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Social Disconnection and Hazardous Drinking Mediate
the Link Between Perfectionistic Attitudes
and Depressive Symptoms
Simon B. Sherry &Paul L. Hewitt &Sherry H. Stewart &
Anna L. Mackinnon &Aislin R. Mushquash &
Gordon L. Flett &Dayna L. Sherry
Published online: 16 May 2012
#Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2012
Abstract According to the perfectionism social disconnec-
tion model (PSDM), perfectionism leads to social discon-
nection (e.g., isolation, loneliness, and alienation) which
brings about depressive symptoms. The present study ex-
tended the PSDM by testing a dual-pathway mediation
model wherein social disconnection and hazardous drinking
were hypothesized to explain why perfectionistic attitudes
(e.g., intense self-criticism, evaluative concerns, and unre-
alistic goal-setting) result in depressive symptoms. A sam-
ple of 216 college students participated. The present study
utilized a cross-sectional design and self-report question-
naires. The hypothesized model fit the data well, with social
disconnection and hazardous drinking mediating the perfec-
tionistic attitudes-depressive symptoms link. Students high
in perfectionistic attitudes report feeling isolated, lonely, and
alienated. To escape this powerful sense of not belonging,
these students turn to alcohol in a self-destructive way.
Suffering from the ill effects of social disconnection and
hazardous drinking, students high in perfectionistic attitudes
are vulnerable to depressive symptoms.
Keywords Perfectionism .Dependency .Social
maladjustment .Alcohol .Depression
Depression involves a constellation of symptoms including
negative thoughts, fatigue, joylessness, amotivation, sadness,
and sleep difficulties. Evidenceindicatesdepressionisaquan-
titative, continuous dimension (Prisciandaro and Robert 2009).
Consistent with this evidence, wemeasuredepressivesymptoms
as lying along a continuum of severity from mild to severe.
Depressive symptoms are a prevalent, impairing, and costly
health problem. In college students, depressive symptoms are
linked to self-injury, infectious illnesses, healthcare costs, poor
grades, social problems, and alcohol misuse (Graham et al.
2010). There is thus a strong need to improve our understanding
of why college students suffer from depressive symptoms.
Among the various established contributors to depressive
symptoms, perfectionism plays a central, unique role in the
development and maintenance of depressive symptoms
(Dunkley et al. 2003). Although studies consistently link
perfectionism to depressive symptoms (Bardone-Cone et al.
2007; Bieling et al. 2004; Joiner and Schmidt 1995), little is
known about why people high in perfectionism get depressed.
Limitations in the Existing Literature
Despite notable contributions (Rice and Van Arsdale 2010),
important conceptual and methodological advances are still
S. B. Sherry (*):S. H. Stewart
Department of Psychology and Psychiatry, Life Sciences Centre,
Dalhousie University,
1355 Oxford Street, PO BOX 15000, Halifax, Nova Scotia
B3H4R2, Canada
e-mail: Simon.Sherry@dal.ca
P. L. Hewitt
Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia,
Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
A. L. Mackinnon :A. R. Mushquash
Department of Psychology, Dalhousie University,
Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
G. L. Flett
Department of Psychology, York University,
Toronto, Ontario, Canada
D. L. Sherry
Queen Elizabeth II Health Sciences Centre,
Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
J Psychopathol Behav Assess (2012) 34:370–381
DOI 10.1007/s10862-012-9291-8
needed in research on perfectionism and depressive symp-
toms. For example, integrative models drawing together
complementary literatures are seldom seen in studies on
perfectionism and depressive symptoms. Yet such integra-
tive models are needed, as multiple contributors are in-
volved in depressive symptoms. Integrative models tested
with multivariate statistics (e.g., path analysis) also enable
researchers to simultaneously test a system of variables, thus
helping to identify unique or redundant contributors to de-
pressive symptoms.
In testing the association between perfectionism and de-
pressive symptoms, studies also typically focus on modera-
tion models (e.g., Hewitt et al. 1996). These models are
important, since they clarify variables (e.g., academic stres-
sors) which alter the strength of the relationship between
perfectionism and depressive symptoms (Hewitt et al.
