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MOTIVATION FOR EXERCISE:
Applying Theory to Make a Difference
in Adoption and Adherence
by Jennifer Mears, M.A. and Marcus Kilpatrick, Ph.D.
Learning objective
•To learn how self-determination theory and motivational inter-
viewing can be useful tools for health fitness professionals aiming
to facilitate adoption and adherence to physical activity.
Key Words:
Self-determination Theory, Motivational Interviewing, Autonomy,
Competence, Relatedness
Despite the widely known health bene<
fits associated with physical activity,
participation in regular physical activ-
ity is well below the goal recommendations set
forth by Healthy People 2010 objectives (1).
More than half of Americans do not meet the
current recommendations, and approximately
one fourth are not active at all (2). Current
recommendations for physical activity from the
Office of the Surgeon General include the
accumulation of at least 30 minutes of moderate
physical activity on most days of the week (3).
This recommendation provides for great flexi-
bil ity in how this moderate amount of phys-
ical activity can be accumulated and suggests
that 15 minutes of running, 30 minutes of brisk
walking, and 45 minutes of recreational vol-
leyball provide an appropriate stimulus for
health promotion and reduction of disease risk.
Collectively, current recommendations embrace
the notion that there are numerous paths to
greater health and that flexible physical activity
prescriptions provide choices that may foster
enhanced motivation for a physically active
lifestyle.
20 ACSM’s HEALTH & FITNESS JOURNALA|www.acsm-healthfitness.org VOL. 12/ NO. 1
SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY
Motivation can be defined as the degree of determination, drive,
or desire with which an individual approaches or avoids a
behavior (4). One motivational theory that is relatively new to
the field of exercise science and health promotion is self-
determination theory (SDT) (5). The basic premise of this
theory is that not all motivations are created equal. The theory
suggests that individuals develop their motivational approach
for a given activity based on how well participation in that
activity meets their basic psychological needs for autonomy,
competence, and relatedness.
Meeting these basic needs results in increased confidence and
a more healthy motivational orientation, which facilitates the
development of enjoyment, effort, and adherence. Likewise, SDT
suggests that people are less likely to adhere to an exercise
program if they perceive that their actions are being controlled by
others, if they feel unskilled, or if they have minimal or negative
social connections associated with their exercise. Self-determina-
tion theory also accounts for how the presence or absence of these
psychological needs ultimately impacts behavior through a
continuum of motivation that ranges from no motivation to
intrinsic motivation. A description of the levels of motivation
based on SDT is depicted in the Figure and includes amotivation,
other-determined extrinsic motivation, self-determined extrinsic
motivation, and intrinsic motivation. This aspect of the theory
is an important elaboration on traditional views of motivation
and behavioral outcomes. Specifically, motivation was origi-
nally conceptualized as simply being present or absent, and later,
existing motivation was described as being intrinsic or
extrinsic. Research and practice now suggest that motivation
is more complex and requires significant elaboration that is
provided by SDT.
Amotivation is the least desirable form of motivation along
the continuum and is described as the absence of drive or
intention to engage in a behavior. An individual with this
perspective does not expect that physical activity will result in
increases in autonomy, competence, or relatedness. Motivation
for these individuals is compromised by bad experiences and/or
lack of education regarding the benefits of exercise. Predictably,
SDT suggests that those who are amotivated are less likely to
participate in regular physical activity.
Other-determined extrinsic motivation exists when people
are motivated through outside sources such as rewards,
pressure, obligation, fear, or guilt. Each of these sources of
motivation has the potential to be potent but is not very
desirable because they lack the autonomy and free choice that
characterize behaviors that are more likely to be adhered to.
Clearly, fear and guilt are not optimal characteristics of suc-
cessful behavior change. Three examples of other-determined
extrinsic motivation include a person who exercises as a result
of pressure from their spouse, someone who participates in
incentive programs at their worksite fitness center, and someone
who fears disease. Although all of these individuals are
participating in activity, according to the SDT, long-term
adherence is unlikely.
Self-determined extrinsic motivation also exists because of
external factors but is characterized more positively because the
behavior is chosen autonomously and without the sense of
pressure or coercion. This type of motivation exists when
individuals participate to obtain a valued outcome such as gains
in fitness, improvements in health, relaxation, or social benefits.
