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Periodization: Effects of Manipulating Volume and Intensity. Part 2
... Periodization is a logical sequential, phasic method of manipulating fitness and recovery phases to increase the potential for achieving specific performance goals while minimizing the potential for nonfunctional over-reaching, overtraining, and injury (40,41,190,194,195). ...
... A stage roughly corresponds to a mesocycle. Because of continued alterations in the competition calendar, specific needs of different sports and individual athlete, the exact length of these blocks have been further altered and blocks may range from 2-8 weeks (40,41,(195)(196)(197)200). In addition, blocks may be aggregated (summed) such that 2 or more smaller blocks make up a BP block. ...
... For example, in strength-power sports, a 4 weeks block of strength endurance may be combined with a subsequent 4 weeks block of basic strength training to form an 8 weeks accumulation block. The individual blocks (3 6 2 weeks) have been termed summated microcycles as the fitness characteristic being emphasized is constant throughout (40,41,(195)(196)(197)200). ...
Periodization can be defined as a logical sequential, phasic method of manipulating fitness and recovery
phases to increase the potential for achieving specific performance goals while minimizing the potential for nonfunctional overreaching,
overtraining, and injury. Periodization deals with the micromanagement of timelines and fitness phases and is cyclic in
nature. On the other hand, programming deals with the micromanagement of the training process and deals with exercise selection,
volume, intensity, etc. Evidence indicates that a periodized training process coupled with appropriate programming can produce
superior athletic enhancement compared with nonperiodized process. There are 2 models of periodization, traditional and block.
Traditional can take different forms (i.e., reverse). Block periodization has 2 subtypes, single goal or factor (individual sports) and
multiple goals or factors (team sports). Both models have strengths and weaknesses but can be “tailored” through creative
programming to produce excellent results for specific sports.
... In addition, the number of athletes who compete multiple times per year is not known. Moreover, subsequent periodization strategies are largely based on evidence from controlled research studies investigating physiological and predicted strength adaptations over time (24,(27)(28)(29)33,36,40); however, they may not directly reflect a real-world competition setting. Therefore, the extrapolation of retrospective competition data has the potential to provide useful information for strength and conditioning professionals and PL athletes alike. ...
... This is in comparison to 165 and 107 days between competition one-two and two-three for all athletes, respectively. Although there remains conjecture over the most appropriate periodization method for strength development (24,27,36), various authors agree that appropriate training block lengths are required to significantly improve muscular strength (3,10,28,29,33,40). Hence, we suggest that training phase duration in conjunction with the current findings warrants consideration when programming for strength sports, including competition planning and preparation. ...
Pearson, J, Spathis, JG, van den Hoek, DJ, Owen, PJ, Weakley, J, and Latella, C. Effect of competition frequency on strength performance of powerlifting athletes. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2020-Powerlifting (PL) requires athletes to achieve the highest possible "total" weight lifted across squat, bench press, and deadlift. Athletes compete multiple times per year; however, it is not well understood how often PL athletes should compete to facilitate maximal strength performance. This study investigated the effect of competition frequency on strength (relative and absolute) in PL athletes over a 12-month period. Results across all male (n = 563, mean ± SD; age; 28 ± 10 years, body mass; 89.3 ± 19.3 kg) and female (n = 437, age; 31 ± 11 years, body mass; 70.1 ± 15.8 kg) PL athletes were collated. Total competition scores were used to calculate absolute and relative strength for each competition. Linear mixed models with random effects, and effect sizes ± 95% confidence intervals compared competition frequency and total score for (a) all, (b) male, and (c) female competition entries, respectively. The association between total score at each competition was assessed with Pearson's correlation coefficient for the same independent variables. Results demonstrate greater absolute strength at competition 2 for all athletes (5.1%: p = 0.043: d = 0.16) and males (2.9%: p = 0.049: d = 0.15). For females, absolute strength was greater at competition 5 compared to 1 (12.0%: p = 0.001: d = 0.65) and 2 (9.6%: p = 0.007: d = 0.50). Weak positive correlations for relative strength and number of times competed for males were evident between competitions 1 to 4 (r = 0.070-0.085, p = 0.003-0.043). For females, 3 competitions weakly correlated with absolute strength (r = 0.106, p = 0.016). PL athletes who compete multiple times per year are more likely to achieve higher totals; however, there is an upper limit to the number of competitions (4 per year) that seem to allow a performance increase.
... To this end, this article will attempt to discuss the physiological components of TKD, and to isolate the recent training practices of TKD based on the current available literature. Moreover, periodisation strategies in preparation for a quadrennial cycle for various sports have been previously discussed (38,44,45). To the authors knowledge only two articles exist discussing periodisation strategies for TKD athletes, with only one of the two articles using elite TKD athletes as participants (3,24). ...
... Additionally, the effects of HIIT on physiology and performance are fairly rapid, but rapid plateau effects are seen as well. To avoid staleness in training, and to ensure long-term development, training volume should increase systematically over the course of a planned training cycle ( Figure 2, Table 4) (42,(44)(45)(46) . ...
Taekwondo (TKD) as a mainstream sport is rapidly gaining momentum, highlighted by its inclusion as an Olympic sport in the Sydney 2000 games. Unfortunately little empirical evidence exists on the physiology of elite TKD athletes, and thus the scientific literature governing the best current training practices is not yet clear. Therefore, the main aims of this article were to present some key points on the physiology of TKD athletes and to propose a structured training plan based on the current best training practices as identified in the literature. The major findings from this review were A) elite TKD athletes possess a high anaerobic fitness base, yet aerobic fitness may be a precursor to overall success in TKD given the high work:rest ratios of the sport, B) elastic resistance training can potentially augment strength and power adaptations as an additional training method integrated with standard strength and power training protocols, and C) there is a causal link between power training, jump height and success among elite TKD athletes. Given these results, the author presents a strategised training model for coaches structuring a four-week preparatory mesocycle within a quadrennial periodised plan. However, continued research is required to more effectively elucidate the various components comprising an elite TKD athlete's physiology. Such research serves to facilitate innovation of novel training practices to enhance physiological profiles and thus overall performances in the elite TKD competitions
... To this end, this article will attempt to discuss the physiological components of TKD, and to isolate the recent training practices of TKD based on the current available literature. Moreover, periodisation strategies in preparation for a quadrennial cycle for various sports have been previously discussed (38,44,45). To the authors knowledge only two articles exist discussing periodisation strategies for TKD athletes, with only one of the two articles using elite TKD athletes as participants (3,24). ...
... Additionally, the effects of HIIT on physiology and performance are fairly rapid, but rapid plateau effects are seen as well. To avoid staleness in training, and to ensure long-term development, training volume should increase systematically over the course of a planned training cycle ( Figure 2, Table 4) (42,(44)(45)(46) . ...
Strength training is a critical exercise stimulus for inducing changes in muscular strength, size and power (6). Recently, linear position transducers have gained in popularity as a means to monitor velocity in strength training exercises. The measurement error of such devices has been shown to be low and both relative and absolute reliability have been shown to be acceptable (2, 7, 11). The purpose of this article is to provide the overview and benefits of monitoring movement velocity in strength training exercises, along with providing the basis for novel “velocity-based” strength training prescription. We have covered the following practical applications: Guidelines to develop a velocity/load profile for athletes; Using the velocity load/profile to predict and monitor changes to maximal strength; Using velocity monitoring to control fatigue effects of strength training; Using velocity monitoring as an immediate performance feedback to promote the highest level of effort in specific training exercises and stronger adaptive stimuli. Linear position transducers are reliable and valid tools to help strength and conditioning practitioners monitor and optimize their strength training programs.
... It has been shown that fluctuating workload increments can offer benefits in the reduction of overtraining and stimulate performance gains (46). In fact, periodized variation with specific sequencing of exercise selection, volume, and intensity factors offers a superior method of performance enhancement (46,47). ...
