Article

Periodization: The Effect on Strength of Manipulating Volume and Intensity

Authors:
To read the full-text of this research, you can request a copy directly from the authors.

Abstract

This study examined the effects of manipulating volume and intensity on strength and power in experienced male athletes. Subjects (N = 22) were tested for maximum strength in the squat and bench press lifts, vertical jump (VJ), lean body mass (LBM), and neural activation levels (IEMG). They trained 3 days a week for 12 weeks according to a linear periodization model (n = 8), an undulating periodization model (n = 5), or a nonperiodized control model (n = 9). Training volume and relative intensity were equated for all groups. Maximal squat, bench press, and LBM all improved significantly in each group, and changes in maximal strength correlated significantly with changes in LBM. IEMG levels were generally unchanged and did not correlate with changes in strength. The VJ increased significantly through training, but there were no differences between groups. Changes in VJ were not significantly correlated with changes in squat, LBM, or IEMG levels. The results indicate that in short-term training using previously trained subjects, no differences in maximal strength are seen when training volume and relative intensity are equated. (C) 1994 National Strength and Conditioning Association

No full-text available

Request Full-text Paper PDF

To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.

... Numerous examinations of squat training have shown gains in maximum strength both dynamically (1RM) and using isometric test (19,46,82,190). In addition, it is widely reported that the use of squatting movements enhances speed-strength characteristics, associated concentric muscle actions (e.g., static vertical jump) (19,82,84,85,167,210), and jumping motions using a stretch shortening cycle (e.g., countermovement jump) (6,9,10,19,38,39,82,84,89,182,185,191). The vertical jump has also been related to sprinting performance. ...
... Based on previous research, the vertical jump is a reliable predictor of sporting success in American football (140), soccer (72,144,207), ice hockey (15), sprint cycling (184), and numerous other sports (50). Successful vertical jump performance is therefore predicated by the ability to generate maximal forces and express those forces rapidly to maximize jumping height (1,10,80,122,137). Because strength underpins vertical jumping ability, it is widely believed that increases in maximum leg strength are related to improvements in vertical jumping performance (6,10,18,19,38,39,82,84,85,167,182,185,190,191). ...
... Successful vertical jump performance is therefore predicated by the ability to generate maximal forces and express those forces rapidly to maximize jumping height (1,10,80,122,137). Because strength underpins vertical jumping ability, it is widely believed that increases in maximum leg strength are related to improvements in vertical jumping performance (6,10,18,19,38,39,82,84,85,167,182,185,190,191). ...
Article
Stone, MH, and Haff, GG. The use of free weight squats in sports: a narrative review-squatting movements, adaptation, and sports performance: physiological. J Strength Cond Res 38(8): 1494-1508, 2024-The squat and its variants can provide numerous benefits including positively affecting sports performance and injury prevention, injury severity reduction, and rehabilitation. The positive benefits of squat are likely the result of training-induced neural alterations and mechanical and morphological adaptations in tendons, skeletal muscles, and bones, resulting in increased tissue stiffness and cross-sectional area (CSA). Although direct evidence is lacking, structural adaptations can also be expected to occur in ligaments. These adaptations are thought to beneficially increase force transmission and mechanical resistance (e.g., resistance to mechanical strain) and reduce the likelihood and severity of injuries. Adaptations such as these, also likely play an important role in rehabilitation, particularly for injuries that require restricted use or immobilization of body parts and thus lead to a consequential reduction in the CSA and alterations in the mechanical properties of tendons, skeletal muscles, and ligaments. Both volume and particularly intensity (e.g., levels of loading used) of training seem to be important for the mechanical and morphological adaptations for at least skeletal muscles, tendons, and bones. Therefore, the training intensity and volume used for the squat and its variations should progressively become greater while adhering to the concept of periodization and recognized training principles.
... Essentially, this type of exercise strategy starts with high volume and low intensity and then progresses to low-volume and high-intensity training, over a period of several months. The other main model is non-linear periodization (NLP) is based on the idea that volume and intensity are altered more frequently (daily, weekly or biweekly) by rotating different protocols to train various components of the neuromuscular system in order to give the neuromuscular system more frequent periods of recovery (Baker, Wilson, & Carlyon, 1994 So the aim of current study was to verify the effect of a 12-weeks LP vs. BWNLP periodized resistance training program with equated volume and intensity on maximal strength and vertical jump (VJ) for volleyball players. Authors hypothesized that both LP and BWNLP will produce strength gains, and improve VJ; furthermore the BWNLP will produce greater strength gain and improve VJ than the LP. ...
... Before the test the subjects performed a warm-up which included 5 min of light treadmill running and 5 min stretching exercises. Thereafter, the subjects performed 10 repetitions at a relatively light load that served as a specific warm-up, followed by a gradual increase in load until 1RM was achieved (Baker et al., 1994). The rate of the gradual increase in load was dependent on the participant's self-perceived capacity, and it ranged from 1 to 10 kg for all exercises, with 3-5 min rest interval between attempts, and the 1RM was achieved within 3-5 attempts. ...
... These results indicate that LP and BWNLP models may increase maximal strength to a greater extent during the initial training period and result in more consistent strength gains as training progresses. These observations are supported by the results of previous studies (Apel et al., 2011;Baker et al., 1994;Kraemer & Ratamess, 2005;Rhea et al., 2003). The initial strength gains (1-4 weeks) due to resistance training are primarily neural adaptations such as: 1) Increased motor unit recruitment, 2) Increased firing frequency, 3) Increased synchronicity of firing and/or 4) decreased co-contraction of the antagonist muscle (Baechle & Earle, 2000;Behm, 1995;Häkkinen, Pakarinen, & Kallinen, 1992;Kraemer & Häkkinen, 2008), after this period strength gains are also influenced by increases in muscle mass (Brandenburg & Docherty, 2002;Deschenes & Kraemer, 2002;Gearhart JR et al., 2001). ...
Article
Full-text available
The purpose of this study was to verify the effect of a 12-weeks linear (LP) and biweekly non-linear (BWNLP) periodized resistance training program with equated volume and intensity on maximal strength and vertical jump (VJ) for volleyball players. Sixteen volleyball players of Tanta club with minimum 1-year strength training experience were divided into two groups: (LP, n = 8 and BWNLP, n = 8). They trained 4 days/ week in non-consecutive days using split routine. One repetition maximum (1RM) was measured during half squat, bench press, laying leg curl, seated arm curl, seated leg extension, and seated arm extension before training program (Pre), after 4 weeks of training (Mid-1), after 8 weeks of training (Mid-2), and after 12 weeks (Post). The results have shown statistically significant increase (p ≤ 0.05) in all exercises at MID-1, MID-2 and POST compared with PRE, for both LP and BWNLP models, statistically significant differences favor BWNLP (p ≤ 0.05) at POST for 4 exercises in comparison with the LP, and statistically significant differences favor BWNLP (p ≤ 0.05) at MID-2 for 2 exercises in comparison with the LP. No statistically significant differences (p > 0.05) between LP and BWNLP in maximal strength at MID-1. No statistically significant differences (p > 0.05) between LP and BWNLP models in the MID-1, MID-2, and PRE evaluation for VJ test. In conclusion, the BWNLP model outperformed the LP model making larger improvements in maximal strength, and a little higher percentage increase in VJ than LP model
... Two of the studies are actually a series of comparative studies (11,16). Of these 14 studies, all but 2 (1,9) indicated that periodized models produced statistically superior results in 1 or more performance measures relating to strength, power, and high-intensity exercise endurance compared with linear models. Of these papers, only 5 used subjects with a reasonably extensive previous strength-training experience (1, 10, 12, 16, 29). ...
... By partially equating volume by an estimation of work (volume load), Willoughby (29) supported O'Bryant's interpretation. However, Baker et al. (1) found that mesocycle length models of strength training using equalized planned repetition schemes (which assumes work is essentially equal) produced essentially the same gains in maximum strength measures. ...
... Baker et al. (1) suggest that total work (volume) accomplished during a training program is the more important factor, regardless of the variation (or lack of variation) scheme used. Thus it is possible that simply providing a greater volume of work (based on repetitions) would produce greater strength gains. ...
... Players previous concurrent training experience, along with the duration, frequency and mode of training, may also affect the muscles ability to adapt to the training stimulus (Baker, 2001b;Docherty and Sporer, 2000). As concurrent resistance and aerobic training can affect adaptation, a systematic approach is necessary to achieve maximum adaptation throughout various phases of competition (Baker, 1998;2001b;Baker et al., 1994). Numerous periodisation strategies have been established to optimise the adaptation to training over short and long periods of time (Bompa and Buzzichelli, 2015). ...
... Numerous periodisation strategies have been established to optimise the adaptation to training over short and long periods of time (Bompa and Buzzichelli, 2015). This strategy is implemented in an effort to ensure players are in peak physical condition at a particular point during competition (Baker et al., 1994). Typically, rugby league adopts a classic periodisation model that divides the year into three main macrocycles i.e. pre-season, competition and off-season phases (Kelly and Coutts, 2007). ...
... The primary goal during pre-season resistance training in rugby league is often to stimulate muscle hypertrophy while increasing maximal muscular strength and power (Baker et al., 1994). Resistance training sessions are more frequent during pre-season, enabling the development of physical attributes (de Lacey et al., 2014a). ...
Article
The ability of a rugby league player to express high levels of strength and power is crucial for success in competition. Although researchers have shown relationships between physical attributes and performance, there is a lack of information related to changes in strength and power across various phases of the season. The purpose of this review was to identify the magnitude of change in muscular strength and power during different phases of an elite rugby league season. Percentage change and effect size were calculated to evaluate the magnitude of changes in strength and power. Meta-analyses were conducted to provide pooled estimates and 95% confidence intervals. Twelve studies were included; six reported changes following pre-season training, two during the competition phase and four examined changes over multiple seasons. Pooled estimates indicated large increases in upper and lower body strength 0.81 [0.43-1.19] and 1.35 [0.79-1.91], respectively, following pre-season training. Studies incorporating predominantly heavier loads (p 80% 1 RM) in training reported greater increases in maximal strength than studies completing lighter loads. Four studies used a wave-like programming strategy to obtain large improvements in strength and power 0.91 [0.36-1.45] and 0.90 [0.22-1.57], over multiple seasons. The results of this review highlight the limited current evidence and provides a preliminary reference point for strength and conditioning coaches aiming to develop and maintain strength and power across various stages, and over multiple seasons. Importantly, the results also indicate that higher loads result in greater increases in strength than lower loads.