2006). However, mediation models also provide vital infor-
mation. Such models highlight targets for prevention, as-
sessment, and treatment by clarifying mechanisms
responsible for the relationship between perfectionism and
depressive symptoms.
Moreover, tests of incremental validity are neglected in
many studies on perfectionism and depressive symptoms.
Such tests are important in evaluating whether models are
robust. A robust model of perfectionism and depressive
symptoms should predict incremental variance in depressive
symptoms beyond other established contributors to depres-
sive symptoms.
We address the abovementioned limitations by testing
and expanding the perfectionism social disconnection model
(PSDM) in a sample of college students. Our study thus
represents a needed contribution to research on perfection-
ism and depressive symptoms.
The PSDM
Perfectionistic attitudes involve stringent self-evaluation,
harsh self-criticism, unrealistic goal-setting, strongly basing
self-worth on achievement, and extreme fear of others’
evaluations (Brown and Beck 2002). We focus on perfec-
tionistic attitudes as this construct is a theoretically based,
empirical synthesis of two salient aspects of perfectionism.
The perfectionistic attitudes construct derives from a
cognitive-behavioral theoretical tradition (Frost et al.
1990), and includes a central role for both cognitive distor-
tions with perfectionistic themes (e.g., dichotomous, black-
and-white thinking; “If I fail at school, then I am a total
failure as a person.”) and social difficulties with perfection-
istic themes (e.g., social-evaluative concerns; “The fewer
mistakes I make, the more other people like me.”). We also
draw on perfectionistic attitudes because this long-standing,
well-researched construct is robustly linked with both social
difficulties and depressive symptoms (Dunkley et al. 2006).
According to the PSDM, perfectionistic attitudes gener-
ate social disconnection in the form of isolation, loneliness,
and alienation (Hewitt et al. 2006). The PSDM asserts
people high in perfectionistic attitudes experience a power-
ful sense of not belonging; indeed, the PSDM proposes a
strong feeling of not being accepted by others or connected
to communities (e.g., college dormitories) is central to the
phenomenology of people high in perfectionistic attitudes
(Sherry et al. 2008). Studies support these assertions and
indicate perfectionistic attitudes are closely tied to negative
social situations (e.g., hostile interactions), cognitions (e.g.,
seeing others as uncaring), and outcomes (e.g., romantic
break-ups; Habke et al. 1999; Dunkley and Kyparissis
2008; Sherry and Hall 2009)
The PSDM also maintains perfectionistic attitudes con-
tribute to depressive symptoms via negative social situa-
tions, cognitions, and outcomes. Studies show disturbed
social functioning, including feeling isolated, lonely, and
alienated, contributes to depressive symptoms (Armstrong
and Oomen-Early 2009; Pettit and Joiner 2006). Indeed,
acceptance by and connection to others appears vital to
emotional well-being (Baumeister and Leary 1995). Build-
ing on this evidence, the PSDM asserts social disconnection
mediates the relation between perfectionistic attitudes and
depressive symptoms. The first test of the PSDM was con-
gruent with this assertion, and found (low) social support
mediated the perfectionism-depression relationship (Sherry
et al. 2008).
Theory and evidence both suggest social (dis)connection
is a salient concern for college students. Erikson viewed the
process of developing intimacy with others (and avoiding
isolation from others) as a challenge of social adaptation
occurring in young adulthood (Erikson 1963). Behaviors
typical of people high in perfectionistic attitudes (e.g.,
avoiding mistakes and ceaseless striving) may result in an
unduly narrow set of life experiences (e.g., constant study-
ing) where chances for developing close relationships are
missed (Graham et al. 2010). Considered from this perspec-
tive, perfectionistic attitudes involve an intense form of self-
absorption where perfection is sought after and dwelled
upon to the exclusion of important developmental tasks such
as building close relationships.
Along the same lines, Adler (Ansbacher and Ansbacher
1956) viewed well-adjusted people as participating in what
he called the social interest (i.e., a feeling of community that
includes cooperation with others and contributions to soci-
ety). Instead of engaging in shared social tasks aimed at the
common good, people high in perfectionistic attitudes ap-
pear to turn inward, ruminating about their perceived imper-
fections and rigidly pursuing their unrealistic goals (Flett et
al. 1998). People high in perfectionistic attitudes also seem
J Psychopathol Behav Assess (2012) 34:370–381 371
to see others more as potential threats than as potential
collaborators in shared social tasks (Sherry et al. 2007). In
fact, research suggests people high in perfectionistic atti-
tudes chronically view others as punitive and judgemental
(Sherry et al. 2007). Perfectionistic attitudes are thus linked
with a pattern of intensely pursuing self-focused goals and
struggling to live cooperatively with others.