These valued outcomes are all considered to be desirable and
are linked to improved adherence. The differences between self-
determined and other-determined motivation can be subtle, but
the implications are significant both cognitively and from a
behavioral perspective. Motives based on health and social
contexts provide useful examples. Motives based on health
improvement and fear of disease may seem similar but represent
vastly different levels of autonomy. That is, exercising to im-
prove health is associated with a more desirable motivational
approach than is exercising because of fear and pressure. Self-
determination theory suggests that the primary difference is
related to autonomy, whereby autonomy is present in motivations
FIGURE. Self-Determination Theory and Exercise Motives.
VOL. 12/ NO. 1 ACSM_sHEALTH & FITNESS JOURNALA21
based on health improvement and absent when the motive is
pressure and/or fear. Similar distinctions can be made for
individuals who exercise because of the positive interactions
with others in comparison to those who exercise to be
recognized and esteemed by others. The former reflects self-
determined extrinsic motivation, and the latter represents other-
determined extrinsic motivation. These types of distinctions
have important implications for practitioners who want to
facilitate a motivational approach that is likely to result in long-
term adherence to a physically active lifestyle.
Intrinsic motivation exists when the primary reason for
engaging in an activity is enjoyment and satisfaction. Although
this type of motivation may seem conceptually similar to self-
determined extrinsic motivation, intrinsic motivation only exists
when the experience of pleasure and satisfaction is separate
from the outcomes that the activity provides. That is, being
excited about exercise because it allows you to spend time with
friends is different from enjoying exercise for its own sake. This
distinction is of some functional importance because pure
enjoyment of something is a strong predictor of future behavior.
However, the practical implications are less pronounced
because SDT generally suggests that the key element in
behavioral adherence is the presence of autonomy, which is
present in both of these healthy types of motivation.
An important aspect of this theory relates to how individuals
can move through the continuum of motivation with appropriate
education, encouragement, and intervention. It may be that
intrinsic motivation for exercise may not be possible for
everyone. However, SDT does suggest, and both reason and
experience agree, that progression from amotivation to auton-
omously choosing to be active is realistic and possible (5). The
possibility that unmotivated and poorly motivated individuals
can make this progression demonstrates why it is important for
health fitness professionals to understand a participant’s
motivation to exercise. Provision of appropriate education and
communication represents potential mechanisms for this change
that allows clients and participants to move along the continuum
of motivation. Therefore, determining current motivation pro-
vides valuable information that can facilitate exercise adherence,
achievement of goals, and increased self-determination.
Exercise motivation questionnaires developed for use in
research are available for use by practitioners who desire to
learn more about the motivational orientation of their clients.
Several questionnaires based around SDT have been developed
by exercise psychologist David Markland and his colleagues
(6). Electronic copies along with descriptions and scoring
instructions are made available at his academic Web site (6).
Two of these questionnaires are the Exercise Motivation
Inventory (EMI) and the Behavioral Regulation in Exercise
Questionnaire (BREQ) (7,8). The BREQ measures the different
forms of motivations described by SDT and depicted in the
Figure (i.e., amotivation and intrinsic motivation). In contrast,
the EMI measures specific motive for exercise participation
(i.e., enjoyment, guilt, and fitness). One recommendation for
practitioners is to distribute one of the questionnaires as part of
a new member packet. Health and fitness professionals can re-
view the responses and provide tailored physical activity rec-
ommendations for the client. Specifically, a new client or
participant who suggests that fear of disease is a significant
motivation for being physically active would likely benefit from
educational materials related to common diseases and the benefits
of physical activity in risk reduction and disease management.
MOTIVATIONAL INTERVIEWING
One approach that is gaining momentum in various disciplines
of health, psychology, and medicine as a way of motivating
individuals toward healthy behaviors is motivational interview-
ing (MI) (9). This approach is client centered and is intended to
facilitate autonomy and intrinsic motivation. A primary function
of MI is to encourage individuals to explore the origins of their
lack of motivation and/or ambivalence toward physical activity
behavior change. Within the context of physical activity,
ambivalence exists when a sedentary individual simultaneously
has positive and negative feelings about becoming more active
and fit. Discussing the presence of ambivalence and poorly
organized motivation represents the core elements of this
technique, which was developed and used in clinical counseling
as a method of intervention for addictions. Recently, however,
MI has been used in health promotion and physical activity
environments and seems to be a very good fit with SDT (10,11)
and may have great use in the physical activity domain (12).