... Linear training suggests the indefinite use of a constant training volume and loading scheme. There is only the question of more or less variation in periodization (17,46,47). ...
summary: Strength and power performance are two important factors for elite athletes. This paper provides strategies for strength and power development in professional male volleyball players.
(C) 2006 National Strength and Conditioning Association
... However, simultaneous implementations of person-adaptive exercise programming with additional strategies to improve sleep, nutrition, and/or other related behaviors could be perceived as overwhelming and incite higher dropout rates among participants (Prochaska et al., 2008). In line with traditional forms of periodization (Stone et al., 1999), individuals seeking to increase exercise behavior may benefit from a 'preparatory' phase that aims to enhance general perceptions of readiness before enacting specific forms of exercise training. To date, however, evidence is mixed regarding superiority of sequential versus simultaneous delivery of multiple behavior change interventions (James et al., 2016). ...
Meta-session autoregulation, a person-adaptive exercise programming approach, is characterized by individuals’ matching exercise demands specifically to their current readiness states. Some consumer wearables provide ‘recovery’ or ‘readiness’ scores, computed primarily based on heart rate variability. Despite the growing popularity of consumer wearables and interest in person-adaptive programming, limited research exists on how exercisers interact, interpret and use these scores. This study explores individuals’ experiences with wearable devices and their associated readiness or recovery scores. Seventeen regular exercisers who owned and used a Whoop™ band or Oura™ ring for at least 3 months participated in a one-on-one virtual semi-structured interview. Interviews were analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis, with themes supported by ‘in-vivo’ quotes. This paper focuses on three key themes for a comprehensive demonstration. Theme 1, ‘It’s more about how I can make adjustments to optimize my programming,’ (MPR) highlights users’ intended use of wearables for guiding training decisions. Theme 2, ‘So many things outside of training modifications have changed,’ (Misty) reveals that users also modify non-exercise behaviors to manage and optimize their scores. Theme 3, ‘You can’t really capture the complexities of a human on a device’ (Letty) underscores users’ recognition of the limitations and errors associated with these devices emphasizing self-reliance to further direct behavioral adjustments. While wearable devices provide a numeric approach to measuring readiness and recovery, users prioritize self-awareness, flexibility, and personal judgment for exercise decisions. Understanding these experiences, in addition to exploring the psycho-behavioral aspects of user interactions, can contribute to refining meta-session autoregulation.
... However, NPT could have many configuration alternatives that introduce some variability elements, which inevitably translate into actual changes in the training load and, thus, entail a breach of the NPT program. According to several authors, the periodized models involve continuous changes in relative load and volume, with a tendency to increase the relative load and decrease the volume over the training period [87,88,99,119,120]. Therefore, if the relative load remains stable throughout a training cycle, training could be considered "non-periodized. ...
For more than a century, many concepts and several theories and principles pertaining to the goals, organization, methodology and evaluation of the effects of resistance training (RT) have been developed and discussed between coaches and scientists. This cumulative body of knowledge and practices has contributed substantially to the evolution of RT methodology. However, a detailed and rigorous examination of the existing literature reveals many inconsistencies that, unless resolved, could seriously hinder further progress in our field. The purpose of this review is to constructively expose, analyze and discuss a set of anomalies present in the current RT methodology, including: (a) the often inappropriate and misleading terminology used, (b) the need to clarify the aims of RT, (c) the very concept of maximal strength, (d) the control and monitoring of the resistance exercise dose, (e) the existing programming models and (f) the evaluation of training effects. A thorough and unbiased examination of these deficiencies could well lead to the adoption of a revised paradigm for RT. This new paradigm must guarantee a precise knowledge of the loads being applied, the effort they involve and their effects. To the best of our knowledge, currently this can only be achieved by monitoring repetition velocity during training. The main contribution of a velocity-based RT approach is that it provides the necessary information to know the actual training loads that induce a specific effect in each athlete. The correct adoption of this revised paradigm will provide coaches and strength and conditioning professionals with accurate and objective information concerning the applied load (relative load, level of effort and training effect). This knowledge is essential to make rational and informed decisions and to improve the training methodology itself.
... 12,39 The sequencing and selection of exercises along with increased variability could result in improved performance. 12,39,40 While sequencing and exercise order are important when structuring resistance training programmes, the exercise order should rather relate to the individual's training goals. 41 The increases in volume and intensity are also required to improve overall performance, and not just variability. ...
Objective:
To describe the use of periodized exercise prescription with patients in the context of rehabilitation.
Data source:
The following databases were searched: The Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, MEDLINE, PubMed, CINAHL, ScienceDirect, PEDro, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, SAGE and Google Scholar. Databases were searched from inception to March 2018.
Results:
The literature search yielded 1772 articles with 1755 being excluded leaving 17 articles in total for the full review. Methodological quality and internal validity of the included papers were lacking. The included studies failed to indicate in which phase rehabilitation had occurred. Programme structure relating to the use of a familiarization phase, sequencing of exercises and structuring of specific phases (i.e. macrocycle, mesocycle and microcycle) was not present and lacked consistency across the board.
Conclusion:
Periodization models of exercise prescription are being used within a variety of population groups in the rehabilitation setting. Integration of periodization principles into a rehabilitation programme still however remains a challenge. Although there is a lack of consistency with regard to the structure and implementation of a periodized model of exercise prescription in the rehabilitation context, it seems to be an alternative way in which to prescribe exercise within the rehabilitation setting.
... This approach is often referred to as "traditional" or "percent-based" and requires the assessment of individual 1RM values for the athlete and exercise that will be utilised within the programme. These values are generally assessed via a performance test battery applicable to the sport, or the use of tables estimating maximum repetitions from loads completed at sub-maximal loads and the number of reps performed before failure (Stone 1999). ...
... The American College of Sports Medicine recommends using periodized over non-periodized training in healthy adults [14]. Periodization, at its core, has three fundamental goals: (1) to provide an outline for maintaining a certain level of physical fitness pertinent to success in sport, (2) to reduce the potential for overtraining, and (3) to reach maximum physical fitness at the most appropriate time, i.e., competition [15,16]. The concept can be divided into two overarching categories: linear, or "traditional," and nonlinear. ...
The optimization of performance is a defining goal with regard to the long-term development of any athlete. The process of performance optimization in football players is constantly evolving as our knowledge and understanding of the factors which act to influence player performance increase. Consistent with this evolution in our understanding and continual drive toward ever-increasing player performance is the development and emergence of new concepts, ideas, and technologies to help toward this goal. This chapter presents some of these emerging concepts and issues related to the optimization player performance. An overview of new approaches to the processes involved strength and conditioning training, strategies for enhancing nutritional intake and timing to maximize recovery, and an introduction to new and developing technologies which can be utilized to inform training practices, monitor player training intensity, and optimize sleep-wake schedules to promote increased levels of recovery. In addition, the complexities of integrating and managing all the information associated with the adoption of emerging strategies and technologies are discussed in an effort to further optimize player performance.
... However, the term 'linear' may be misleading, as periodization consists of nonlinear variation in training variables [22,28,32,75]. Linear increases in intensity and decreases in volume may be apparent when looking at the macrocycle and mesocycle level, yet fluctuations in volume and intensity occur within each microcycle [18,76], similar to the variation seen in UP models. The daily variations at the microcycle level are characteristic of daily undulating periodization (DUP), which alters training phases (i.e., endurance, strength, power) [68,69,77] or repetition patterns [29,43,78] within the week. ...