... (Zelda, [30][31][32][33][34][35] Two of the participants reported that in terms of general physical activity, it had not changed their view but that their view on lifting heavy objects had changed drastically. It was something they previously considered unwise, and they not were capable of doing because of fear. ...
... Despite being tired, I have started to walk and run because of increased energy and I really enjoy it. (Zelda, [30][31][32][33][34][35] Half of the participants said they experienced improved quality of sleep throughout the study. Common for the participants that had experienced reduced quality of sleep was that the LBP had disturbed their sleep to such an extent that they had to get up during the night to do light physical activity. ...
... In contrast to the previous studies that used linear (traditional) periodization [12][13][14], we used a weekly undulating periodization model. It has been proposed that undulating periodization of training is more beneficial than traditional periodization as the variation in stimuli with low, moderate and high intensity and recovery is more frequent than in the latter [34][35][36]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Background: We investigated the feasibility of a 16-week supervised heavy resistance training program with weekly undulating periodization for individuals with persistent non-specific low-back pain (LBP). Methods: Twenty-five adults with persistent non-specific LBP participated in this mixed methods feasibility study. Participants trained a whole-body program consisting of squat, bench press, deadlift and pendlay row two times per week for 16 weeks. We assessed pain intensity, pain-related disability, pain self-efficacy and one-repetition maximum strength at baseline, 8 weeks and 16 weeks. Three focus group interviews were conducted at the end of the program. Linear mixed models were used to assess changes in outcomes, and the qualitative data was assessed using systematic text condensation. Results: We observed clinically meaningful reductions in pain intensity after 8 and 16 weeks of training. The mean difference on the numeric pain rating scale (0-10) in the last 2 weeks from baseline to 8 weeks was 2.6 (95% CI: 1.8-3.6) and from baseline to 16 weeks 3.4 (95% CI: 2.5-4.4). In addition, there were improvements in pain-related disability (3.9, 95% CI: 2.3-5.5), pain self-efficacy (7.7, 95% CI: 5.4-10.1) and muscle strength. In the focus group interviews, participants talked about challenges regarding technique, the importance of supervision and the advantages of periodizing the training. Perceived benefits were improved pain, daily functioning, energy level and sleep, and changes in views on physical activity. Conclusion: Periodized resistance training with weekly undulating periodization is a feasible training method for this group of individuals with persistent non-specific LBP. A randomized clinical trial should assess the efficacy of such an intervention. Trial registration: clinicaltrials.gov/ Identifier - NCT04284982, Registered on February 24th 2020.
... Although the prevailing opinion is that the application of periodized models is better when aiming at developing strength, power and muscular endurance with respect to non-periodized model (Fleck, 1999;Herrick& Stone, 1996;Kramer, Stone, O'bryant, Conley, Johnson, Nieman, ... & Hoke, 1997;O'bryant, Byrd, & Stone, 1988;, certain studies suggest that the benefits of periodization with the goal of developing muscular strength and hypertrophy are largely based on assumptions, and have little solid evidence that periodization is a superior exercising plan (Mattocks, Dankel, Buckner, Jessee, Counts, Mouser, ... & Loenneke, 2016). It is also concluded that when the total volume and intensity of the load are equalized, then there is no difference in the application of the non-periodized and the periodized model (Baker, Wilson, & Carlyon, 1994), i.e. that the periodized model does not always lead to significant improvements compared to the non-periodized model (Grgic, Lazinica , Mikulic, & Schoen- feld, 2018;Hoffman et al., 2009;Souza, Ugrinow- itsch, Tricoli, Roschel, Lowery, Aihara, ... & Wilson, 2014). In other words, it is not necessarily disputed that periodized models are superior (the existence of a methodological explanation to vary training vari-ent duration of experimental factors, it is assumed that with different groups of subjects the response of the organism will be different as well. ...
... On the other hand, the block model proved to be significantly better than the undulating model, which opens the possibility that, indirectly, other affirmative conclusions can be drawn about the significance of this model (as well as the periodized models in general) on the development of observed motor abilities of athletes. Also, the use of other models (non-periodized in its essential form, in which there are no variations of the total load in the 3. Baker, D., Wilson, G., & Carlyon, R. (1994). Periodization: The effect on strength of manipulating volume and intensity. ...
... Поставља се питање да ли је закључни исказ емпиријских напора о потреби будућих истраживања, израз методолошке неконзистентности, недовољне теоријско -практичне просвећености истражи-вача, недовољне структурираности истражи-вачких тимова свим просторима спортских на-ука, или недовољно промишљеним проблемом (Mattocks, Dankel, Buckner, Jessee, Counts, Mouser, ... & Loenneke, 2016). Такође, закључује се да када се изједначе укупни обим и интензитет тренажног оптерећења, да тада нема разлика у примени не-периодизованог и периодизованог модела (Baker, Wilson, & Carlyon, 1994), односно да периодизо-вани модел не изазива увек значајна побољшања у поређењу са непериодизованим моделом (Grgic, Lazinica, Mikulic, & Schoenfeld, 2018;Hoffman et al., 2009;. Другим речи-ма, не оспорава се нужно да су периодизовани модели супериорнији (постојање методолошког објашњења за варирање варијабли тренинга како би се оптимизовали исходи), али с обзиром на наведена ограничења експерименталног фактора, очигледно је да тренутно, на основу досадашњих истраживања, није могуће извући релевантне и валидне закључке у вези са овом темом (Nunes, Ribeiro, Schoenfeld, & Cyrino, 2018). ...
Article
Full-text available
Periodization is a theoretical and practical construct of sports training that relates to the programming of training activities in mutually dependent periods of time in order to induce specific physiological adaptations. During training and competition processes, it is used to achieve results at the specific competition. The theoretical and practical foundations of the periodization process can also be studied from the aspect of its impact on biomotor abilities. In this context, the general position for the study of periodization include research covering the impact of different periodization models on muscle strength (the subject of this paper). Based on an analysis of the content, meaning, methodological orientation, and conclusion within a selected number of published studies/papers, it cannot be ascertained whether periodized training models, in the muscle strength area, give better results than the non-periodized model, or which periodized model gives better results at all. The above-mentioned dilemmas regarding the subject of this work have also been confirmed in several review papers and meta-analyses. However, by examining the methodological and theoretical context of these studies, a number of dilemmas are evident, primarily those related to the sample of the subjects. Namely, none of the analyzed studies focused only on the athletes as a target group, but instead, the results of the research performed on athletes were analyzed in relation to a group of recreational or non-trained subjects. Also, there is a discrepancy in the terminology of the applied periodization models, which opens up the question regarding the existence of a clear theoretical concept and methodological-organizational construct that aims to achieve a competitive result. It can be assumed that a clear analysis of the original context of the phenomenon of periodization, harmonization of methodical and methodological steps in the process of learning, clear distinction towards existing definitions and terminology, resulted in the optimization of the learning process that will lead to recognition of the periodization model, which will result in optimization of the training-competitive preparations goals. Therefore, the problem of this paper derived from the theoretical and methodological inconsistency of the researchers in areas covering the influence of different periodization models on athletes' strength. The aim of the paper was to analyze and determine the facts of the methodological and theoretical construct of periodization, the conclusions of various studies, which can be said to - despite publication in important international journals - lead to confusion in the area of the conclusion about the influence of different periodization models on the strength of athletes. After examining more than 80 papers published in refereed journals, and by selection in relation to the theoretical-methodological context and the context of deductive conclusions, 10 studies have been selected, in which the influence of different periodization models on the strength of athletes, while performing exercises with arms and legs, were compared. The results indicate that the applied periodized models, especially the block model, showed a higher degree of sensitivity towards the development of athletes' strength, but several important questions were also raised regarding the validity of the conclusions on this subject. However, the outcome and the purpose of this research is to present a more comprehensible definition of the periodization phenomenon and its models, as well as to identify the effects of the experimental factor in the function of the biomotor response of the subjects to the training stimuli.
... Even though research has shown improvement in submaximal strength in both groups, it is not possible to observe a difference between them. When volumes and training intensities are equalized in a short training period, no differences were observed in muscle strength levels in individuals trained in strength 7,25 . Despite the studies using different populations (trained in resistance vs. elderly without experience in resistance training), this research used the equalization of programming, which may explain the fact that submaximal strength does not show statistically significant differences when comparing groups. ...
... Despite the body mass in the LP group being higher than in the DUP group, these remained unchanged after the training time, which leads us to believe that the improvement obtained in the VJT was due to RT. In studies that investigated the effect of LP and UP for 12 weeks in active young women 11 and men 25 , with or without experience in resistance training, there was an improvement in VJT, but no difference was observed between the periods, corroborating the results of this research. A longitudinal study 12 was analyzed the evolution of the neuromotor profile and the functional capacity of active elderly women (5.4 ± 3.0 years of training) during one year of training. ...
Article
Full-text available
The aim of the present study was to analyze the effect of two different types of resistance training programming (linear and daily undulating) on submaximal strength and functional capacity in elderly women. Twenty-two participants (64 ± 3 years) were randomly assigned to 2 training groups: linear programming (LP; n=12) and daily undulating programming (DUP; n =10). Functional capacity and submaximal strength (10RM) were analyzed before and after 12 weeks of resistance training. The results demonstrated improvement on strength and functional capacity after the resistance training period (p ≤ 0.05), except for the Bench Press (p = 0.30), for both groups DUP and LP. The Effect Size was, respectively, high for DUP (timed up and go test = -2.07, and timed sit test= 4.69), and high for LP (horizontal leg press = 2.35). For all other results, the effect size was trivial or small. No statistical difference was observed between programming models.The LP and DUP trainnings have similar results in increasing submaximal muscle strength in elderly women inexperienced in RT after 12 weeks of intervention (p ≤ 0,05). However, DUP appears to be more effective in increasing functional capacity. In practice, the professional can use both the LP and the DUP to improve the level of fitness in the early stages of training in this population. However, when the goal of programming is to increase functional capacity, DUP can be prioritized.
... Well-developed physical capacities (e.g., muscular strength and power, maximal running speed, change of direction, aerobic power) are required to meet the high-intensity activity demands of rugby league competition (Johnston, Gabbett, & Jenkins, 2014). Players generally travel ~85-100 m per minute and total distances of ~5,000-8,500 m, with 250-750 m of this at high-speed (≥ 5.5 m.s−1) and completing 1.1 ± 0. 56 A systematic approach to training is generally applied in most sporting environments to elicit the physiological adaptations underlying the expression of muscular strength (Baker, Wilson, & Carlyon, 1994;Suchomel, Nimphius, Bellon, & Stone, 2018). If appropriately periodised and integrated into the resistance training plan, eccentric exercise may be particularly beneficial in enhancing maximal and time-limited force expression (Suchomel et al., 2019a). ...