In sum, consistent with the PSDM, studies indicate
people high in perfectionistic attitudes struggle to find a
positive place in dyadic relationships and in larger com-
munities (e.g., college campuses)—and this powerful
sense of disconnection from others has depressing con-
sequences for them. In the present research, we opera-
tionalize social disconnection using a scale assessing
isolation, loneliness, and alienation (de Jong-Gierveld
and van Tilburg 1990). We chose this scale since these
three constructs are key indicators of social disconnec-
tion with established links to depressive symptoms (de
Jong-Gierveld and van Tilburg 1990).
Expanding the PSDM to Include a Role for Hazardous
Drinking
Despite promising initial support for the PSDM (Sherry et
al. 2008), evidence indicates depressive symptoms are
caused by multiple factors (Dunkley et al. 2003), making
it unlikely social disconnection alone explains why perfec-
tionistic attitudes are tied to depressive symptoms. Hazard-
ous drinking is a common problem for college students with
known links to perfectionism, social problems, and depres-
sive symptoms (Flett et al. 2008; Rice and Van Arsdale
2010). In expanding the PSDM, we tested a dual-pathway
mediation model (see Fig. 1) where both social disconnec-
tion and hazardous drinking explain the perfectionistic
attitudes-depressive symptoms link. We refer to this model
as the expanded PSDM.
Perfectionistic attitudes are differentially related to alco-
hol consumption (i.e., how often and how much a person
drinks) and to hazardous drinking (i.e., dangerous alcohol
misuse that alarms others and that results in guilt, injuries,
blackouts, and irresponsibility; Flett et al. 2008; Rice and
Van Arsdale 2010). Whereas perfectionistic attitudes and
alcohol consumption appear unrelated, perfectionistic atti-
tudes and hazardous drinking correlate positively (Flett et al.
2008; Rice and Van Arsdale 2010). That is, people high in
perfectionistic attitudes seem no more likely to drink heavily
than others, but when they do drink, they engage in hazard-
ous behaviors with seriously negative consequences. Draw-
ing on this research, we conceptualized hazardous drinking
as centrally involved in the expanded PSDM. We also
included measures of hazardous drinking and alcohol con-
sumption in our study so as to replicate findings suggesting
perfectionistic attitudes are tied to hazardous drinking but
not to alcohol consumption per se (Flett et al. 2008; Rice
and Van Arsdale 2010).
People high in perfectionistic attitudes may turn to haz-
ardous drinking as a means of escaping intense self-rebuke
and evaluative concerns (Baumeister 1991). As drinking in
this manner provides only a temporary escape from perfec-
tionistic attitudes, and leads to problems that trigger even
more self-rebuke and evaluative concerns (e.g., missing
class), such drinking behavior is ultimately an ineffective,
depressogenic manner of dealing with perfectionistic atti-
tudes (Heatherton and Baumeister 1991). Alcohol-related
problems such as low grades or legal sanctions may be
especially depressing for college students high in perfec-
tionistic attitudes as such problems conflict with their goal
of obtaining perfection. Consistent with this theory and
evidence, in the present study we propose perfectionistic
attitudes contribute to hazardous drinking which then result
in depressive symptoms (see Fig. 1).
The expanded PSDM, as shown in Fig. 1, also asserts
people high in perfectionistic attitudes may attempt to cope
with distressing feelings of social disconnection through
hazardous drinking. From this perspective, hazardous drink-
ing is a maladaptive coping response brought on by the
powerful sense of not belonging experienced by people high
in perfectionistic attitudes. Our study thus aligns with a
wider literature suggesting social tensions lead to alcohol
misuse (Mohr et al. 2010). Hazardous drinking does not,
however, represent an effective longer-term way of coping.