Background
Periodization is a logical method of organizing training into sequential phases and cyclical time periods in order to increase the potential for achieving specific performance goals while minimizing the potential for overtraining. Periodized resistance training plans are proposed to be superior to non-periodized training plans for enhancing maximal strength. Objective
The primary aim of this study was to examine the previous literature comparing periodized resistance training plans to non-periodized resistance training plans and determine a quantitative estimate of effect on maximal strength. Methods
All studies included in the meta-analysis met the following inclusion criteria: (1) peer-reviewed publication; (2) published in English; (3) comparison of a periodized resistance training group to a non-periodized resistance training group; (4) maximal strength measured by 1-repetition maximum (1RM) squat, bench press, or leg press. Data were extracted and independently coded by two authors. Random-effects models were used to aggregate a mean effect size (ES), 95% confidence intervals (CIs) and potential moderators. ResultsThe cumulative results of 81 effects gathered from 18 studies published between 1988 and 2015 indicated that the magnitude of improvement in 1RM following periodized resistance training was greater than non-periodized resistance training (ES = 0.43, 95% CI 0.27–0.58; P < 0.001). Periodization model (β = 0.51; P = 0.0010), training status (β = −0.59; P = 0.0305), study length (β = 0.03; P = 0.0067), and training frequency (β = 0.46; P = 0.0123) were associated with a change in 1RM. These results indicate that undulating programs were more favorable for strength gains. Improvements in 1RM were greater among untrained participants. Additionally, higher training frequency and longer study length were associated with larger improvements in 1RM. Conclusion
These results suggest that periodized resistance training plans have a moderate effect on 1RM compared to non-periodized training plans. Variation in training stimuli appears to be vital for increasing maximal strength, and longer periods of higher training frequency may be preferred.
... U znanstvenoj literaturi se često spominje superiornost periodizacije kao organizacije treninga. Pet preglednih radova, petnaest studija (Rhea, 2004;Suzuki, 2006), trinaest studija je pokazalo statistički značajnu razliku u korist periodizacije u usporedbi s konstantnim programom kao broj ponavljanja (Stone, 1999). Sličan pregled je išao u korist periodizacije naspram neperiodiziranog programa u korist snage (Graham, 2002). ...
... Consequently, intergroup differences in derived training benefits may have resulted from the differing training volumes performed. The authors concluded that the review strongly suggested that a periodized approach, even over a short term, produced superior results, especially in previously trained subjects, compared with constant-repetition programmes (Stone et al 1999b). ...
... Previous reviews 9,10 and meta analyses 11 have concluded that periodised resistance training programmes are more effective than non-periodised programmes to improve strength and power in adults. Although debate exists in the interpretation of and appropriate terminology to describe periodisation approaches, 12 two commonly investigated models are traditional or linear periodisation (LP) and non-traditional or undulating periodisation (UP). ...
To determine changes in maximal strength between two different resistance training progression models, linear (LP) and daily undulating (DUP), over a 12-week resistance training programme in sub-elite adolescent rugby union players.
The study used a quasi-experimental study design. Following baseline assessments, participants from Squad 1 were randomised to either LP or DUP; participants from Squad 2 formed a non-randomised comparison group (CON).
Participants were 26 sub-elite adolescent rugby union players who were assessed at baseline and after 12 weeks. Outcomes included 5 repetition maximum (RM) box squat and bench press, height, body weight, skeletal muscle mass, percentage body fat and maturation status.
Participants in both the LP and DUP groups significantly increased their squat and bench press strength from baseline to 12 weeks. There were no significant differences between groups for squat and bench press increases after 12 weeks (p>0.05). No significant increases in squat or bench press strength were observed after 12 weeks in the CON group. Increases in lower body strength were large in the LP group (ES: 1.64) and very large in the DUP group (ES: 2.33). Upper body strength changes were small in both groups (LP, ES: 0.57; DUP, ES: 0.31).
Twelve weeks of LP or DUP resistance training are both effective at increasing maximal lower and upper body strength in adolescent rugby athletes. Additionally, twice weekly frequency of resistance training in adolescent rugby athletes with greater than 6-months resistance training experience is sufficient to elicit substantial increases in maximal strength.
Copyright © 2015 Sports Medicine Australia. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
... Volume is most commonly calculated as the product of the load and the number of repetitions and expressed as volume load (VL). The calculation is an approximation of mechanical work (force × distance) with the assumption that all the repetitions are performed through the same range of motion (Stone et al., 1999). Volume load may be considered a superior method of calculating volume compared to purely counting total repetitions because it recognizes that the load is a contributing factor to volume. ...
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of three different weight training protocols, that varied in the way training volume was measured, on acute muscular fatigue. Ten resistance-trained males performed all three protocols which involved dynamic constant resistance exercise of the elbow flexors. Protocol A provided a standard for the time the muscle group was under tension (TUT) and volume load (VL), expressed as the product of the total number of repetitions and the load that was lifted. Protocol B involved 40% of the TUT but the same VL compared to protocol A; protocol C was equated with protocol A for TUT but only involved 50% of the VL. Fatigue was assessed by changes in maximum voluntary isometric force and integrated electromyography (iEMG) between the pre- and post-training protocols. The results of the study showed that, when equated for VL, greater TUT produced greater overall muscular fatigue (p ≤ 0.001) as reflected by the reduction in the force generating capability of the muscle. When the protocols were equated for TUT, greater VL (p ≤ 0.01) resulted in greater overall muscular fatigue. All three protocols resulted in significant decreases in iEMG (p ≤ 0.05) but they were not significantly different from each other. It was concluded that, because of the importance of training volume to neuromuscular adaptation, the training volume needs to be clearly described when designing resistance training programs. Key PointsIncrease in either time under tension (TUT) or volume load (VL) increases the acute fatigue response, despite being equated for volume (by another method).A potential discrepancy in training volume may be present with training parameters that fail to control for either TUT or VL.Neural fatigue may be a contributing factor to the development of muscular fatigue but is not influenced by various methods of calculating volume such as TUT or VL.
... For example, in review of 15 studies of meso-cycle length (7-24 wk), 13 studies concluded that periodized training provided statistically superior performance improvements when compared with constant-repetition programs. 15 A similar review concluded that periodized strength training led to enhanced outcomes, in a variety of performance measures, in comparison with nonperiodized models. 16 A meta-analysis comparing periodized and nonperiodized strength-training programs concluded that periodized structures were more effective for males and females, individuals of varying training backgrounds, and a range of age groups. ...
The planning and organization of athletic training have historically been much discussed and debated in the coaching and sports science literature. Various influential periodization theorists have devised, promoted, and substantiated particular training-planning models based on interpretation of the scientific evidence and individual beliefs and experiences. Superficially, these proposed planning models appear to differ substantially. However, at a deeper level, it can be suggested that such models share a deep-rooted cultural heritage underpinned by a common set of historically pervasive planning beliefs and assumptions. A concern with certain of these formative assumptions is that, although no longer scientifically justifiable, their shaping influence remains deeply embedded. In recent years substantial evidence has emerged demonstrating that training responses vary extensively, depending upon multiple underlying factors. Such findings challenge the appropriateness of applying generic methodologies, founded in overly simplistic rule-based decision making, to the planning problems posed by inherently complex biological systems. The purpose of this review is not to suggest a whole-scale rejection of periodization theories but to promote a refined awareness of their various strengths and weaknesses. Eminent periodization theorists-and their variously proposed periodization models-have contributed substantially to the evolution of training-planning practice. However, there is a logical line of reasoning suggesting an urgent need for periodization theories to be realigned with contemporary elite practice and modern scientific conceptual models. In concluding, it is recommended that increased emphasis be placed on the design and implementation of sensitive and responsive training systems that facilitate the guided emergence of customized context-specific training-planning solutions.
... Two following broad models of periodization have been proposed: linear and nonlinear (4,8,32,34,35). Linear training suggests the indefinite use of a constant training volume and loading scheme. There is only the question of more or less variation in periodization (4). ...
STRENGTH AND POWER PERFORMANCE ARE 2 MAJOR FACTORS RELATED TO PERFORMANCE FOR PROFESSIONAL ATHLETES. THIS ARTICLE PROVIDES STRATEGIES FOR STRENGTH AND POWER DEVELOPMENT IN PROFESSIONAL MALE ELITE TEAM HANDBALL PLAYERS.