... primary macrocycles (i.e., pre-season, competition, and off-season phases) (Kelly & Coutts, 2007). Preseason rugby league training typically spans 17 weeks (November-February) and generally involves frequent bouts of resistance exercise that aim to develop the muscular strength required to meet the physical demands of competitive match-play (Baker et al., 1994;de Lacey et al., 2014;McLean, Coutts, Kelly, McGuigan, & Cormack, 2010). To help guide programming during the pre-season period, the 17week timeline is divided into several phases (i.e., general preparation, special preparation, active rest, and pre-competition). ...
Article
Full-text available
Successful performances in rugby league require the ability to engage in repeated contact efforts with minimal recovery while maintaining a high running intensity. The capacity to express high levels of time-limited force appears to underlie many important physical attributes required to meet the repeated-effort demands of rugby league play. If appropriately periodised and integrated into the training plan, resistance exercise that sufficiently loads the eccentric phase of movement may provide a beneficial stimulus to improve players' force-generating capacity. Comprehensive reviews relating to the adaptive effects of eccentric training and the methods most commonly prescribed in practical environments are available and may provide context for applying these strategies. However, no literature to date has specifically discussed the planning and programming of eccentric resistance exercise to enhance force production characteristics in elite athletes. Therefore, this narrative review focuses on the periodisation of eccentrically-integrated resistance training during a 17-week National Rugby League pre-season phase. To help guide programming during the pre-season period, the 17-week timeline is divided into several phases (i.e., general preparation, special preparation, active rest, and pre-competition). Within the periodised model, eccentric exercise parameters (i.e., volume, load [% 1RM]) are manipulated to progressively increase the rate of muscle lengthening velocity over the pre-season phase and sequentially elicit changes in muscle-tendon properties and neural function that culminate in improving muscular strength expression.
... Métodos: Dezoito universitárias (23,9 ± 3,8 anos) realizaram duas sessões experimentais com 90% e 100% de 10-12 RM em desenho transversal balanceado. Resultados: O número de repetições da segunda e terceira séries, volume total e tempo sob tensão a 90% de 10-12 RM foi estatisticamente maior do que a 100% de [10][11][12]05 (23,9 ± 3,8 años) realizaron dos sesiones experimentales con el 90% y el 100% de 10-12 RM en un diseño trasversal equilibrado. Resultados: El número de repeticiones de la segunda y tercera serie, el volumen total y el tiempo bajo tensión al 90% de 10-12 RM fue estadísticamente mayor que al 100% de 10-12 RM (p < 0,05). ...
... Several studies have demonstrated that a small load reduction using the RM method may be necessary to promote maintenance in the number of repetitions in subsequent sets and, consequently, a higher total volume and timer under tension in resistance exercise sessions. [8][9][10][11][12][13] In young women, a session performed with three sets at 90% of 10-12 RM promoted greater total volume (27.5%) compared to 100% of 10-12 RM in the elbow flexor muscles. 11 Notably, Calori et al. 13 showed that three sets at 90% of 15 RM in the leg press exercise resulted in higher total volume (22.5%) when compared to 100% of 15 RM in trained older people. ...
Article
Full-text available
Introduction Load reduction using the repetition maximum (RM) method may be necessary to promote higher numbers of repetitions, and consequently, higher total volume, time under tension, and perceived exertion ratings. Objective To compare the effects of different leg press exercise loads on number of repetitions, total volume, time under tension, and perceived exertion. Methods Eighteen women university students (23.9 ± 3.8 years) performed two experimental sessions with 90% and 100% of 10-12 RM in a balanced crossover design. Results The number of repetitions of the second and third sets, the total volume, and time under tension at 90% of 10-12 RM was statistically higher than at 100% of 10-12 RM ( p < 0.05). The perceived exertion of the first and second sets and the training load (perceived exertion x duration of sessions) were higher at 100% of the 10-12 RM session ( p < 0.05). Conclusion A small reduction in load results in a greater number of repetitions, total volume, and time under tension. The session with the higher load appeared to induce higher perceived exertion and training load. Thus, scientists and coaches might consider lower loads to maximize the number of repetitions, total volume, and time under tension, which may cause greater long-term muscular adaptations. Level of evidence II; Comparative prospective study. Keywords: Lower limb; Muscle fatigue; Muscle strength; Resistance training
... However, the eccentric part of the exercise (i.e., landing) was potentiated by the elastic energy accumulated by the bands from the take-off to the farthest point reached by the carriage seat while moving backward. This training protocol presents a modulation of training volume (total number of repetitions per leg per session) and number of resistance bands (i.e., intensity) (Figure 1) that is consistent with the undulating periodized approach 22 , and was successfully implemented in a previous pilot study involving professional rugby players 23 . ...
Article
Full-text available
Objectives: Bilateral Deficit (BLD) occurs when the force generated by both limbs together is smaller than the sum of the forces developed separately by the two limbs. BLD may be modulated by physical training. Here, were investigated the effects of unilateral or bilateral plyometric training on BLD and neuromuscular activation during lower limb explosive extensions. Methods: Fourteen young males were randomized into the unilateral (UL_) or bilateral (BL_) training group. Plyometric training (20 sessions, 2 days/week) was performed on a sled ergometer, and consisted of UL or BL consecutive, plyometric lower limb extensions (3-to-5 sets; 8-to-10 repetitions). Before and after training, maximal explosive efforts with both lower limbs or with each limb separately were assessed. Electromyography of representative lower limb muscles was measured. Results: BL_training significantly and largely decreased BLD (p=0.003, effect size=1.63). This was accompanied by the reversion from deficit to facilitation of the electromyography amplitude of knee extensors during bilateral efforts (p=0.007). Conversely, UL_training had negligible effects on BLD (p=0.781). Also, both groups showed similar improvements in their maximal explosive power generated after training. Conclusions: Bilateral plyometric training can mitigate BLD, and should be considered for training protocols focused on improving bilateral lower limb motor performance.
... Overall, it seems that in previously untrained subjects, hypertrophy can explain to a rather low extent the strength gains in strength during initial weeks of training. However, in strength trained athletes, muscle size and strength have correlated more strongly, and these correlations have varied between r 5 0.59 and r 5 0.692 (4,5). Bickel et al. (8) have observed as the primary finding that a once-per-week exercise dose was generally sufficient to maintain In the present study, we also measured serum testosterone concentrations and testosterone-to-SHBG ratios repeatedly throughout the experimental period. ...
Article
High Responders to Hypertrophic Strength Training Also Tend to Lose More Muscle Mass and Strength During Detraining Than Low Responders: Erratum Räntilä, Aapo; Ahtiainen, Juha P.; Avela, Janne; Restuccia, Joel; Kidgell, Dawson; Häkkinen, Keijo Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 38(4):p 63 In the article “High Responders to Hypertrophic Strength Training Also Tend to Lose More Muscle Mass and Strength During Detraining Than Low Responders”,1 which published in Volume 35, Issue 6 of the Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, there are minor typographical errors in Figure 2, which are now corrected.
... Furthermore, in the present study, we had implemented linear and block periodization program module (traditional module) at high altitude. Some previous researches, it was concluded that the undulating periodisation model is more effective than the traditional periodisation, [10][11][12][13][14] and in some evidences, it was suggested that there was no difference between the models [15][16][17] or that the traditional model is superior. [18][19][20] Conversely, in a previous study, overall high-volume loads of training in the undulating model resulted in greater peripheral fatigue with associated increase in risk of injury as the training demanded high levels of metabolic fatigue. ...
... Addressing this question, it is important to recall that maximum benefit from exercise typically occurs at 8-12 weeks of intervention, after which effectiveness and benefit diminish as the intervention increases in duration (Clark, 2016(Clark, , 2018. This occurs because responses are based on a combination of hormonal and feedback regulation mechanisms that begin to wane as the level of homeostatic stress being sensed reduces without modification to treatment (Baker et al., 1994;Clark, 2016Clark, , 2018Kraemer et al., 2000). Beyond this, many dietary modifications and other interventions become too arduous to continue for a host of metabolic, psychological and social reasons (Clark, 2019;Di Francesco et al., 2018;Fern et al., 2015;Gibson et al., 2006;McCullough and Willett, 2007;Peters et al., 2004;Pieper et al., 2011;Pinckaers et al., 2017;Thomas et al., 2013). ...
Article
The use of diet and exercise has become the cornerstone to treatment of overfatness issues. Yet, the implementation of such factors into lifestyle changes has not been able to meet intrinsic expectations or desires and has led to continuous repetition of short-term success within a coercive environment that is followed by rebound leading to secondary short-term success, that is yo-yo’ing. Even though this has become common, there has been little insight into how we might be able to improve suggestions for diet and exercise to better encourage long-term success as opposed to the short-term gains that are regularly met. In this commentary, we offer a narrative review describing how the use of behavioural analytic methodologies and techniques might allow for the development of self-selective lifestyle modifications (e.g. changes to diet, use of exercise) and choices in behaviour that better serve individuals attempting to reverse the health issues associated with overfatness, without the sense of their being coerced into their choices.
... These measures were more variable than those of muscle mass (ranging from 4% to 88% for strength compared with 0 to 14% and 2% to 16% for lean mass and whole thigh volume, respectively), which likely related to the multifaceted nature of adaptive changes in muscle strength, especially so with compound, multi-joint exercises. Although being related [60], increases in muscle strength are not just contingent upon increased muscle size, but also a complex array of neuromuscular adaptations, alongside improvements in technical proficiency and skill acquisition [61,62], even in trained individuals [63][64][65][66]. The present work shows that any such contributions to adaptive increase in muscle strength are not adversely affected by a well-designed vegan diet. ...
