 classes of medical students, but religious beliefs and gender might influence these attitudes. These findings can help medical teachers to be more sensitive in terms of educating their students.
Article
Educators have a responsibility to provide safe space, but gay and lesbian youth face particularly hostile environments. This initial study surveyed physical education teachers (n = 82) and young adults (n = 77) about their perceptions of homophobic and heterosexist behaviors within physical education and teachers' use of inclusive behaviors. Most teachers and both gay and straight students witnessed heterosexist and homophobic behavior, and most lesbian and gay students had personally experienced homophobic behavior. These data indicate that homophobic and heterosexist behaviors are common in secondary schools, that teachers intend to provide a safe space, and that techers fail to confront heterosexist or homophobic behaviors and take proactive steps to create an inclusive environment.
Article
Our objective was to investigate whether people who use internal cues of satiation when eating a meal are likely to weigh less than people who instead rely on external cues. In addition to exploring the role that internal and external cues play in meal cessation, this study raises an overlooked explanation of the French paradox. A demographically-matched student sample of 133 Parisians and 145 Chicagoans completed a brief survey on meal cessation that asked the extent to which they agreed with statements associated with internal cessation cues and statements with external cessation cues. Their answers to these were compared across BMI levels and across countries. Normal-weight people indicated that they were more likely to be influenced by internal cues of meal cessation (p = 0.043), while overweight people indicated that they were more influenced by external cues (p = 0.005). Similarly, while the French were influenced by internal cues of meal cessation (p < 0.001), Americans were more influenced by external cues (p < 0.001). This research revisits Schachter's externality hypothesis and suggests that one's over-reliance on external cues may prove useful in offering a partial explanation of why BMI might vary across people and potentially across cultures. Relying on internal cues for meal cessation, rather than on external cues, may improve eating patterns over the long term.