... Present studies and created theoretical models are insufficiently explained for practical application in training process. However, the available scientific evidence (Stone et al., 1999a, Stone et al., 1999b) supports that as first periodization seems to be a superior approach to strength/power training even over the short term, especially in previously trained subjects and as second, optimal results are achieved by optimally manipulating training parameters in appropriate sequences and combinations (Plisk & Stone, 2003). Based on the training objectives, there is large number of variables that could be manipulated in ST. ...
Large number of variables could be alternated during the process of planning and programming in sports training. Superior training results in majority of sports are achieved by optimally manipulating training parameters in appropriate sequences and combinations. Additionally, in some sports they might be the result of appropriate periodization pattern. Today's tendency in strength training practice is training movements instead of training muscles. Exercise classification according to the dominant movement types, allows creating new modalities in training alternation. Additional variations in volume, intensity, rest brakes, repetition velocity andinter-repetition rest can be the important part of functional strength training program. Alternation and combination of different training parameters makes appropriate training stimulus for strength increase in the most of nowadays sports. Optimal alternation of basic training parameters should be the first part in the processof planning and programming. As a result, majority of athletes might not need advanced periodization patterns for optimal improvement in muscle strength and power
Conosci i Bad Effort Disorder in Allenamento? BED è l'acronimo utilizzato dalla comunità scientifica per identifica-re i Binge-Eating Disorder, quegli atti compulsivi che alcune persone compiono durante il loro rigoroso comportamento alimentare. All'improvviso qualcosa li turba e vengono colti da un raptus famelico che li porta a divorare tutto ciò che è nel frigo e in casa. Avviliti dall'abbuffata, cadono in catalessi per tutto il tempo della digestione, immobilizzati dal senso di colpa. Per sillogismo, mi piace adottare l'acronimo BED anche per descrivere i Bad-Effort Disorder, un'altra tipologia di atti compulsivi, del tutto simili a quelli alimentari, la cui premeditazione pervade alcuni atleti mentre svolgono il loro rigoroso programma di allenamento. Nelle sessioni di allenamento in cui viene loro richiesto un progressivo incremento del sovraccarico, ma non riescono a mantenere stabile la qualità tecnica delle esercitazioni, un raptus folle li sorprende e iniziano a macinare ripetizioni su ripetizioni, serie su serie, altalenando spasmodicamente l'uso dei sovraccarichi, da quelli per il riscaldamento a quelli delle competizioni. In tali circostanze, il volume di allenamento accumulato non si conta più, si aspetta solo la resa per esaurimento muscolare e l'insediarsi del senso di frustrazione. Così come l'eccesso di cibo prodotto dai Binge Eating Disorder lascia traccia nel programma dietologico, anche l'eccesso di volume realizzato con i Bad-Eating Disorder lascia traccia nel programma di allenamento. Se siete atleti contenete i BED, a tavola e in allenamento! Se siete allenatori rendete consapevoli i vostri atleti sugli effetti negativi che i BED comportano sulla prestazione, sulla salute e sull'autostima!
A foundational principle in sport science involves applying an evidence-based approach to training and development of athletes. The primary objective is to provide an effective training program, while monitoring general athletic performance (GAP) development (i.e., athlete-monitoring), ensuring intended adaptations are occurring. Much of the literature has focused on GAP markers (e.g., physical qualities related to strength, speed, power, agility, and endurance) which are only suggested to influence competitive sport performance (SP) outcomes (e.g., yards per carry, batting average, hitting percentage, rank or placement, etc.; B. Alejo, personal communication, July 13, 2019). This gap in the literature should be filled via examination of motor control principles and theories (i.e., impulse-variability theory) as it relates to GAP and SP. The work presented herein focuses on investigating the relationship of non-traditional GAP markers (e.g., squat jump peak velocity and impulse-momentum) and tenants of the impulse-variability theory to SP outcomes (e.g., intra-team rank of SP and starter vs non-starter group membership) in an elite (e.g., top 8 nationally ranked) NCAA DI beach volleyball team (n = 20; age = 19.75 ± 1.52; height = 173.32 ± 6.49 cm). The first study examined associations between traditional and non-traditional maximal output GAP markers to each other, as well as associations and contribution of GAP markers to SP outcomes (e.g., intra-team rank of SP and group membership). Results demonstrate strong associations between traditional and non-traditional GAP markers, while non-traditional demonstrated strong association and independent contribution to SP outcomes. Intra-set jump-based GAP variability (i.e., variable error) was examined in study two where only squat jump peak velocity variability demonstrated strong association and contribution to SP group membership. Study three examined predictive utility of the combined effects of maximal output GAP markers and jump-based GAP variability to SP group membership. Results demonstrated squat jump peak velocity maximum and variability correctly classified SP group membership at a 100% success rate. Overall, these data suggest non-traditional GAP maximal output and variability provide strong predictive utility to SP group membership. Future research should examine the generalizable utility of impulse-variability theory as it relates to GAP development (e.g., physical education to elite athletes) and SP outcomes.
Recommended Citation
Scruggs II, S. K.(2021). Relationship of General Athletic Performance Markers to Intra-Team Ranking Of Sport Performance. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from https://scholarcommons.sc.edu/etd/6194
Bab asas anatomi dan fisiologi manusia ini menyediakan informasi mengenai:
1. Unit asas tubuh dan bagaimana unit asas tersebut menjadikan organisma
berfungsi.
2. Komponen dan fungsi sistem integumen serta penyakit yang berkaitan.
3. Fungsi, pengkelasan serta penyakit berkaitan tulang dan sendi.
4. Jenis otot, faktor dan proses pertumbuhan otot, serta penyakit otot.
5. Komponen sistem saraf, penginsyaratan sel saraf dan penyakit saraf.
6. Kelenjar hormon, jenis dan fungsi hormon, dan penyakit berkaitan
hormon.
7. Struktur dan fungsi sistem pernafasan, proses pernafasan dan faktor
kawalan pernafasan, pengaruh tekanan terhadap pernafasan dan penyakit
yang berkaitan.
8. Komponen sistem kardiovaskular, fungsi jantung dan darah, dan penyakit
berkaitan jantung dan darah.
9. Jenis keimunan, sel-sel imun berserta fungsi, tindak balas imun terhadap
patogen dan penyakit berkaitan sostem imun.
The purpose of this brief review is to provide some understanding of developmental processes related with “periodization” and to provide a summary point of view to important contributions in these processes. For this purpose some understanding of the historical events and issues surrounding periodization were provided. Contrary to “Matveyev’s periodization” or “classic periodization” instead of long preparation short competition/match period, which is still valid for some sports, team and acyclic sports and many sports are enjoying more diverse and longer competition and much shorter preparation period. Verkhoshansky accuses Matveyev for accepting “pedagogical adaptation” instead of “biological adaptation” and accepts the “block training” as different training process and tries to compare Matveyev’s “parallel training load” with “block periodization”. Verkhoshansky tries to differentiate between the two training instead of accepting the two supplementing each other. Due to increasing number of competition and longer competition period, the athlete/coach had to strategically choose between the competitions both in individual and team sports. Borg’s 20 scale rating was modified to 10 scale rating trying to create some solutions to some problems encountered in periodization.