Article
Full-text available
Background: It remains unclear whether non-animal-derived dietary protein sources (and therefore vegan diets) can support resistance training-induced skeletal muscle remodeling to the same extent as animal-derived protein sources. Methods: In Phase 1, 16 healthy young adults (m = 8, f = 8; age: 23 ± 1 y; BMI: 23 ± 1 kg/m2) completed a 3-d dietary intervention (high protein, 1.8 g·kg bm-1·d-1) where protein was derived from omnivorous (OMNI1; n = 8) or exclusively non-animal (VEG1; n = 8) sources, alongside daily unilateral leg resistance exercise. Resting and exercised daily myofibrillar protein synthesis (MyoPS) rates were assessed using deuterium oxide. In Phase 2, 22 healthy young adults (m = 11, f = 11; age: 24 ± 1 y; BMI: 23 ± 0 kg/m2) completed a 10 wk, high-volume (5 d/wk), progressive resistance exercise program while consuming an omnivorous (OMNI2; n = 12) or non-animal-derived (VEG2; n = 10) high-protein diet (∼2 g·kg bm-1·d-1). Muscle fiber cross-sectional area (CSA), whole-body lean mass (via DXA), thigh muscle volume (via MRI), muscle strength, and muscle function were determined pre, after 2 and 5 wk, and postintervention. Objectives: To investigate whether a high-protein, mycoprotein-rich, non-animal-derived diet can support resistance training-induced skeletal muscle remodeling to the same extent as an isonitrogenous omnivorous diet. Results: Daily MyoPS rates were ∼12% higher in the exercised than in the rested leg (2.46 ± 0.27%·d-1 compared with 2.20 ± 0.33%·d-1 and 2.62 ± 0.56%·d-1 compared with 2.36 ± 0.53%·d-1 in OMNI1 and VEG1, respectively; P < 0.001) and not different between groups (P > 0.05). Resistance training increased lean mass in both groups by a similar magnitude (OMNI2 2.6 ± 1.1 kg, VEG2 3.1 ± 2.5 kg; P > 0.05). Likewise, training comparably increased thigh muscle volume (OMNI2 8.3 ± 3.6%, VEG2 8.3 ± 4.1%; P > 0.05), and muscle fiber CSA (OMNI2 33 ± 24%, VEG2 32 ± 48%; P > 0.05). Both groups increased strength (1 repetition maximum) of multiple muscle groups, to comparable degrees. Conclusions: Omnivorous and vegan diets can support comparable rested and exercised daily MyoPS rates in healthy young adults consuming a high-protein diet. This translates to similar skeletal muscle adaptive responses during prolonged high-volume resistance training, irrespective of dietary protein provenance. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT03572127.
... Monteiro et al. (2009) explain that the varying loads used in linear periodization will continue to overload the training stimuli and in return cause greater training gains. Another popular belief is the higher total volumes that are usually associated with the linear model can lead to large gains in younger or untrained athletes (Baker et al., 1994). ...
Article
Full-text available
Just like a rudderless ship in the ocean, an athlete can never succeed in international sporting events without proper planning and training periodization. Although the concept of periodization in not new, it was scientifically initiated in 1960s and now due to the advancement of science and technology and increment of complexity and number of international competitions the entire training protocol has drastically changed. The traditional concept and practice of training periodization has largely replaced by modern goal-oriented training methodologies. The present review-based article critically discussed the different areas of sports training periodization for optimizing the better sporting performance.
... They are also helpful in measuring power in all directions because medicine ball and cable pulley allow movement in all planes i.e. transverse, frontal and oblique. 16 Periodization is a technique used in strength training that is described as the variation in duration, intensity and frequency of exercise after a regular time period. The main aim of periodization in strength training is to gain the maximum efficiency of training in days, weeks or months as a short period, and a year, whole career or lifetime training of an athlete as long period. ...
Article
Full-text available
Introduction: It has been well documented that there is great difference between male and female according to body shape and other characteristics like ability to perform work, muscular power and strength. There is almost no study conducted on female cricket participants under the age of twenty. This study was designed to determine effects of periodized resistance training on sprinting speed, agility, power in domestic young female cricketers. Material & Methods: This was a parallel group randomized control trail that utilized purposive sampling to recruit 46 participants. Data was collected from Abdul-Qadeer cricket academy, Kinnaird College for women.46 young female cricketers completed the study, of which 23 were in experimental group and 23 were in control group. In experimental group, 8 week of resistance training program had been introduced in addition to their regular training sessions, while control group only followed their regular training sessions. To evaluate the speed, agility and power tests such as (run a three test, Illinois agility test, sergeant jump test and seated medicine ball throw) were performed before and after the experimental or control training. Results: Periodized resistance training significantly increase (p = 0.01) sprinting speed measured by run a three test. Post intervention mean±SD of Illinois agility test was 19.817±1.579 that shows significant effect of periodized resistance training on agility (p=0.001). Post intervention mean±SD of sergeant jump test was 7.782±2.448 which shows significant effect of periodized resistance training on power of lower limb (p=0.001). Post intervention mean±SD of seated medicine ball throw was 28.194±3.878 that shows that there is no significant effect of periodized resistance training on power of upper limb (p=0.89). Conclusion: This study concluded that sprinting speed, agility and power of lower limb is improved by periodized resistance training.
... Several researchers have reported that there are specific adaptations that occur at the joint angles selected during training [214,[224][225][226][227], movement speeds [210,[228][229][230][231][232][233][234][235][236] and types of contraction [201,208,210,212,234,[237][238][239][240][241][242][243][244][245][246]. These results are supported by numerous EMG findings [235,238,242,[247][248][249][250][251][252][253][254][255][256][257]. The results show that even small changes such as changing a joint angle lead to deviations in the EMG signal. ...
Article
Full-text available
This narrative review deals with the topic of strength training in swimming, which has been a controversial issue for decades. It is not only about the importance for the performance at start, turn and swim speed, but also about the question of how to design a strength training program. Different approaches are discussed in the literature, with two aspects in the foreground. On the one hand is the discussion about the optimal intensity in strength training and, on the other hand, is the question of how specific strength training should be designed. In addition to a summary of the current state of research regarding the importance of strength training for swimming, the article shows which physiological adaptations should be achieved in order to be able to increase performance in the long term. Furthermore, an attempt is made to explain why some training contents seem to be rather unsuitable when it comes to increasing strength as a basis for higher performance in the start, turn and clean swimming. Practical training consequences are then derived from this. Regardless of the athlete’s performance development, preventive aspects should also be onsidered in the discussion. The article provides a critical overview of the abovementioned key issues. The most important points when designing a strength training program for swimming are a sufficiently high-load intensity to increase maximum strength, which in turn is the basis for power, year-round trength training, parallel to swim training and working on the transfer of acquired strength skills in swim training, and not through supposedly specific strength training exercises on land or in the water.
... Both interventions showed significant increases in muscle strength, but DUP promoted superior effect size gains in maximal and submaximal muscle strength. On the other hand, other authors have not identified significant differences between these periodization systems (3,6,14,26). ...
Article
Full-text available
International Journal of Exercise Science 15(4): 193-207, 2022. The traditional linear periodization model is designed for modifications to be performed over several weeks, whereas alterations in the undulating model are applied on a more frequent basis. The study investigated a novel periodization scheme, the muscle daily undulating periodization model (mDUP). Thirty-seven men were randomly assigned into 2 groups: (a) a group that performed 12 weeks of daily undulating periodization with fix overload (DUP-F) resistance training (n = 19) and (b) a group that performed 12-weeks of muscle daily undulating periodization with variation overload (mDUP) (n = 18). Body composition and strength assessments (muscular endurance and one repetition maximum [1 RM] for barbell bench press, 45º leg press, lat pull down, and standing arm curl) were completed before and after the program. Two-way MANOVA with repeated measures was used to compare groups with significance set at p<0.05. There were no differences between periodization programs for anthropometric variables (p > 0.05, η2p = 0.04), but improvement was noted over time (p < 0.001, η2p = 0.60). No differences were observed between periodization programs for strength (p > 0.05, η2p = 0.056), but strength increased over time (p < 0.001, η2p = 0.95). Similarly, no muscular endurance differences were seen between periodization programs (p > 0.05, η2p = 0.15), but measures increased over time (p < 0.001, η2p = 0.60). When it comes to body composition, muscle strength, and muscle endurance, the present study provides evidence that both periodization models displayed similar results, with more evident improvements in strength. Thus, it seems pertinent to consider this new periodization model plausible for RT practitioners in order to achieve new adaptations.
... However, strength enhancements do seem to be bigger as a result of periodized training (Hoffman 2002). Many authors rumored that periodized RT programs seem to be superior that non-periodized training programs in generation enhancements in 1RM bench press, one RM squat and vertical jump performance (Baker et al. 1994;Stowers et al. 1983;Willoughby 1993). These studies offer proof that periodized RT is simpler than non-periodized training in eliciting strength and motor performance enhancements. ...
Chapter
Athletes can utilize resistance training and the magnitude of strength improvement is influenced by the structure of the training program. Periodization enables systematic, sequential, and integrative scheduling and programming of training sessions to maximize specific physiological adaptations underpinning performance outcomes. There are several ways that a periodized training plan can be implemented. Commonly used forms of periodization are the linear or classic periodization model (LP) (characterized by gradually increases training intensity and decrease volume) and nonlinear or undulating periodization model (UP) (characterized by more frequent alterations in intensity and volume). The complexity of periodized resistance training has evolved to meet the needs of particular sports and guarantee the success of the individual athlete. However, periodization is still based in the concept of training variation, sport specificity, and individualization of the training program. The real periodization is more a combination of various periodization methods, especially if you train for different outcomes. The purpose of the periodization is to achieve planned goals and you can create a million of combinations to get it. Periodization, as a whole, is a planning process that can be used to organize the training process of any athlete, regardless of developmental level or the sport being trained for.
... The authors concluded that both periodization models provided LL power gain in vertical jump. The same occurred in another study, where the authors observed similar results with the use of WUP and LP models with 33 young men (20.0±2.6 years) with experience in ST, with both ST periodization models also providing LL power gain in vertical jump (38). A possible explanation for the difference in the results of those studies and ours is the different jump protocols (Counter Movement Jump and Sargent Jump Test), since SJT is performed with the aid of the arms, unlike CMJ. ...