The use of MI provides an opportunity for the innate needs
described by SDT to be met (10,11). Four core elements of MI
that make this attainment of needs possible include the
following: showing empathy, rolling with resistance, enhance-
ment of self-efficacy, and developing discrepancies (9). These
four elements are used while interviewing and interacting with
the individual currently positioned at a lower level of readiness
for change (13). These practical principles are summarized in
Table 1 and can promote motivation for behavior change.
22 ACSM’s HEALTH & FITNESS JOURNALA|www.acsm-healthfitness.org VOL. 12/ NO. 1
Motivation For Exercise
Showing empathy involves listening carefully to client con-
cerns, being careful to acknowledge client feelings and not
take the position of authoritarian, or being judgmental. This
skill differs from sympathy because empathy is provided when
the professional indicates that they understand and can identify
with client perspectives. In contrast, sympathy denotes agree-
ment with the client and the sharing of emotions, which can
reduce the capacity to effectively listen and assist. Empathy is
based around mutual respect and a genuine desire to help the
client reach their personal goals rather than impose goals. One
example of expressing empathy pertains to barriers to exercise.
The professional must listen carefully to the individual’s
barriers with understanding and display an attitude of
acceptance rather than fault before the process of change can
occur. This type of interaction satisfies the need for relatedness
and will facilitate enhanced motivation for change.
Rolling with resistance requires acknowledgement that the
client has some resistance to behavior change. The decision on
the part of the client to seek professional guidance is evidence of
a desire to change and a need for assistance. Therefore, the
professional must be supportive of the efforts to change and
should avoid specifically arguing with or challenging the client.
The professional should instead be creative and resourceful in
efforts to help the client determine their next step. One example
of rolling with resistance is provided by a discussion related to
exercise barriers. The goal of the professional in this
circumstance is to be patient and flexible as the client provides
various reasons for not being more active. Appropriately
responding during a time of resistance to change will allow
the client to be in a better position to make a more significant
and personal commitment to change, which helps satisfy the
need for autonomy.
Supporting self-efficacy requires that the professional take
advantage of every opportunity to increase client confidence and
belief in self regarding behavior change. This effort involves
providing encouragement when the client sets realistic goals and
instilling confidence that the client will be able to successfully
cope with behavioral lapses and setbacks. It is expected that
clients struggling with lifestyle choices will sometimes make
negative comments about themselves, and the professional
needs to provide encouragement so as to avoid the development
of a defeatist attitude. Collectively, these efforts should increase
self-efficacy and satisfy the need for competence.
Developing discrepancies involves helping the client de-
velop a clear picture of the difference between the current and
desired behavior. A clear depiction of this difference in a
supportive nonjudgmental manner should facilitate the devel-
opment of clarity in regard to personal values and goals. It is
important that this interaction with the client progress in a way
that allows the client to reach his or her own conclusions about
how to proceed. The professional can educate the client on
barriers to exercise, but it is up to the client to establish the
reasons to change and intentions to change without coercion
from the professional. Facilitation of autonomy is an important
goal and outcome for this element of MI.
Collectively, these four elementsofMIfacilitatethe
development of intention and motivation that increase the
likelihood of success in behavior change efforts. This approach
was originally developed for use in the treatment of substance
abuse problems but, more recently, has been recommended for
use in other health domains such as physical activity (12).
TABLE 1: Key Elements of MI
Element Description
Empathic
counseling
based on mutual respect and avoidance of
professional being perceived as authoritarian
requires careful listening without passing judgment
requires that goals be generated by the client rather
than being imposed
Rolling with
resistance
based on the reality that behavior change is a
process and involves resistance to change on the
part of the client
requires support for and encouragement of client
efforts and commitment for change
requires that the professional avoid being
confrontational and/or argumentative
Supporting
self-efficacy
based on instilling confidence in the client for
change
requires validation of goals set by the client that are
realistic and appropriate
involves preparing the client to better cope with
challenges and setbacks
Developing
discrepancies
Based on the notion that a clear depiction of the
discrepancy between their current and desired
behavior motivates change
involves client recognizing more clearly their
personal goals and values
requires that the client reach their own conclusions
on how to proceed
VOL. 12/ NO. 1 ACSM_sHEALTH & FITNESS JOURNALA23
Additionally, MI was initially used almost exclusively in
clinical settings by clinical psychologists. However, the devel-
opers of MI have pointed out that the general approach is not
restricted to formal clinical counseling and that suggestions like
those previously provided can be useful to all practitioners who
are grounded in the spirit of MI (14). Therefore, health fitness
professionals interested in using the MI approach must make
themselves aware of the training options made available to
them. The most basic approach to gaining additional training
would include self-study, and this can be accomplished by
additional reading on the subject (9Y12,14). A more rigorous
plan of action would include formal training that is available
through participation in seminars and workshops available
through the organization affiliated with the developers of MI or
other training services (15,16). Practitioners should note that
formal training and supervised practice of the techniques
should result in more rapid skill acquisition, but self-study
and practice can result in adequate competency over time.