The purposes of this dissertation were to examine the effect of a protein and carbohydrate recovery beverage versus a placebo on weightlifting performance, its effect on muscle morphological changes and specific muscle protein accretion. The following are major finding from the dissertation: 1) Protein and carbohydrate recovery supplementation does not appear to have influence on performance measure in trained weightlifters. This finding may be associated with the short-term nature of this study and the trained population used. 2) Compared with placebo, a protein and carbohydrate beverage provided greater benefits on cross sectional area of type I and type II muscle fibers. Additionally, the block periodization protocol incorporating phase potentiation improved cross sectional area of both groups compared to baseline. 3) Finally, protein and carbohydrate supplementation provided greater benefits on total mTOR and myosin heavy chains 6 & 7. These findings indicate that a protein and carbohydrate beverage provide greater benefits compared with a placebo on cellular signaling, myosin heavy gene expression and muscle fiber increases in trained weightlifters. Improved cross sectional area and increased myosin heavy chains indicate positive adaptations to resistance training combined with supplementation and may indicate improved skeletal muscle qualities necessary for increased power output. The mTOR pathway is the master regulator of cellular growth and increases in total mTOR indicate a greater proclivity for cellular growth and greater activity resulting from resistance training may increase synthesis and accretion of muscle contractile proteins. This dissertation highlighted several benefits of recovery supplementation, however further longitudinal studies utilizing block periodization and well-trained athletes are necessary to fully elucidate benefits for strength and power athletes.
The concept of periodization in strength training is characterized by planned variation and distribution of training parameters on a cyclic basis. Current meta-analysis reported periodized strength training programs to be superior to non-periodized programs (32,56). Nevertheless, it remains unclear whether a linear or an undulating periodization model is more effective in eliciting maximum strength. By means of a meta-analysis, 35 studies with 129 computable effect sizes could be identified. The literature search strategies covered online databases. Key words included Periodisierung, periodization, periodized, non-linear, and undulating with and without training. The studies were coded according to an open coding plan. Effect sizes were calculated according to Cohen's d with pre- post-test comparisons and pooled standard deviations. Randomized controlled studies (RCT), studies without control group (RT), as well as quasi-experimental design with intervention of at least five weeks were included. The overall effect size (N =129) resulted in 0.93±0.64 (CI=0.82-1.04). The mean effect size for linear periodization resulted in 0.93±0.59 (N=94; CI=0.81-1.06) and 0.93±0.75 (N=35; CI=0.67-1.18) for undulating periodization. No significant difference was found, neither between the two strategies (F(1,127)=0.02; p=0.97; η 2=0.000) nor for the consideration of moderator variables, e.g. sex, training experience, exercises, or study duration. As a quantitative magnitude for practical relevance, the effect sizes of either periodization strategy show a large effect. The effect sizes indicate a high practical relevance.
The concept of periodization is important for strength and conditioning professionals. This roundtable covers several aspects of periodization strategies.
Planning training programs for strength–power track and field athletes require an understanding of both training principles and training theory. The training principles are overload, variation, and specificity. Each of these principles must be incorporated into an appropriate system of training. Conceptually, periodization embraces training principles and offers advantages in planning, allowing for logical integration and manipulation of training variables such as exercise selection, intensification, and volume factors. The adaptation and progress of the athlete is to a large extent directly related to the ability of the coach/athlete to create and carry an efficient and efficacious training process. This ability includes: an understanding of how exercises affect physiological and performance adaptation (i.e., maximum force, rate of force development, power, etc.), how to optimize transfer of training effect ensuring that training exercises have maximum potential for carryover to performance, and how to implement programs with variations at appropriate levels (macro, meso, and micro) such that fatigue management is enhanced and performance progress is optimized.
The concept of periodization is important for strength and conditioning professionals. This roundtable covers several aspects of periodization strategies.
summary: The concept of periodization is important for strength and conditioning professionals. This roundtable covers several aspects of periodization strategies.
To determine if the comparison of acute and chronic workload is associated with increased injury risk in elite cricket fast bowlers.
Data were collected from 28 fast bowlers who completed a total of 43 individual seasons over a 6-year period. Workloads were estimated by summarising the total number of balls bowled per week (external workload), and by multiplying the session rating of perceived exertion by the session duration (internal workload). One-week data (acute workload), together with 4-week rolling average data (chronic workload), were calculated for external and internal workloads. The size of the acute workload in relation to the chronic workload provided either a negative or positive training-stress balance.
A negative training-stress balance was associated with an increased risk of injury in the week after exposure, for internal workload (relative risk (RR)=2.2 (CI 1.91 to 2.53), p=0.009), and external workload (RR=2.1 (CI 1.81 to 2.44), p=0.01). Fast bowlers with an internal workload training-stress balance of greater than 200% had a RR of injury of 4.5 (CI 3.43 to 5.90, p=0.009) compared with those with a training-stress balance between 50% and 99%. Fast bowlers with an external workload training-stress balance of more than 200% had a RR of injury of 3.3 (CI 1.50 to 7.25, p=0.033) in comparison to fast bowlers with an external workload training-stress balance between 50% and 99%.
These findings demonstrate that large increases in acute workload are associated with increased injury risk in elite cricket fast bowlers.
Current information and evidence indicate that for most activities free weight training can produce superior results compared to training with machines, particularly when the free weight training involves complex, multi‐joint exercises. A number of reasons can account for the superiority of free weights; the major factor deals with mechanical specificity. Mechanical specificity is concerned with appropriate movement patterns, force application and velocity of movement. Considering the available evidence that adherence to the concept of specificity of exercise and training can result in a greater transfer of training effect then free weights should produce a more effective training transfer. Therefore, the majority of resistance exercises making up a training programme should include of free weight exercises with emphasis on mechanical specificity (i.e. large muscle mass exercises, appropriate velocity, contraction type etc.). Generally, machines should be used as an adjunct to free weight training and, depending upon the sport, can be used to a greater or lesser extent during various phases of the training period (preparation, pre‐competition, competition).
As is the case with plays comprising a game plan or assets comprising a portfolio, a periodized training program is more than the sum of its parts. Indeed, short-yardage plays can set up long-yardage plays; high-risk investments can improve overall risk/return; and nonspecific training methods can enhance the effects of specific ones. The key is to establish a playbook of fundamentally sound tactics and then skillfully combine them into appropriate strategies. Although relatively simple plans may be effective for novices, more sophisticated training and recovery methods are applicable in intermediate or advanced situations. The practical challenge is to direct adaptation toward specific targets by prescribing a band-width of stimuli appropriate for the athlete's sport and developmental status.
RESUMO O objetivo principal do treinador esportivo é maximizar o desempenho atlético. A fim de atingir este objetivo, o treinador deve prescrever cargas de treinamento adequadas, com períodos de recuperação apropriados, visando atingir o maior nível de adaptação possível antes da competição. Neste contexto, o monitoramento das cargas de treinamento será extremamente útil, uma vez que, o treinador poderá utilizar as informações obtidas para avaliar a magnitude das cargas implementadas e a partir disto, ajustar, sistematicamente, a periodização das cargas futuras. Atualmente, existe um grande interesse no desenvolvimento de métodos válidos e confiáveis para o monitoramento das cargas de treinamento. Este acompanhamento pode ser realizado de muitas formas, no entanto, um método bastante simples foi proposto, recentemente, por Carl Foster: o método de PSE da sessão. Nesta revisão, nós investigamos o mérito científico do método de PSE da sessão. Os dados disponíveis sugerem que o método proposto por Foster é um instrumento confiável para quantificar a magnitude da carga de treinamento. Em diversos estudos, o comportamento da PSE da sessão apresentou forte relação com outros indicadores internos de intensidade do exercício, como, por exemplo, o consumo de oxigênio, a frequência cardíaca e a concentração de lactato. Entretanto, é importante ressaltar que ainda são necessários estudos adicionais para validar o método de PSE da sessão, sob a perspectiva ecológica, em diferentes esportes. Palavras-chave: Treinamento esportivo.