Article
Full-text available
Introduction: Periodization is the accurate manipulation of methodological variables of strength training (ST) to provide a progressive increase in the different manifestations of muscle strength. The most used models in ST are linear and undulatory periodization. Objective: Evaluate the effects of 24 weeks of training by applying three different models of ST periodization: Linear Periodization (LP), Weekly Undulating Periodization (WUP) and Daily Undulating Periodization (DUP) on: upper limb (UL) strength (submaximal and endurance), submaximal strength and power of the lower limbs (LL) and on other components of physical fitness (flexibility, agility and abdominal endurance strength). Methods: Experimental, longitudinal study, with a convenience sample, in which 29 people of both sexes participated, randomly allocated to the groups. Tests were performed pre- and post-intervention. ANOVA (two-way) of repeated measures was performed. Results: There was a significant increase in submaximal strength of the UL in the three periodization models: LP (p
... The authors concluded that both periodization models provided LL power gain in vertical jump. The same occurred in another study, where the authors observed similar results with the use of WUP and LP models with 33 young men (20.0±2.6 years) with experience in ST, with both ST periodization models also providing LL power gain in vertical jump (38). A possible explanation for the difference in the results of those studies and ours is the different jump protocols (Counter Movement Jump and Sargent Jump Test), since SJT is performed with the aid of the arms, unlike CMJ. ...
Article
Full-text available
Introdução: Periodização é a manipulação adequada das variáveis metodológicas do treinamento de força (TF), para proporcionar o aumento progressivo das diferentes manifestações de força muscular. Os modelos mais utilizados no TF são a periodização linear e a ondulatória.Objetivo: Avaliar os efeitos de 24 semanas de treinamento aplicando três modelos distintos de Periodização em TF: Linear (PL), Ondulatória Semanal (POS) e Ondulatória Diária (POD) sobre: força (submáxima e de resistência) de membros superiores (MMSS), força submáxima e potência de membros inferiores (MMII) e sobre outros componentes da aptidão física (flexibilidade, agilidade e força de resistência abdominal).Métodos: Estudo experimental, longitudinal, com amostra por conveniência, do qual participaram 29 pessoas de ambos os sexos, alocados aleatoriamente nos grupos. Os testes foram realizados pré e pós-intervenção. Realizou-se ANOVA (two-way) de medidas repetidas.Resultados: Houve aumento significativo em força submáxima de MMSS nos três modelos de periodização: PL (p<0,001), a POS (p=0,002) e POD (p=0,001). Houve, também, aumento significativo em força submáxima de MMII com PL (p=0,002), POS (p<0,001) e com POD (p=0,001). Não foram encontradas diferenças significativas intergrupos em nenhum teste e momento.Conclusão: Em indivíduos sem experiência em treinamento, 24 semanas de TF proporcionaram ganhos em diferentes manifestações de força, independente do modelo de periodização (PL, POS ou POD). A PL e a POS parecem ser melhores para proporcionar ganhos em potência de MMII no salto horizontal.
... Overall, it seems that in previously untrained subjects, hypertrophy can explain to a rather low extent the strength gains in strength during initial weeks of training. However, in strength trained athletes, muscle size and strength have correlated more strongly, and these correlations have varied between r 5 0.59 and r 5 0.692 (4,5). Bickel et al. (8) have observed as the primary finding that a once-per-week exercise dose was generally sufficient to maintain In the present study, we also measured serum testosterone concentrations and testosterone-to-SHBG ratios repeatedly throughout the experimental period. ...
Article
Räntilä, A, Ahtiainen, JP, Avela, J, Restuccia, J, Kidgell, DJ, and Häkkinen, K. High responders to hypertrophic strength training also tend to lose more muscle mass and strength during detraining than low responders. J Strength Cond Res 35(6): 1500-1511, 2021-This study investigated differences in individual responses to muscle hypertrophy during strength training and detraining. Ten weeks of resistance training was followed by 6 weeks of detraining in men (n = 24). Bilateral leg press (LP) one-repetition maximum (1RM) and maximal electromyography (EMGs) of vastus lateralis (VL) and vastus medialis, maximal voluntary activation (VA), transcranial magnetic stimulation for corticospinal excitability (CE), cross-sectional area of VL (VLCSA), selected serum hormone concentrations were measured before and repeatedly during training and detraining. In the total group, VLCSA increased by 10.7% (p = 0.025) and LP 1RM by 16.3% (p < 0.0001) after training. The subjects were split into 3 groups according to increases in VLCSA: high responders (HR) > 15% (n = 10), medium responders (MR) 15-4.5% (n = 7), and low responders (LR) < 4.5% (n = 7). Vastus lateralis CSA in HR and MR increased statistically significantly from pre to posttraining but not in LR. Only HR increased LP 1RM statistically significantly from pre to post. Maximal EMG activity increased 21.3 ± 22.9% from pre- to posttraining for the total group (p = 0.009) and for MR (p < 0.001). No significant changes occurred in VA and CE or serum hormone concentrations. During detraining, HR showed a decrease of -10.5% in VLCSA, whereas MR and LR did not. None of the subgroups decreased maximal strength during the first 3 weeks of detraining, whereas HR showed a slight (by 2.5%) rebound in strength. The present results suggest that strength gains and muscle activation adaptations may take place faster in HR and decrease also faster compared with other subgroups during detraining.
... La prolongada temporada, con un gran número de partidos estresantes, frecuentemente tiene consecuencias dañinas tales como una respuesta catabólica pronunciada (Kraemer 2004, Carli 1982, afecciones musculo-esqueléticas y una alta incidencia de lesiones (Gamble 2006). Un entrenamiento razonablemente estructurado que permita evitar respuestas fisiológicas conflictivas facilitará el mantenimiento beneficioso de la preparación deporte-específica y evitará la disminución en las capacidades y rasgos fisiológicos relevantes (Baker 2001, Newton 2006, Baker 1994 Por lo tanto, parece de primera necesidad organizar y temporalizar los métodos de entrenamiento para garantizar un estado de forma óptimo para afrontar los primeros partidos con un nivel competitivo, y distribuir los estímulos y métodos de acuerdo a su especificidad a lo largo de toda la temporada para evitar oscilaciones en el rendimiento y atenuar las perdidas. ...
... Periodisation is defined as a strategic prestructured plan to vigorously monitor athlete's loading, with the goal to maximise athlete performance, and minimising the risk of injury (2,9,30,35). Additionally, the literature has shown that several types of periodisation structures have positive outcomes in maximising strength and power, when athletes perform one or more sessions per week (2,3,4,13,26,29,30,35). In order to maintain strength levels, Ronnestad et al (32) concluded that football athletes can maintain strength and sprint performance during the season, by performing one strength session per week. ...
Article
Full-text available
Football (soccer) performance requires a diversity of physical attributes and biomotor abilities, such as strength, power, jump mechanics, repeat sprint ability, change of direction and on-ball skills. In-season training focus is often based on metabolic conditioning activities such as small sided games, tactical and technical football drills and traditional running drills in order to further develop and maintain aerobic and anaerobic capacity. However, this often comes at the expense of strength training, which may be compromised for additional time on the pitch. Therefore, the purpose of this review is to provide an evidenced-based approach, to the periodisation of strength and power during a football season. Secondly, the increased popularity of incorporating on-pitch pre-rehabilitation and injury prevention programs that utilise unstable exercises during the entire season to maintain strength and power will also be discussed. Collectively, literature suggests that strength and power maintenance can be achieved with one strength session per week for football athletes. However, it is important for strength and conditioning coaches to continue the development of strength and power characteristics during a football season, which not only assists on-pitch performance but may also attribute to reduction of injury risk. Evidence supporting the effectiveness of on-pitch pre-rehabilitation programming centred on unstable training is lacking at this time.
... Baker et al. [114] 1994 The linear periodized method is characterized by a large initial training volume at a moderate intensity (5X10 RM), with progressive increases in intensity and sharp decrease in volume while working toward a peaking of intensity (3 × 1-3 RM) over typical 10-to 12-week training cycle Rhea et al. [64] 2002 The classic form of linear periodization divides a typical strength-training program into different periods or cycles: macrocycles (9-12 months), mesocycles (3-4 months), and microcycles (1-4 weeks), gradually increasing the training intensity while decreasing the training volume within and between cycles A less used form of periodization called undulating periodization is characterized by more frequent alterations in the intensity and volume. Rather than making changes over a period of months, the undulating model makes these same changes on a weekly or even daily basis DeBeliso et al. [42] 2005 Linear periodization is characterized by a progression over time (i.e., weeks and months) that increases intensity as volume decreases Nonlinear (undulating) periodization varies intensity and volume within 7-10-day training cycles Buford et al. [20] 2007 Linear periodization is based on changing exercise volume and intensity across several mesocycles Undulating periodization is based on the idea that volume and intensity are altered more frequently (daily, weekly, or biweekly) to give the neuromuscular system more frequent periods of recovery Issurin [94] 2008 General idea of block periodization suggests the use and sequencing of specialized mesocycle blocks, where highly concentrated training workloads are focused on a minimal number of motor and technical abilities. ...
Article
Full-text available
Over the past several decades, periodization has been widely accepted as the gold standard of training theory. Within the literature, there are numerous definitions for periodization, which makes it difficult to study. When examining the proposed definitions and related studies on periodization, problems arise in the following domains: (1) periodization has been proposed to serve as the macro-management of the training process concerning the annual plan, yet research on long-term effects is scarce; (2) periodization and programming are being used interchangeably in research; and (3) training is not periodized alongside other stressors such as sport (i.e., only resistance training is being performed without the inclusion of sport). Overall, the state of the literature suggests that the inability to define periodization makes the statement of its superiority difficult to experimentally test. This paper discusses the proposed definitions of periodization and the study designs which have been employed to examine the concept.
... In this study, similar increases in 1RM values were observed for all VBT schemes (LP, UP, RP, and CP; 17.3, 10.9, 18.0, and 15.3%, respectively). In agreement with our findings, previous studies have also shown similar improvements in 1RM strength for different programming models (1,10,15,(18)(19)(20)(21)25,38). Accordingly, a previous meta-analysis detected no significant differences in strength gains between LP and UP programming models (13), whereas a later meta-analysis found that UP induced a more favorable impact on maximum development than LP (37). ...