Additionally, some practitioners will find the principles of MI
quite intuitive, whereas others will not, and this type of
individual difference will greatly impact how readily the
approach is adopted and used effectively. Practitioners are
encouraged to explore the resources provided here and else-
where and to experiment with the basic principles in their
interactions with clients as a way of guiding the decision on
how to proceed with future training plans.
PRACTICAL RECOMMENDATIONS TO
ENHANCE MOTIVATION
The usefulness of SDT and MI will ultimately be measured by
its effectiveness in facilitating behavior change and adherence
to physical activity programs. The following section provides
practical applications of these two approaches that fitness
professionals can use on a daily basis. Some recommendations
are variations on standard practice, and others are more novel.
Regardless, each is based on the conceptual framework
presented in this article. A summary of these recommendations
is provided in Table 2.
Provide rationale
Clients generally want and need to know the rationale and basis
for the activities they are asked to participate in. Providing this
background involves educating the client regarding the role of
physical activity in health and fitness. This provision increases
knowledge and appreciation for the activity and facilitates
perceptions of empowerment, control, and autonomy.
Promote moderately difficult goals
A desirable outcome of goal setting is hard work and achieve-
ment. Good work ethic is supported when goals are moderately
difficult rather than too easy or extremely difficult. Goals that
are too easy tend to undermine motivation, whereas self-
efficacy is jeopardized by goals perceived as overwhelming. It
TABLE 2: Practical Recommendations
Recommendation Basis Example
Provide rationale brief descriptions of why the activity is appropriate or empowering ‘‘The reason for today’s activity is to help you be able to
finish your first triathlon feeling strong.’’
serves as an educational opportunity that develops perceived
sense of control
‘‘Spending a few minutes warming up before your
aerobic exercise sessions will improve performance and
reduce risk.’’
Promote
moderately
difficult goals
moderate goals provide a nice balance of motivation and
self-confidence
‘‘Consider a goal that is achievable with a lot of work.
Maybe you can try to improve your maximum number of
repetitions from 10 to 12 repetitions.’’
highly difficult goals may compromise perceptions of
confidence, and very easy goals do not provide adequate
motivation
‘‘The goal while training for a first marathon is to finish
the race, so pacing is important in training and during
the race.’’
Provide choice perceived choice in how goals are attained develops a
sense of autonomy
‘‘I have developed three different activities designed to
help you develop core strength.’’
perceptions of being manipulated undermine motivation and
a belief that outcomes are largely controlled by outside forces
‘‘The last exercise session each week is flexible. Choose
any cardiovascular activity that you like and just have fun.’’
Promote social
aspects
building relationships with individuals within an exercise context
provides the opportunity for positive support of a physically active
and healthy lifestyle
‘‘To enhance your workout programs, we are going to
choose partners to work with both inside and outside of
normal workout times.’’
linkage to others provides the opportunity for encouragement,
accountability, and a sense of relatedness
‘‘During each session the next several weeks, share your
workout with a different partner for each drill.’’
Provide positive
feedback
feedback regarding effort level and performance provides a
means of assessing competence
‘‘Good job! I can really see you are working hard on
making sure your form is appropriate’’
negative feedback may result in decreased sense of competence
and reduced self-esteem
‘‘Purchasing the heart rate monitor was a great idea to
help you monitor your exercise intensity.’’
24 ACSM’s HEALTH & FITNESS JOURNALA|www.acsm-healthfitness.org VOL. 12/ NO. 1
Motivation For Exercise
is the participant’s responsibility to establish the goals, and the
professional is there to supervise and assist. The professional
should meet with the client and have them write down the goals
to be met, what steps will be taken to achieve the goal, and a
specific date to be achieved. This approach allows the client to
develop self-efficacy and mastery.
Provide choices
One important function of fitness professionals is the provision
of options to clients regarding how they might be able to meet
their goals. Involving the client allows the decision to ultimately
rest in the hands of the individual desiring behavior change.