Strength and Conditioning for Team Sports is designed to help trainers and coaches to devise more effective high-performance training programs for team sports. This remains the only evidence-based study of sport-specific practice to focus on team sports and features all-new chapters covering neuromuscular training, injury prevention and specific injury risks for different team sports. Fully revised and updated throughout, the new edition also includes over two hundred new references from the current research literature. The bookintroduces the core science underpinning different facets of physical preparation, covering all aspects of training prescription and the key components of any degree-level strength and conditioning course, including: ○ physiological and performance testing. ○ strength training. ○ metabolic conditioning. ○ power training. ○ agility and speed development. ○ training for core stability. ○ training periodisation. ○ training for injury prevention. Bridging the traditional gap between sports science research and practice, each chapter features guidelines for evidence-based best practice as well as recommendations for approaches to physical preparation to meet the specific needs of team sports players. This new edition also includes an appendix that provides detailed examples of training programmes for a range of team sports. Fully illustrated throughout, it is essential reading for all serious students of strength and conditioning, and for any practitioner seeking to extend their professional practice.
This is the second part of a 2-part discussion (the first,"Weightlifting:A Brief Overview," appeared 28(l):5066, 2006) on weightlifting and will describe the best methods of designing a weightlifting program.
summary: The concept of periodization is important for strength and conditioning professionals. This roundtable covers several aspects of periodization strategies.
(C) 2004 National Strength and Conditioning Association
summary: This is the first part of a 2-part discussion on weightlifting and will describe the historical and scientific background of the sport.
(C) 2006 National Strength and Conditioning Association
summary: Training variation and periodization is widely acknowledged as crucial to optimizing training responses. Applying periodized planning to team sports poses unique challenges due to the variety of training goals, volume of concurrent training and practices, and extended season of competition. Practical suggestions are offered in this article to address these considerations and apply periodization in training design for different phases of physical preparation for team sports athletes.
(C) 2006 National Strength and Conditioning Association
PERIODIZATION REPRESENTS AN OPTIMAL STRATEGY FOR ORGANIZING STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING PROGRAMS. THE SELECTED STRATEGY, HOWEVER, SHOULD BE BASED ON THE LEVEL OF THE ATHLETE AND THE CONSTRAINTS OF THE COMPETITIVE SEASON. A COMMON THEME THROUGHOUT ALL THE PERIODIZATION PROTOCOLS IS THE NEED TO MANIPULATE VOLUME LOADS, PROGRESS FROM GENERAL TO SPORT-SPECIFIC TRAINING, AND DISSIPATE FATIGUE. SIGNIFICANT TO THE LATTER, THE USE OF PRECOMPETITION TAPERS APPEARS EVIDENTLY BENEFICIAL. ALTHOUGH ENOUGH ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE EXISTS TO VALIDATE THE USE OF PERIODIZATION, FURTHER SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION IS REQUIRED TO UNDERSTAND ITS USE AND LIMITATIONS TO ELITE LEVEL ATHLETES ACROSS EXTENDED PERIODS (E.G., >4 YEARS). UNTIL SUCH TIME, HOWEVER, ITS USE IS RECOMMENDED AND ADVOCATED BY THE RESEARCH HEREIN.
summary: The concepts of periodization are often applied to the training programs of athletes in order to prepare for competition. These concepts include manipulation of training variables such as volume load, training intensity, and exercise selection. The following training program is one example of how these concepts can be manipulated and applied to the sport of weightlifting.
(C) 2004 National Strength and Conditioning Association
Reviews of the literature show that computer-animated games are ascribed a
potential in motivating home-based exercise. In order to develop such
“exergames” for sedentary seniors, three main tasks are identified and performed
in this paper from a sport science point of view: First, a training target and
physical exercises must be conceptualized, suitable for preventive training, for
home-based execution and for integration into computer-animated games.
Second, volume and intensity of the training have to be determined, including
adaptations for different fitness levels and progression rules for continuous
training. Third, criteria of movement quality should be defined for monitoring by
technical sensors, recognizing beginning and end of series and decision-making
on changes of training configuration on different time scales.
For each task, the literature is reviewed and the solution for the project at hand is
described. The first and third task seem to be solved due to a comprehensive
literature base and to technical development, respectively. On one hand,
approaches to the second task can be based on well-accepted general principles of
training. On the other hand, the status of underlying theories does not allow
derivation of concrete values for volume and intensity. Therefore, specific trials
are necessary.
summary This article outlines different cycle- length variants used in periodized strength/power training.
Thirty-five healthy men were matched and randomly assigned to one of four training groups that performed high-intensity strength and endurance training (C; n = 9), upper body only high-intensity strength and endurance training (UC; n = 9), high-intensity endurance training (E; n = 8), or high-intensity strength training (ST; n = 9). The C and ST groups significantly increased one-repetition maximum strength for all exercises (P < 0.05). Only the C, UC, and E groups demonstrated significant increases in treadmill maximal oxygen consumption. The ST group showed significant increases in power output. Hormonal responses to treadmill exercise demonstrated a differential response to the different training programs, indicating that the underlying physiological milieu differed with the training program. Significant changes in muscle fiber areas were as follows: types I, IIa, and IIc increased in the ST group; types I and IIc decreased in the E group; type IIa increased in the C group; and there were no changes in the UC group. Significant shifts in percentage from type IIb to type IIa were observed in all training groups, with the greatest shift in the groups in which resistance trained the thigh musculature. This investigation indicates that the combination of strength and endurance training results in an attenuation of the performance improvements and physiological adaptations typical of single-mode training.
The purpose of this investigation was to study a high-intensity resistance exercise overtraining protocol resulting in muscular strength decrements. Seventeen weight-trained males were divided into an overtraining group (OT; N = 11; mean +/- SE, age = 22.0 +/- 0.9 yr,) that exercised on a squat machine daily for 2 wk with 100% of 1 repetition maximum (RM) relative intensity, and a control group (CON; N = 6; age = 23.7 +/- 2.4 yr) that exercised 1 d.wk-1 with low intensity (50% 1 RM). Test batteries were conducted at the beginning (test 1), after 1 wk (test 2), and after 2 wk (test 3) of the study. One RM performance significantly decreased from test 1 to test 3 (P < 0.05) for the OT group (mean = -12.2 +/- 3.8 kg), but not the CON group (mean = -1.1 +/- 0.8 kg). Isokinetic and stimulated isometric muscle force significantly decreased for the OT group compared with the CON group by test 3. The primary site of maladaptation appeared to be in the periphery as indicated by changes in stimulated force, circulating CK activity, and exercise-induced lactate responses. This protocol produced a significant decrease in 1 RM performance, thus providing a model for the study of short-term, high-intensity resistance exercise overtraining.
Designing Resistance Training Programs, Fourth Edition, is a guide to developing individualized training programs for both serious athletes and fitness enthusiasts. Two of the world’s leading experts on strength training explore how to design scientifically based resistance training programs, modify and adapt programs to meet the needs of special populations, and apply the elements of program design in the real world.
The fourth edition presents the most current information while retaining the studies that are the basis for concepts, guidelines, and applications in resistance training. Meticulously updated and heavily referenced, the fourth edition contains the following updates: A full-color interior provides stronger visual appeal.Sidebars focus on a specific practical question or an applied research concept, allowing readers to connect research to real-life situations.Multiple detailed tables summarize research from the text, offering an easy way to compare data and conclusions.A glossary makes it simple to find key terms in one convenient location.Newly added instructor ancillaries make the fourth edition a true learning resource for the classroom (available at www.HumanKinetics.com/DesigningResistanceTrainingPrograms).
Designing Resistance Training Programs, Fourth Edition, is an essential resource for understanding and applying the science behind resistance training for any population.