Article
Riscart-López, J, Rendeiro-Pinho, G, Mil-Homens, P, Costa, RS-d, Loturco, I, Pareja-Blanco, F, and León-Prados, JA. Effects of Four different velocity-based training programming models on strength gains and physical performance. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2020-The aim of this study was to compare the effects of 4 velocity-based training (VBT) programming models (linear programming [LP], undulating programming [UP], reverse programming [RP], and constant programming [CP]) on the physical performance of moderately strength-trained men. Forty-three young (age: 22.9 ± 4.8 years; body mass [BM]: 71.7 ± 7.6; full squat [SQ] relative strength 1.32 ± 0.29) subjects were randomly assigned to LP (gradually increase training intensity and decrease volume), UP (volume and intensity increase or decrease repeatedly), RP (gradually increases volume and decrease intensity), and CP (maintains constant volume and intensity) groups and followed an 8-week VBT intervention using the SQ exercise and monitoring movement velocity for every repetition. All groups trained with similar relative average intensity (67.5% 1 repetition maximum [1RM]), magnitude of velocity loss within the set (20%), number of sets (3), and interset recoveries (4 minutes) throughout the training program. Pre-training and post-training measurements included predicted SQ (1RM), average velocity attained for all loads common to pre-tests and post-tests (AV), average velocity for those loads that were moved faster (AV > 1) and slower (AV < 1) than 1 m·s-1 at pre-tests, countermovement jump height (CMJ), and 20-m sprint time (T20). No significant group × time interactions were observed for any of the variables analyzed. All groups obtained similar increases (shown in effect size values) in 1RM strength (LP: 0.88; UP: 0.54; RP: 0.62; CP: 0.51), velocity-load-related variables (LP: 0.74-4.15; UP: 0.46-5.04; RP: 0.36-3.71; CP: 0.74-3.23), CMJ height (LP: 0.35; UP: 0.53; RP: 0.49; CP: 0.34), and sprint performance (LP: 0.34; UP: 0.35; RP: 0.32; CP: 0.30). These results suggest that different VBT programming models induced similar physical performance gains in moderately strength-trained subjects.
... When it comes about periodization, Baker (1994) like (Voroboyev, 1978, Mateyev, 1972, Stone, 1981. Third one was based on undulating periodized training method advocated by Poliquin (1988). ...
Conference Paper
Full-text available
Pre season period is one of the most important part of the macrocycle in ice hockey. Therefore main purpose of this study was to apply innovative training protocol during pre season period. Eight national team ice hockey players from under 18 hockey project of slovak ice hockey federation participated in 10 weeks training program divided into 3 microcycles per 3 weeks with 1 deload microcycle. First three weeks were targeted on improving eccentric strength (10 training sessions per week), Second 3 weeks were targeted on maximal strength with energy system development and last microcycle was targeted on improving explosive strength and high intensity working capacity. During the program, had been used innovative training tools like Vert, Vertimax and isokinetic ergobike. For complex diagnostics were used FMS, isokinetic ergobike, Bench press, Back squat, Squat jump, Counter-movement jump, grip strength and sprints on 5 and 10 meters. Results showed, that players significantly improved in all tests with low to moderate effect sizes (p < 0.05, r = 0.17-0.49) and in Bench press we achieved higher statistical significance (p < 0.01, r = 0.23). Used training program periodization seems to be efficient way for pre season preparation.
... In contrast to the previous studies that used linear (traditional) periodization (12)(13)(14), we used a weekly undulating periodization model. It has been proposed that undulating periodization of training is more beneficial than traditional periodization as the variation in stimuli with low, moderate and high intensity and recovery is more frequent than in the latter (34)(35)(36). ...
Preprint
Full-text available
Background: We investigated the feasibility of a 16-week supervised heavy resistance training program with weekly undulating periodization for individuals with persistent non-specific low-back pain (LBP). Methods: Twenty-five adults with persistent non-specific LBP participated in this mixed methods feasibility study. Participants trained a whole-body program consisting of squat, bench press, deadlift and pendlay row two times per week for 16 weeks. We assessed pain intensity, pain-related disability, pain self-efficacy and one-repetition maximum strength at baseline, 8 weeks and 16 weeks. Three focus group interviews were conducted at the end of the program. Linear mixed models were used to assess changes in outcomes, and the qualitative data was assessed using systematic text condensation. Results: We observed clinically meaningful reductions in pain intensity after 8 and 16 weeks of training. The mean difference on the numeric pain rating scale (0-10) in the last two weeks from baseline to 8 weeks was 2.6 (95% CI: 1.8-3.6) and from baseline to 16 weeks 3.4 (95% CI: 2.5-4.4). In addition, there were improvements in pain-related disability (3.9, 95% CI: 2.3-5.5), pain self-efficacy (7.7, 95% CI: 5.4-10.1) and muscle strength. In the focus group interviews, participants talked about challenges regarding technique, the importance of supervision and the advantages of periodizing the training. Perceived benefits were improved pain, daily functioning, energy level and sleep, and changes in views on physical activity. Conclusion: Periodized resistance training with weekly undulating periodization is a feasible training method for this group of individuals with persistent non-specific LBP. A randomized clinical trial should assess the efficacy of such an intervention.
... In contrast to the previous studies that used linear (traditional) periodization (12)(13)(14), we used a weekly undulating periodization model. It has been proposed that undulating periodization of training is more beneficial than traditional periodization as the variation in stimuli with low, moderate and high intensity and recovery is more frequent than in the latter (34)(35)(36). ...
Preprint
Full-text available
Background: We investigated the feasibility of a 16-week supervised heavy resistance training program with weekly undulating periodization for individuals with persistent non-specific low-back pain (LBP). Methods: Twenty-five adults with persistent non-specific LBP participated in this mixed methods feasibility study. Participants trained a whole-body program consisting of squat, bench press, deadlift and pendlay row two times per week for 16 weeks. We assessed pain intensity, pain-related disability, pain self-efficacy and one-repetition maximum strength at baseline, 8 weeks and 16 weeks. Three focus group interviews were conducted at the end of the program. Linear mixed models were used to assess changes in outcomes, and the qualitative data was assessed using systematic text condensation. Results: We observed clinically meaningful reductions in pain intensity after 8 and 16 weeks of training. The mean difference on the numeric pain rating scale (0-10) in the last two weeks from baseline to 8 weeks was 2.6 (95% CI: 1.8-3.6) and from baseline to 16 weeks 3.4 (95% CI: 2.5-4.4). In addition, there were improvements in pain-related disability (3.9, 95% CI: 2.3-5.5), pain self-efficacy (7.7, 95% CI: 5.4-10.1) and muscle strength. In the focus group interviews, participants talked about challenges regarding technique, the importance of supervision and the advantages of periodizing the training. Perceived benefits were improved pain, daily functioning, energy level and sleep, and changes in views on physical activity. Conclusion: Periodized resistance training with weekly undulating periodization is a feasible training method for this group of individuals with persistent non-specific LBP. A randomized clinical trial should assess the efficacy of such an intervention. Trial registration clinicaltrials.gov/ Identifier – NCT04284982, Registered on February 24th 2020.
... O sucesso em competições esportivas depende, em grande parte, de um elaborado programa de treinamento, o qual deve ser prescrito com cargas adequadas, com períodos de recuperação apropriados, visando uma otimização das adaptações ao treinamento 1,2 . Avaliar e quantificar as cargas externas (distância percorrida, duração, velocidade) e cargas internas (alterações fisiológicas) do treinamento, tem sido considerado um grande desafio para técnicos e treinadores de diferentes modalidades esportivas [3][4][5] , visto que a exposição do atleta a cargas excessivas, associada à monotonia das sessões de treinos, podem gerar adaptações negativas, levando à queda do desempenho que pode evoluir para o overtraining [6][7][8][9][10] . ...
Article
Full-text available
O objetivo do estudo foi descrever a distribuição das Cargas de Treinamento (CT) pelo método da percepção subjetiva de esforço (PSE) da sessão e verificar a sua associação com as alterações de marcadores salivares (MS) em atletas de atletismo durante um camping de treinamento. Participaram do estudo, 44 atletas (17,5 ± 2,7 anos; 175,1 ± 9,0 cm; 63,9 ± 10,7 Kg) sendo, 11 velocistas, 11 fundistas, 11 saltadores e 11 arremessadores, avaliados durante oito sessões de treinamento (duração entre 120 e 150 minutos). Amostras de saliva foram colhidas antes e após o camping, avaliando as concentrações de cortisol, proteínas totais e osmolaridade. A PSE foi obtida trinta minutos após cada sessão, utilizando a escala CR10. A normalidade dos dados foi verificada pelo teste de Shapiro-Wilk. A comparação entre grupos foi realizada por ANOVA e a correlação entre PSE e MS foi obtida pela correlação de Pearson, adotando p < 0,05. A distribuição das CT apresentaram características ondulatórias e alta variabilidade. Houve aumento na osmolaridade salivar nos velocistas (55,0 ± 14,0 vs. 68,7 ± 22,6 mOsm/L; p=0,003) e saltadores (60,9 ± 17,9 vs. 77,8 ± 18,7 mOsm/L; p=0,001). Os fundistas apresentaram maiores níveis de cortisol (p = 0,007) comparado aos demais grupos. Não foram encontradas correlações entre a PSE da sessão e MS. Sendo assim, a combinação de avaliações perceptuais e fisiológicas deve ser priorizada para um melhor controle e monitoramento de atletas na modalidade de atletismo.
... In contrast to the previous studies that used linear (traditional) periodization (12)(13)(14), we used a weekly undulating periodization model. It has been proposed that undulating periodization of training is more beneficial than traditional periodization as the variation in stimuli with low, moderate and high intensity and recovery is more frequent than in the latter (34)(35)(36). ...
Preprint
Full-text available
Background We investigated the feasibility of a 16-week supervised heavy resistance training program with weekly undulating periodization for individuals with persistent non-specific low-back pain (LBP). Methods Twenty-five adults with persistent non-specific LBP participated in this mixed methods feasibility study. Participants trained a whole-body program consisting of squat, bench press, deadlift and pendlay row two times per week for 16 weeks. We assessed pain intensity, pain-related disability, pain self-efficacy and one-repetition maximum strength at baseline, 8 weeks and 16 weeks. Three focus group interviews were conducted at the end of the program. Linear mixed models were used to assess changes in outcomes, and the qualitative data was assessed using systematic text condensation. Results We observed clinically meaningful reductions in pain intensity after 8 and 16 weeks of training. The mean difference on the numeric pain rating scale (0-10) in the last two weeks from baseline to 8 weeks was 2.6 (95% CI: 1.8-3.6) and from baseline to 16 weeks 3.4 (95% CI: 2.5-4.4). In addition, there were improvements in pain-related disability (3.9, 95% CI: 2.3-5.5), pain self-efficacy (7.7, 95% CI: 5.4-10.1) and muscle strength. In the focus group interviews, participants talked about challenges regarding technique, the importance of supervision and the advantages of periodizing the training. Perceived benefits were improved pain, daily functioning, energy level and sleep, and changes in views on physical activity. Conclusion Periodized resistance training with weekly undulating periodization is a feasible training method for this group of individuals with persistent non-specific LBP. A randomized clinical trial should assess the efficacy of such an intervention.