This process places the client in a position of control, which is
superior when compared with a client feeling controlled or
manipulated. Although many clients simply want to be told
what to do, fitness professionals should seek to allow the client
to make their own decisions because client-generated decisions
enhance autonomy.
Promote social aspects
The importance of social elements is obvious both within and
outside physical activity. Building relationships with individ-
uals within an exercise context provides the opportunity for
positive support of a physically active and healthy lifestyle.
These social connections might include developing relation-
ships with exercise leaders and group exercise participants or
participating in a sport or recreational club. This social link pro-
vides the opportunity for encouragement and accountability and
develops a sense of relatedness on the part of the client that is
striving for health and fitness.
Provide positive feedback
This classic principle is most readily related to the psycho-
logical development of children but also is applicable for adult
populations. It is important to never underestimate the power of
positive and negative words on the thoughts, attitudes, and
motivations of individuals engaged in efforts to initiate or
maintain an exercise program. Negative feedback can result in a
decreased sense of competence, leading to lack of interest and
participation. In contrast, positive feedback functions to build
self-confidence and perceptions of mastery and success.
The above list of recommendations is not meant to be
exhaustive because many other concepts could clearly be
incorporated into an effective professional approach. Addition-
ally, these recommendations are not presented as groundbreak-
ing in terms of providing an entirely novel set of guidelines for
assisting individuals desiring to initiate or maintain a fitness
program. These recommendations do, however, present a
framework based on contemporary theory and practice that
should allow the fitness professional to create an approach and
environment that is conducive to developing lifelong physical
activity patterns in their clients.
SUMMARY
One great privilege afforded health and fitness professionals is
the opportunity to make a difference in the health and lives of
the individuals we serve. Our profession is filled with individ-
uals who love their jobs and the people they work with. The
purpose of this article is to provide a framework for making
a difference. Combining the strong theoretical underpinnings
of SDT and the strong clinical base of MI should allow for
much progress in developing the kind of motivation required to
initiate and maintain a fitness program over the long term. Self-
determination theory suggests that we are born with psycho-
logical needs that cause us to engage our world, so that these
needs might be met. Furthermore, it seems as though many
forms of physical activity have the capacity to meet these innate
needs, and the task of the fitness professional is to facilitate the
use of physical activity as a means of achieving physical and
mental wellness. One effective tool available to those in our
Basic Human Needs According to
Self-determination Theory
Autonomy is characterized by a feeling that we are in control and make
our own choices.
Competence is characterized by a sense of mastery and confidence
that we are adequate and effective.
Relatedness is characterized by a sense of belonging and satisfaction
in the social aspects of living.
VOL. 12/ NO. 1 ACSM_sHEALTH & FITNESS JOURNALA25
profession to facilitate the development of healthier intentions
and motivations for physical activity is MI. These relatively
simple and straightforward principles can be incorporated into
existing approaches currently used by professionals who desire
to improve their effectiveness. These approaches do not
promise to solve all of the many and varied challenges related
to health and physical activity facing our culture and profession,
but they do offer a fresh approach worthy of full consideration.
Jennifer Mears, M.A., is a recent graduate of
the Exercise Science master’s program at the
University of South Florida in the School of
Physical Education and Exercise Science.
Her undergraduate degree is in wellness
leadership. Her research interests are in
exercise psychology and motivation. She is
a group exercise leader for local corporate wellness facilities
and is ACSM Health/Fitness InstructorAcertified.
Marcus Kilpatrick, Ph.D., is an assistant
professor of Exercise Science at the Univer-
sity of South Florida in the School of
Physical Education and Exercise Science.
His degrees are in nutrition, kinesiology, and
health education. His research interests
center on the study of motivation for exercise,
perceived exertion, and mood. He is ACSM Health/Fitness
Instructor
A
and ACSM Exercise SpecialistAcertified.
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CONDENSED VERSION AND BOTTOM LINE
The health and fitness profession is faced with the
challenge of improving the health and fitness of our
clients, members, and participants. A healthy approach to
motivation is essential for exercise adoption and adher-
ence. Combining SDT and MI should allow for progress
in developing the kind of motivation required to initiate
and maintain a fitness program over the long term.
Making even a small difference in this area could have
vast implications for disease prevention and manage-
ment. Understanding our client’s level of motivation
helps health and fitness professionals provide guidance
that facilitates better health behaviors.
26 ACSM’s HEALTH & FITNESS JOURNALA|www.acsm-healthfitness.org VOL. 12/ NO. 1
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