This study examined the effects of manipulating volume and intensity on strength and power in experienced male athletes. Subjects (N = 22) were tested for maximum strength in the squat and bench press lifts, vertical jump (VJ), lean body mass (LBM), and neural activation levels (IEMG). They trained 3 days a week for 12 weeks according to a linear periodization model (n = 8), an undulating periodization model (n = 5), or a nonperiodized control model (n = 9). Training volume and relative intensity were equated for all groups. Maximal squat, bench press, and LBM all improved significantly in each group, and changes in maximal strength correlated significantly with changes in LBM. IEMG levels were generally unchanged and did not correlate with changes in strength. The VJ increased significantly through training, but there were no differences between groups. Changes in VJ were not significantly correlated with changes in squat, LBM, or IEMG levels. The results indicate that in short-term training using previously trained subjects, no differences in maximal strength are seen when training volume and relative intensity are equated.
(C) 1994 National Strength and Conditioning Association
This study examined the effects of manipulating training intensity on strength, body composition, and performance in trained ROTC cadets. Fourteen male ROTC cadets were pre-and posttested for % body fat and 1-RM strength on the bench press and parallel squat. Performance was measured via the physical fitness components of the Army Ranger Challenge and consisted of push-ups, sit-ups, 2-mile run, and 10-km ruck-run. Subjects were matched according to military experience and randomly assigned to a periodized model or a constant-intensity model for 10 weeks of resistance training. Total training volume was equal between groups. The periodized group significantly increased in 1-RM bench press, 1-RM parallel squat, and push-ups, and significantly decreased % fat and ruck-run time. The constant-intensity group significantly increased 1-RM parallel squat and push-ups, and significantly decreased their 2-mile run and ruck-run time. The periodized group completed the ruck-run significantly faster than the constant-intensity group. The results indicate that following a 10-week training cycle with trained subjects, significant improvements in body composition, strength, and performance can be obtained using two different training programs that have equal total relative training volume.
(C) 1998 National Strength and Conditioning Association
The present investigation compared the effects of three selected mesocycle-length weight training programs using partially equated volumes on upper and lower body strength. Ninety-two previously weight-trained males were tested at five intervals (T1 through T5) on freeweight bench press and parallel back squat strength before, during, and after 16 weeks of training. Groups 1 and 2 trained with programs consisting of 5x10-RM at 78.9% of 1-RM and 6x8-RM at 83.3% of 1-RM, respectively, while keeping the amount of sets, repetitions, and training resistance (relative intensity) constant. Group 3 trained with a periodization program involving 4 weeks of 5x10-RM at 78.9% of 1-RM, 4 weeks of 6x8-RM with 83.3% of 1-RM, 4 weeks of 3x6-RM with 87.6% of 1-RM, and 4 weeks of 3x4-RM with 92.4% of 1-RM. Group 4 served as a non-weight-training control group. A 4x5 (Group x Test) MANOVA with repeated measures on test revealed that pretest normalized bench press and squat strength values were statistically equal when the study began. For the bench press at T2, results revealed that Groups 1, 2, and 3 were significantly different from Group 4 but not from each other. At T3, T4, and T5, Group 3 demonstrated significantly different strength levels in the bench press from Groups 1, 2, and 4. Groups 1 and 2 were not significantly different from Group 4. For the squat exercise at T2, T3, and T4, Groups 2 and 3 were significantly different from Groups 1 and 2 but not from each other. At T5, Group 3 was significantly different from Groups 1, 2, and 4. Group 2 was significantly different from Groups 1 and 4, and Group 1 was only significantly different from Group 4. It was concluded that a mesocycle-length weight training program. incorporating periodization is superior in eliciting upper and lower body strength gains when compared to programs with partially equated volumes.
(C) 1993 National Strength and Conditioning Association
The purpose of this study was to compare three weight-training methods to measures of high-intensity exercise endurance. Young male subjects were assigned to three groups using the same exercises three days per week. The initial age, height and body mass of the subjects were (mean +/- standard deviation): Group N (n = 8, 20.0 +/- 2.0 years, 181.0 +/- 5.7 cm, 74.5 +/- 11.5 kg); Group P (n = 9, 19.3 +/- 1.2 years, 179.5 +/- 3.0 cm, 72.4 +/- 6.4 kg); Group H (n = 10, 20.6 +/- 5.0 years, 184.2 +/- 6.4 cm, 80.2 +/- 11.2 kg). Parallel squats were performed two days per week and 1/4 squats one day per week. Group N used one set of approximately 12 repetitions to failure. Group P used three sets of 10 for two weeks, three sets of five for three weeks and three sets of three for two weeks. Group H used three sets of 10 for the entire seven weeks. Groups P and H used light and moderate warm-up sets before exercise with the three target sets. Body mass was measured on a medical scale. Cycle endurance time (CT) was measured with the subjects riding (60 rpm) at 30 watts (two minutes), 120 watts (two minutes) and 265 watts to exhaustion. Squatting (top of the thigh parallel) endurance measurements began at 60 kg at a cadence of 1 squat per six seconds. Bar mass was raised by 2.5 kg each minute until exhaustion. Maximum mass lifted (MM), total repetitions (TR) and load (repetitions x mass) (L) were calculated. Measures were made at the beginning (T1) and after seven weeks of training (T2). No differences were found between groups; however, within- group analysis showed significant (p < 0.05) increases over time for both P and H, but not for N on all measures. These data suggest that one set to failure does not increase high-intensity exercise endurance as effectively as the use of multiple sets of weight training.
(C) 1992 National Strength and Conditioning Association
Some controversy exists concerning the "transfer of training effect" from different methods of resistance-training programs to various athletic performance variables. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of 3 different resistance-training methods on a variety of performance variables representing different portions of the force velocity curve, ranging from high force to high speed movements. Forty-two previously trained men (1 repetition maximum [RM] squat kg per kg body mass >= 1.4) served as subjects. After a 4-week high-volume training period and the pretests, the subjects were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 groups. The groups were high force (HF; n = 13), high power (HP; n = 16), and a combination training group (COM; n = 13); each group trained 4 d[middle dot]wk-1 for 9 weeks. Group HF trained using 80-85% of their 1RM values. Group HP trained at relative intensities approximating 30% of peak isometric force. Group COM used a combination training protocol. Variables measured pre-and posttraining were the 1RM parallel squat, 1RM 1/4 squat, 1RM midthigh pull, vertical jump (VJ), vertical jump power, Margaria-Kalamen power test (MK), 30-m sprint, 10-yd shuttle run (10-yd), and standing long jump (SLJ). Data were analyzed within groups with t-tests, and the between-group analysis used a group [chi] trials analysis of variance test. The HF group improved significantly in 4 variables (p <= 0.05 for squat, 1/4 squat, midthigh pull, MK), the HP group in 5 variables (p <= 0.05 for 1/4 squat, midthigh pull, VJ, MK, SLJ), and the COM group in 7 variables (p <= 0.05 for squat, 1/4 squat, midthigh pull, VJ, VJP, 10-yd). These results indicate that when considering the improvement of a wide variety of athletic performance variables requiring strength, power, and speed, combination training produces superior results.
(C) 2000 National Strength and Conditioning Association
The purpose of this series of investigations was to gain insight on resistance training in American football and address some of the myths. Many theories about resistance training have been proposed, yet there has been little if any research on some of these training philosophies. This series of studies represents an accumulation of data that helped to formulate a training approach. Rather than having a training philosophy, it might be more productive to have a training approach based on facts and critical monitoring of test variables representative of the physical development possible through strength and conditioning programs. It was demonstrated that football players are capable of multiple maximal efforts in resistance training and that the length of the rest period was a determining factor. In general, multiple sets and various periodized training programs were superior to single-set programs in the rate and magnitude of improvements in body composition, strength, local muscular endurance, and power. Such data indicate that for building programs in previously trained football players, multiple-set programs that provide variation are more appropriate.