... Would the correlations found on the change scores of muscle size and strength from studies designed to increase both be more convincing [22,46]? Would correlations from longer term studies on the changes in skinfold thickness and muscle strength be enough [47,48]? It is hard to imagine another scenario where correlations (between or within), in the absence of experimental evidence, are sufficient to make causal claims about the importance of one variable for another variable [40,49]. ...
... Adaptasi Anatomi / Persediaan Fizikal 50-75% 1RM 1-4 set x 12-15 ulangan Pembinaan Saiz dan Daya Tahan Otot 50-75% 1RM 3-6 set x 10-20 ulangan Pembinaan Kekuatan Otot 80-90% 1RM 3-5 set x 4-8 ulangan Pembinaan Kuasa Otot 75-90% 1RM 3-5 set x 2-5 ulangan Jadual 9.2: Cadangan intensiti latihan berdasarkan bebanan maksima mengikut objektif latihan (Baker, Wilson, & Carlyon, 1994;Barjaste & Mirzaei, 2018;Bird, Tarpenning, & Marino, 2005;Bompa, 1996;DeWeese, Hornsby, Stone, & Stone, 2015;Kraemer & Ratamess, 2004;Pollock et al., 1998;Stone et al., 1999;Tan, 1999) Satu lagi kaedah paling mudah untuk preskripsi intensiti latihan bebanan adalah berdasarkan keselesaan melakukan angkatan bebanan dengan teknik betul untuk ulangan yang diberi (Elsangedy et al., 2018). Apa yang penting pelatih mencapai jumlah ulangan yang diperlukan (contohnya 10 ulangan) dengan bebanan yang diangkat adalah selesa tetapi tidak terlalu ringan hinggakan jumlah ulangan sekiranya tidak berhenti selepas 10 ulangan, boleh mencapai hingga 12 ulangan dan lebih. ...
Chapter
Full-text available
OBJEKTIF PEMBELAJARAN: 1. Mengenalpasti dan memahami kaedah-kaedah latihan kekuatan dan daya tahan otot. 2. Mengenalpasti dan memahami aspek keselamatan dan teknik lakuan yang betul bagi setiap jenis kaedah latihan dan senaman yang diperkenalkan. 3. Mengetahui bahagian otot, tulang dan rangka yang terlibat bagi setiap jenis senaman latihan kekuatan yag diperkenalkan. 4. Memahami konsep susun atur turutan senaman dalam latihan. 5. Mengaplikasi secara effektif, efisyen dan selamat kaedah latihan dan senaman latihan kekuatan dan daya tahan otot. KATA KUNCI: kaedah latihan kekuatan latihan rintangan analisa kompetensi pergerakan teknik lakuan gerakan menarik dan menolak otot agonis dan antagonis senaman bebanan sendiri senaman mesin senaman bebanan bebas senaman latihan fungsi senaman kuasa keselamatan senaman kekuatan
... A pesar de todo, se aconseja incluir un trabajo de fuerza máxima para incidir también sobre la mejora del salto y del esprint [27,33]. Sin embargo, en otros trabajos se ha demostrado que la mejora experimentada en la fuerza máxima con un trabajo propio de esta manifestación de fuerza no se corresponde con una mejora similar en la capacidad de salto [2,3]. Si bien es cierto que para todos los tipos de salto en los dos grupos de entrenamiento los sujetos obtuvieron diferencias significativas, al trabajar de forma conjunta y seguida la sobrecarga y la pliometría en el GE2, este grupo obtuvo de forma cualitativa unas mejoras más elevadas, confirmándose con este tipo de entrenamiento combinado el efecto positivo que tiene sobre la capacidad de salto en fútbol: [10,24,25,29]. ...
Conference Paper
The aim of the present study was to examine how maximal and explosive strength are affected by a 6 week two complex training programs in youth soccer players. The sample was divided into 3 groups: Control Group (GC, n=16), Training Group 1 (GE1, n=15) performed heavy strength and later plyometric program and Training Group 2 (GE2, n=15) performed heavy strength and plyometric at the same set. Both groups executed these strength training programs twice a week. Pretests and posttests were 1repetition maximum half squat (1 RM HS ), countermovement jump (CMJ), drop jump (DJ), Abalakov jump (ABK), 1 repetition maximum bench press (1 RM BP ), and peak power in bench press. The GE1 and GE2 demonstrated significant increases (p<0.05) in maximum and explosive strength. It could be concluded that a 6-week complex training program with heavy strength and plyometric exercises can improve maximum and explosive strength in youth level soccer players.
... También se ha demostrado que la mejora experimentada en la fuerza máxima, realizando durante el entrenamiento un trabajo propio de esta manifestación de fuerza, no se corresponde con una mejora similar en la capacidad de salto [32,32]. si bien, es cierto que para todos los tipos de salto en los dos grupos de entrenamiento los sujetos obtuvieron diferencias significativas, al trabajar de forma conjunta y seguida la sobrecarga y la pliometría en el Tg2, este grupo obtuvo de forma cualitativa unas mejoras más elevadas, confirmándose con este tipo de entrenamiento combinado el efecto positivo que tiene sobre la capacidad de salto en diferentes perfiles de deportistas: en fútbol: garcía et al. [9]; Nuñez et al. [33]; Ronnestad et al. [22]. ...
Article
Se ha valorado los efectos de dos tipos de entrenamiento complejo de 6 semanas sobre diferentes factores de fuerza máxima y potencia, en diferentes atletas (edad =1 6,86 ± 0,74 años), un método de desarrollo de la fuerza (especialmente de la fuerza explosiva y potencia) cuya característica es la alternancia de cargas de trabajo de distinta intensidad. Eran jugadores de fútbol, baloncesto, balonmano y voleibol, divididos en tres grupos con jugadores de los 4 deportes. El grupo TG1 (n = 50) trabajó con series de cargas altas y a continuación con series de pliometría. TG2 (n = 50) trabajó con cargas altas y pliometría en las mismas series. Además, el grupo control (CG) (n = 48). TG1 y TG2 demostraron un aumento significativo (p < 0.05) en fuerza máxima y explosiva, así como en la capacidad de salto después de 6 semanas de entrenamiento. Se puede concluir que con el entrenamiento complejo con sobrecargas y pliometría hubo mejora en la fuerza máxima y explosiva en jugadores jóvenes de fútbol, baloncesto, balonmano y voleibol. Además, puede mantener las mejoras de fuerza máxima y explosiva por varias semanas.Palabras-clave: educación y entrenamiento físico, potencia, atletas, deportes.
Article
Full-text available
Objectives: The adolescent development period is critical for rugby league athletes, given the physical growth, neuromuscular adaptation, and skill acquisition that occurs. Secondary schools play an important role in the development of adolescent rugby league players; however, players may be selected into rugby league academies and development programs outside of school, as well as participating in additional sports. In turn, the training loads these young athletes accrue and the implications of these loads are currently unknown. Our aim was to quantify the training loads and concomitant changes in physical qualities of schoolboy and adolescent rugby league players during mesocycles within the pre-season and in-season phases. Design: This is a prospective experimental study. Methods: Twenty-one schoolboy rugby league players (16.2 ± 1.3 years) were monitored across separate 4-week mesocycles in the pre-season and in-season. Session frequency, duration, and the session rating of perceived exertion (sRPE) load were reported for all examples of training and match participation in the school rugby league program, as well as club and representative teams for any sport and personal strength and conditioning. Various physical qualities were assessed before and after each 4-week mesocycle. Results: The sRPE load that accumulated across the 4-week mesocycles was higher in the pre-season than the in-season (8260 ± 2021 arbitrary units [AU] vs. 6148 ± 980 AU, p < 0.001), with non-significant differences in accumulated session frequency and duration between phases. Session frequency, duration, and sRPE load differed (p < 0.05) between some weeks in an inconsistent manner during the pre-season and in-season mesocycles. Regarding physical qualities, improvements (p < 0.05) in the 10 m sprint test, Multistage Fitness Test, medicine ball throw, and 1-repetition maximum back squat and bench press performances were evident across the pre-season mesocycle, with declines (p < 0.05) in the 505-Agility Test, L-run Test, and 1-repetition maximum back squat performances across the in-season mesocycle. Conclusions: These novel training load data show schoolboy rugby league players experience considerable demands that may be suitable in developing several physical qualities during the pre-season but detrimental to maintaining such qualities across the in-season.
Article
Basketball is a multidirectional sport that holds unique and multifaceted physiologic demands. Strength and conditioning professionals should consider addressing sports performance and injury mitigation in basketball using a thorough needs analysis. However, one must acknowledge that not all basketball athletes are the same. Specifically, school-aged female basketball players sustain injuries at a significantly higher rate than their male counterparts, particularly at the knee and ankle. Adolescent females also have unique maturational characteristics and concerns. Consequently, it is reasonable to surmise that female adolescent basketball players have unique strength and conditioning needs to be considered when designing training programs to improve performance and mitigate injury. Currently, there is limited peer-reviewed literature to aid strength and conditioning practitioners working with this population. The purpose of this paper is to review the unique attributes and needs of adolescent female basketball players while offering practical guidance in testing and assessment, strength training, conditioning, and injury mitigation for their sport. SCJ Video Abstract 1—http://links.lww.com/SCJ/A402.
Article
Full-text available
PURPOSE This study investigated the effect of non-linear periodization strength training on basic and professional fitness of national cross-country skiers.METHODS The body composition (height, weight, BMI, body fat %), basic physical strength (grip strength, lung capacity), anaerobic power (peak power, average power), graded exercise test (maximum heart rate, running time, VO2max, lactic acid), isokinetic strength (trunk strength), and 1RM (bench press, dead-lift, squat, shoulder press, leg curl, bicep curl, cable triceps extension) of nine national cross-country skiers (male: 5, female: 4) were measured. All analyses were performed using SPSS 25.0, Kruskal-Wallis H tests were applied to observe the changes by training methods. Mann-Whitney U tests were used as Post Hoc. RESULTS The results indicated that running time and VO2max post-test improved compared to that for the pre-test for graded exercise test. The lumbar extension strength of the post-test was higher than that for pre-test. There was no significant difference in other variables. CONCLUSIONS It is suggested that nonlinear periodization strength training can be expected to improve running time, VO2max, and trunk strength for cross-country athletes; however, it does not affect the overall changes.