In fact, hazardous drinking is linked with sadness and irri-
tability the next day (Schuckit 2006). Overall, people high
in perfectionistic attitudes appear to struggle with a chronic
sense of not belonging (Hewitt et al. 2006). These people
may turn to alcohol in a harmful way since they feel ex-
cluded by others, and this hazardous drinking, along with
their strong sense of disconnection from others, leaves them
feeling depressed.
Hypotheses Derived From the Expanded PSDM
Central Hypotheses As Fig. 1illustrates, the expanded
PSDM is a dual-pathway mediation model where (a) per-
fectionistic attitudes are associated with social disconnec-
tion and hazardous drinking; (b) social disconnection and
hazardous drinking are associated with each another and
depressive symptoms; and (c) social disconnection and
hazardous drinking mediate the association between per-
fectionistic attitudes and depressive symptoms. Social
disconnection and hazardous drinking are thus seen as
explanatory mechanisms clarifying why perfectionistic
attitudes contribute to depressive symptoms.
372 J Psychopathol Behav Assess (2012) 34:370–381
Incremental Validity Drawing on prior evidence (Sherry
et al. 2003), path coefficients in the expanded PSDM
were hypothesized to remain significant after controlling
for a known contributor to depressive symptoms: depen-
dent attitudes (i.e., craving nurturance, pleasing others,
strongly basing self-worth on others’approval, and
needing admiration; Brown and Beck 2002). As depen-
dent attitudes overlap with perfectionistic attitudes and
the other variables of the expanded PSDM (Zuroff et al
2000), we saw dependent attitudes as a potentially con-
founding variable to be controlled for to strictly test the
expanded PSDM.
Methods
Participants
A sample of 216 college students (152 women, 63 men, and 1
undeclared) completed measures. All participants were
recruited from the Department of Psychology participant
pool at University of British Columbia. Participants
responded to an ad inviting their participation in a study of
personality traits. The participant pool was not sampled
entirely or systematically. University of British Columbia is
located in Vancouver (population 603,502). An estimated
37,944 undergraduates attend University of British Colum-
bia, meaning the present study includes only a small portion
of the overall student body. Participants averaged 19.10 years
of age (SD01.69) and 1.39 years of college education (SD0
0.71); 70.4 % were in first-year college, 21.7 % were in
second year, 5.5 % were in third year, 1.9 % were in fourth
year or higher, and 0.5 % did not report their year of study in
college. Participants reported living in Country for an average
of 13.68 years (SD06.07); 52.3 % of participants were Asian,
27.4 % were Caucasian, 9.7 % were Middle Eastern, 7.4 %
were members of other ethnicities, and 3.2 % did not report
their ethnicity. This sample is comparable to other student
samples recruited at University of British Columbia (Sherry
and Hall 2009).
Measures
Dysfunctional Attitude Scale-Form A (DAS-A) The DAS-A
(Weissman and Beck 1978), is a 26-item scale involving a
15-item perfectionistic attitudes subscale (e.g., “I should be
upset if I make a mistake”)andan11-itemdependent
attitudes subscale (e.g., “If others dislike you, you can-
not be happy”). Participants respond on a 7-point scale
from 1 (disagree)to7(agree). Higher scores represent
higher levels of the construct measured for all scales in
our study. The 18-month test-retest correlations for the
perfectionistic attitudes and the dependent attitudes sub-
scales are .76 and .68, respectively (Zuroff et al. 1999).
Alpha reliabilities for the DAS-A subscales are usually
>.75 (Imber et al. 1990). Research supports the reliabil-
ity and validity of the DAS-A subscales (Sherry et al.
2003). For example, neuroticism is linked to the perfec-
tionistic attitudes (r0.56) and the dependent attitudes
(r0.53) subscales (Dunkley et al. 2004).
Rasch-Type Loneliness Scale-Deprivation Subscale (RTLS-
DS) The RTLS-DS (de Jong-Gierveld and van Tilburg
1990) is a 7-item scale assessing isolation, loneliness, and
alienation (e.g., “I don’t really have any friends”). Partic-
ipants respond using a 5-point scale from 1 (strongly dis-
agree)to5(strongly agree). The 5-month test-retest
correlation for the RTLS-DS is .70 (Masked author 2009).