(C) 1997 National Strength and Conditioning Association
The effects of different methods of weight training on strength and short-term work capacity are not clearly understood. This study describes the leg and hip maximum strength and endurance responses to two different weight training methods. Ninety healthy college males were divided into two training groups. Group 1 (G1, n = 46) used a "periodized" approach of moving from high-volume, low-intensity to low-volume, high-intensity exercise across the training program (11 weeks). Group 2 (G2, n = 44) used a 3 x 6 RM. Changes in maximum strength were measured with a 1 RM parallel squat. Power capacity was measured by incremental cycle ergometer exercise. A subset of each group (G1 = 17; G2 = 14) was used in the estimation of short-term power capacity. The results show that weight training can significantly (p<.01) increase maximum strength and short-term power capacity (endurance) simultaneously and that the periodized group (G1) produced superior results.
(C) 1988 National Strength and Conditioning Association
The purpose of this investigation was to compare the effects of weight training using a single set to failure vs. multiple sets not to failure in young women. The subjects were 17 previously untrained, healthy college-age women (age 18-20 years; 66.8 +/- 12.3 kg). After initial testing, the subjects were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 groups: the single-set group (SS, n = 9) and a multiple-set-variation group (MSV, n = 8). Testing was conducted at the beginning and end of the study. There were no initial differences between the groups. Tests included the 1 repetition maximum parallel squat (1RMS) and countermovement vertical jump (CMVJ). Body mass was measured on a medical scale. Subjects trained 3 days per week for 8 weeks; all training sessions were monitored by investigators. After warm-up, the SS performed 1 set of 8-12 repetitions to muscular failure. If 12 or more repetitions could be performed, an additional 2.5-5.0 kg were added for the next training session. The MSV group performed 3 sets at a target weight (not-to-failure) and used loading variations producing heavy and light training days. All subjects in the MSV were instructed (and encouraged) to move the weight as explosively as possible. The variation in squat training intensity across 1 week allowed the MSV subjects to produce marked differences in velocity of movement in the squat. Data were analyzed using a repeated measures ANOVA. The alpha level was 0.05. Results showed that the 1RMS and CMVJ increased significantly over time (p <0.05). The 1RMS improved 34.7% in the MSV and 24.2% in the SS. The CMVJ showed a significant interaction (p = 0.047). The CMVJ improved 11.2% in the MSV and 0.3% in the SS. Body mass did not change significantly over time or between groups. These results generally show a superior adaptation for the MSV group.
(C) 2000 National Strength and Conditioning Association
"Bridging the Gap" is a continuing feature of the NSCA Journal. Various topics are presented with companion articles addressing the physiological and/ or research basis, as well as the practical application. In this way, the NSCA Journal continues to bridge the gap between sports researchers and practitioners. See page 54 for the practical application of these concepts.
(C) 1990 National Strength and Conditioning Association
Regular physical activity can improve cardiovascular fitness and may reduce the likelihood and debilitating effects of cardiovascular disease.
Weight-training has generally been believed to have limited value in modifying risks of cardiovascular disease. Effects shown of resistance training on parameters associated with cardiovascular fitness and disease include: heart rate decreases for maximal work and recovery from short term weight-training, increased ventricular mass, and increased ventricular wall and septum thickness. Studies suggest that myocardial hypertrophy resulting from resistive training can be accompanied by positive myocardial adaptations.
Blood pressure response considerations to resistive training include: similarity of resistive exercise peak response to other forms of high intensity exercise, highest blood pressures occur at or near exhaustion during maximum lifts, training appears to reduce the exercise blood pressure. Given the blood pressure responses caution is required for individuals with cardiovascular disease.
Studies of high-volume weight-training indicate that small to moderate increases in aerobic power can occur in relatively short periods of time. The mechanisms by which weight-training increases V̇O2max is unclear.
Resistive training may produce positive changes in serum lipids with the volume of training being the dependent factor.
Cross-sectional and longitudinal studies of bodybuilders suggest that weight-training may beneficially alter glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity. It appears that weight-training can increase short term high intensity endurance without a concomitant loss in performance. Resistive training increases power output and performance.
Body composition has important relationships to cardiovascular fitness, strength and flexibility. It is likely that it can be affected and controlled by use of large body mass during exercise depending on training volume.
Neuromuscular and hormonal adaptations to prolonged strength training were investigated in nine elite weight lifters. The average increases occurred over the 2-yr follow-up period in the maximal neural activation (integrated electromyogram, IEMG; 4.2%, P = NS), maximal isometric leg-extension force (4.9%, P = NS), averaged concentric power index (4.1%, P = NS), total weight-lifting result (2.8%, P less than 0.05), and total mean fiber area (5.9%, P = NS) of the vastus lateralis muscle, respectively. The training period resulted in increases in the concentrations of serum testosterone from 19.8 +/- 5.3 to 25.1 +/- 5.2 nmol/l (P less than 0.05), luteinizing hormone (LH) from 8.6 +/- 0.8 to 9.1 +/- 0.8 U/l (P less than 0.05), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) from 4.2 +/- 2.0 to 5.3 +/- 2.3 U/l (P less than 0.01), and testosterone-to-serum sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) ratio (P less than 0.05). The annual mean value of the second follow-up year for the serum testosterone-to-SHBG ratio correlated significantly (r = 0.84, P less than 0.01) with the individual changes during the 2nd yr in the averaged concentric power. The present results suggest that prolonged intensive strength training in elite athletes may influence the pituitary and possibly hypothalamic levels, leading to increased serum levels of testosterone. This may create more optimal conditions to utilize more intensive training leading to increased strength development.
A method of comparing the performances of athletes of disparate bodyweights in Olympic weightlifting is developed that is able to accommodate the fact that, of the ten bodyweight classes contested, the lighter nine have upper limits assigned to them while the heaviest has only a lower limit. The results are presented so as to answer the question "What would a given athlete weighing x kilograms total if he were a +110 kg. athlete of the same level of ability?"
The purpose of this paper is to present a hypothetical model for strength training and to present supporting data. The model is an attempt to conform to the concepts of training 'periodization' and specificity of training. The model consists of four phases: (1) Hypertrophy, high volume-low intensity, (2) Basic Strength, moderate volume-high intensity, (3) Strength-Power, low volume-very high intensity (special subphases include maintenance and peaking), (4) Active Rest, very low volume-very low intensity. A review of the literature indicates that three sets of six repetitions maximum, 3 days/week is the generally recommended method of attaining maximal strength increases. However, a short term comparison (6 weeks) showed the model to be superior in producing gains in the squat (1 RM), squat/kg body weight and power as measured using the vertical jump and Lewis formula. Additionally two observations of the practical use of the model with high caliber athletes are presented. Six Olympic niveau weightlifters were observed at three competitions about 3 months apart. The 3 lifters training according to the concepts of the model showed greater improvement compared to the three using traditional methods. The second observation used a high school American-style football team. The players using the strength training model produced greater gains (bench press, squat and power) than the players using 3x6 RM over a 12 week period. The data gathered suggest that the model for strength training presented produces superior strength-power gains when compared to traditional methods.
A com-parison of Nautilus and free weight training
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Effects of single versus multiple sets of weight train-ing exercises on body compo-sition and maximum leg and hip strength
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- Hoke
Kramer, J.B., M.H. Stone, H.S. O’Bryant, M.S. Conley, R.L. Johnson, D.C. Nieman, D.R. Honeycutt, and T.P. Hoke. Effects of single versus multiple sets of weight train-ing exercises on body compo-sition and maximum leg and hip strength. J. Strength Con-ditioning Res. 11(3):143–147. 1997
Overtraining: a re-view of the signs and symp-toms of overtraining
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Stone, M.H., R. Keith, J.T. Kearney, G.D. Wilson, and S.J. Fleck. Overtraining: a re-view of the signs and symp-toms of overtraining. J. Appl. Sports Sci. Res. 5(1):35–50. 1991
Weight Training: A Scientific Approach
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Review and evaluation of relative strength handicapping models. Natl. Strength Conditioning Assoc
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Periodization: A Theoretical Model For Strength Training [dissertation]. Louisiana State University
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Responses to increased resistance training volume
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