Article
Objective The purpose of this case series was to observe physical performance changes following an 8-week nonlinear periodization training program on firefighters currently on light duty who were cleared to participate in full physical activities. Methods Two firefighters underwent an 8-week nonlinear periodization program. Participant 1 was returning from anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction and participant 2 from a non-surgical low back injury. The Incumbent Physical Ability Test (IPAT), 2-minute push-up test, 300-yard shuttle, and Gerkin protocol testing were assessed at baseline, week 4, and week 8. Outcomes Both participants demonstrated improvement in assessments of physical performance and fitness across each assessment point, with exception of the Gerkin protocol, and were able to return to full duty at the conclusion of their rehabilitation training program. Conclusion The physical demands of tactical professionals such as firefighters exceed those of the general population. As such, these individuals require both job-specific programming and assessments when transitioning from an injury to full duty. An 8-week nonlinear periodization program yielded improvements in performance of firefighting tasks and physical fitness in two firefighters returning to full duty after injury and highlighted effective interprofessional collaboration between the physical therapy and fitness team.
Article
Full-text available
Background In resistance training, periodization is often used in an attempt to promote development of strength and muscle hypertrophy. However, it remains unclear how resistance training variables are most effectively periodized to maximize gains in strength and muscle hypertrophy. Objective The aims of this study were to examine the current body of literature to determine whether there is an effect of periodization of training volume and intensity on maximal strength and muscle hypertrophy, and, if so, to determine how these variables are more effectively periodized to promote increases in strength and muscle hypertrophy, when volume is equated between conditions from pre to post intervention. Methods Systematic searches were conducted in PubMed, Scopus and SPORTDiscus databases. Data from the individual studies were extracted and coded. Meta-analyses using the inverse-variance random effects model were performed to compare 1-repetition maximum (1RM) and muscle hypertrophy outcomes in (a) non-periodized (NP) versus periodized training and (b) in linear periodization (LP) versus undulating periodization (UP). Subgroup analyses examining whether results were affected by training status were performed. Meta-analyses of other periodization model comparisons were not performed, due to a low number of studies. Results Thirty-five studies met the inclusion criteria. Results of the meta-analyses comparing NP and periodized training demonstrated an overall effect on 1RM strength favoring periodized training (ES 0.31, 95% confidence interval (CI) [0.04, 0.57]; Z = 2.28, P = 0.02). In contrast, muscle hypertrophy did not differ between NP and periodized training (ES 0.13, 95% CI [–0.10, 0.36]; Z = 1.10, P = 0.27). Results of the meta-analyses comparing LP and UP indicated an overall effect on 1RM favoring UP (ES 0.31, 95% CI [0.02, 0.61]; Z = 2.06, P = 0.04). Subgroup analyses indicated an effect on 1RM favoring UP in trained participants (ES 0.61, 95% CI [0.00, 1.22]; Z = 1.97 (P = 0.05)), whereas changes in 1RM did not differ between LP and UP in untrained participants (ES 0.06, 95% CI [–0.20, 0.31]; Z = 0.43 (P = 0.67)). The meta-analyses showed that muscle hypertrophy did not differ between LP and UP (ES 0.05, 95% CI [–0.20, 0.29]; Z = 0.36 (P = 0.72)). Conclusion The results suggest that when volume is equated between conditions, periodized resistance training has a greater effect on 1RM strength compared to NP resistance training. Also, UP resulted in greater increases in 1RM compared to LP. However, subgroup analyses revealed that this was only the case for trained and not previously untrained individuals, indicating that trained individuals benefit from daily or weekly undulations in volume and intensity, when the aim is maximal strength. Periodization of volume and intensity does not seem to affect muscle hypertrophy in volume-equated pre-post designs. Based on this, we propose that the effects of periodization on maximal strength may instead be related to the neurophysiological adaptations accompanying resistance training.
Article
Walts, CT, Murphy, SM, Stearne, DJ, Rieger, RH, and Clark, KP. Effects of a flexible workout system on performance gains in collegiate athletes. J Strength Cond Res 35(5): 1187-1193, 2021-Although research on the topic of periodization is abundant, investigations into different flexible periodization strategies in collegiate athletes are limited. Furthermore, how state of readiness (SOR) and workout autonomy affect training improvements is largely unknown. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine if a flexible periodization (FP) program would elicit significantly greater performance gains compared with a nonflexible periodization (NP) program (significance set p ≤ 0.05). A total of 32 male and female intercollegiate lacrosse players completed performance measures of vertical jump, sprinting speed, change of direction, and strength in bench press and deadlift. After pretesting, subjects were matched and randomly assigned to either FP (n = 17, age = 19.4 ± 1.4 years, height = 1.72 ± 0.10 m, mass = 72.29 ± 13.73 kg) or NP (n = 15, age = 19.9 ± 1.5 years, height = 1.72 ± 0.08 m, mass = 71.68 ± 13.55 kg) training groups. Both groups trained 3 days per week for 8 weeks. The NP group completed all workout volume and intensity as prescribed by a certified strength and conditioning coach. However, the FP group modified workout volume and intensity based on a daily SOR questionnaire. Although appreciable pretest to posttest improvements were observed for the entire subject cohort, multivariate analysis of variance (ANOVA) and a series of ANOVA tests demonstrated no statistically significant between-group differences for pretest to posttest changes on any of the performance tests (range of p values: 0.17-0.95). Although FP does not seem to be more effective than NP for eliciting performance gains, it may provide greater opportunities for autonomy while eliciting equivalent improvement levels. Therefore, flexible periodization based on SOR may be a viable training strategy.
Article
Full-text available
The periodic variations in the resistance training load are more efficient for promoting muscle strength in comparison to training that does not vary the load over time. This variation occurs by manipulation of the variables presented in a resistance training program, such as the intensity, volume, muscle action speed, and exercise order. Although the pieces of evidence point to the superiority of the varied training, it’s not clear how the processes that influence the force production are affected when the training is performed with load variation through the time. Knowing the mechanics triggered by the load variation along the time could lead to training more specific to the goals desired. Thus, we aimed to discuss the central and peripheral mechanisms that influence the process of force production and to generate insights for new investigations that aim to compare the strength development between the varied and non-varied resistance training programs.
Preprint
Full-text available
We describe improbable data patterns in the work of Barbalho et al.
Article
Full-text available
Background: Hamstrings have been analyzed extensively due to their tendency to shorten and their effect in the lumbo-pelvic dynamics and the sagittal position of the spine in trunk flexion with extended knees positions. It has been demonstrated that practicing a certain sport results in long-term changes in hamstring extensibility. Despite this, adequate extensibility of the hamstring musculature is essential for the dancer's performance. Several studies have found differences in the extensibility of the hamstrings depending on the dance style, but none have compared ballet, Spanish dance and modern dance. The purpose of the present research was to analyze the differences in hamstring extensibility among professional dance students based on dance style practiced and non-dancers. Methods: The sample was comprised of 210 students from the Professional Dance Conservatory (70 for ballet, 70 for Spanish dance and 70 for modern dance) and 70 non-dancers. For the assessment of hamstring extensibility, the angle in the passive and active straight leg raise (PSLR and ASLR, respectively) test, and the scores of the pelvic tilt in sit-and-reach (SR) test and the toe-touch (TT) test were randomly conducted. Results: The results showed significant differences for all the tests according to group (p < 0.001). In the PSLR and ASLR test, for both legs, and in the pelvic tilt in the SR test, the ballet dancers showed greater ranges of hamstring extensibility than the modern dancers and Spanish dancers (p ≤ 0.001). In the distance in the SR test and in the pelvic tilt in the TT test, the ballet dancers obtained higher values than the Spanish dancers (p = 0.004 and p = 0.003, respectively). The modern dancers showed higher ranges of hip flexion than the Spanish dancers in the ASLR test for both legs and in the pelvic tilt in the SR test (p from 0.007 to <0.001). Dancers showed significantly higher hamstring extensibility than non-dancers in all the tests (p < 0.001). Conclusions: The systematic practice of dance, regardless of the style, seems to lead to high ranges of hamstring extensibility. Ballet dancers have the greatest hamstring extensibility.
Article
Este estudo tem como objetivo analisar a impulsão vertical em jogadores de basquetebol após a aplicação de um protocolo de alongamento do “tipo estático”. Foram avaliados 10 atletas do sexo masculino que atuam na categoria mini, com média de idade entre 10 e 11 anos. O teste realizado para medir a impulsão dos jogadores foi o Salto Vertical Máximo (SVM). A avaliação consistiu-se de 4 etapas: 1) Aquecimento geral inespecífico (corrida do tipo “trote”) por 5 minutos; 2) Realização do SVM para o cálculo da média; 3) Realização do protocolo de alongamento do tipo estático dos seguintes grupos musculares: ísquio-tibiais, quadríceps, glúteos, tríceps sural, adutores e abdutores do quadril; 4) Realização de uma nova bateria de SVM. Concluímos que houve uma diferença estatisticamente de2,0 cmpara menos após o alongamento, sendo este responsável por um efeito inibitório sobre a contração dos grupos musculares do MMII e OTG´s.Palavras-chave: salto vertical, alongamento estático, impulsão, flexibilidade.
Article
Full-text available
The purpose of this study was to evaluate and compare the effect of nutritional supplementation (arginine/lysine [AL], versus Exceed(R) [EX], versus placebo [P]) and resistance-training (RT) on changes in body composition, strength and insulin-like growth factor -1 (IGF-1) levels. The study involved 37 physically active college men, ages 20 to 30, randomly assigned to one of five groups: placebo/control (P/C, n = 7); P/RT (n = 8); AL/C (n = 7); AL/RT (n = 8); or EX/RT (n = 7). An AL supplement at a dosage of 132 mg * kg-1 fat-free body (FFB) or placebo was administered to controls and training groups, whereas the EX/RT group received one to 1 1/2 cans of Exceed(R) daily, adjusted to ensure a one-pound gain in body weight each week. During the 10-week program, exercise subjects participated in a progressive resistance-training program stressing all major muscle groups. Significant increases in total strength (bench press + squat + deadlift 1 RMs) after the 10-week intervention were seen in all resistance-trained groups compared to controls, with no apparent advantage provided by nutritional supplementation. Further, while all RT groups significantly increased FFB mass more than non-exercising controls, the EX/RT group significantly increased FFB mass to a greater extent than did the other resistance trained groups. Finally, resting levels of plasma IGF-1 were found unchanged in all groups following the 10-week intervention, suggesting no effect of AL supplementation on human growth hormone levels. It was concluded that while nutritional supplements may have some effects on changes in body composition, resistance-training alone significantly influences strength, regardless of nutritional supplement status. (C) 1992 National Strength and Conditioning Association