Alpha reliabilities for the RTLS-DS are usually >.80 (de
Jong-Gierveld and Kamphuis 1985). Evidence supports the
reliability and validity of the RTLS-DS (Shaver and
Brennan 1991). For instance, the UCLA Loneliness Scale
(Russell 1996)isassociatedwiththeRTLS-DS(r0.85;
Masked author 2009).
Perfectionistic
attitudes
Dependent
attitudes
Social
disconnection
Hazardous
drinking
Depressive
symptoms
Fig. 1 Testing the expanded
PSDM. Rectangles represent
observed variables. The double-
headed black arrow represents a
correlation. Single-headed
black arrows represent hypoth-
esized direct effects. The single-
headed grey arrow between
perfectionistic attitudes and de-
pressive symptoms represents
the indirect effect hypothesized
in the path model for the ex-
panded PSDM. In the interest of
clarity, demographic variables
are not shown
J Psychopathol Behav Assess (2012) 34:370–381 373
Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) The
AUDIT (Saunders et al. 1993) is a 10-item scale involving
a 3-item alcohol consumption subscale (e.g., “How often do
you have a drink containing alcohol?”) and a 7-item haz-
ardous drinking subscale (e.g., “Have you had a feeling
of guilt or remorse after drinking?”). Participants re-
spond on a 5-point scale from 0 (never)to4(daily or
almost daily). The 12-month test-retest correlations for
the alcohol consumption and the hazardous drinking
subscales are .64 and .62, respectively (Maisto et al.
2000). Alpha reliabilities for the AUDIT subscales range
from .75 to .85 (Conley and O'Hare 2006). Research
supports the reliability and validity of the AUDIT sub-
scales (Reinert and Allen 2002). For example, negative
consequences arising from alcohol use (e.g., missing school)
are linked to the alcohol consumption (r0.22) and the
hazardous drinking subscales (r0.41; Maisto et al. 2000).
Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) The BDI (Beck et al.
1988) is a 21-item scale assessing symptoms of depres-
sion (e.g., guilt, fatigue, sadness, and anhedonia). Par-
ticipants respond on a 4-point scale from 0 (no
depressive symptoms)to3(severe depressive symptoms).
The 5-week test-retest correlation for the BDI is .58
(Vohs et al. 2001). Alpha reliabilities for the BDI are
typically >.85 (Yin and Fan 2003). Evidence supports
the reliability and validity of the BDI (Beck et al.
1988). For instance, the Center for Epidemiological
Studies Depression scale (Radloff 1977) is correlated
with the BDI (r0.75; Skorikov and Vandervoort 2003).
Procedures
Our study was approved by University of British Columbia’s
Ethics Board. Participants offered consent by reading and
signing a consent form. Research assistants answered par-
ticipants’questions regarding consent. As compensation,
participants received a 2.0 % bonus added to their course
grade.
Data Analytic Strategy
Path analysis was used to test the path model for the ex-
panded PSDM and bootstrap analyses were used to test the
mediational hypothesis in this model. Incremental validity
analyses tested whether the variables of the expanded
PSDM were related to depressive symptoms and to each
other beyond dependent attitudes.
Results
Descriptive Statistics
Means for all scales (see Table 1) fell within one standard
deviation of means from past studies involving college
students (Sherry et al. 2003; Shields et al. 2004; Weissman
and Beck 1978). This suggests means from our study are
generally consistent with other studies involving compara-
ble samples. Alpha reliabilities (see Table 1)werealso
adequate (≥.76) and congruent with other studies using
these scales (Sherry et al. 2003;Shieldsetal.2004;
Weissman and Beck 1978).
Bivariate Correlations
As expected, (a) perfectionistic attitudes correlated with social
disconnection, hazardous drinking, and depressive symptoms
(but not alcohol consumption); (b) social disconnection cor-
related with hazardous drinking and depressive symptoms
(but not alcohol consumption); and (c) hazardous drinking
correlated with depressive symptoms (see Table 1). Alcohol
consumption correlated with hazardous drinking (but not de-
pressive symptoms). This pattern of correlations suggests
merit in testing the path model for the expanded PSDM.
Dependent attitudes correlated with most (but not all)
variables in the expanded PSDM (see Table 1), suggesting
dependent attitudes are a suitable covariate. Each of the
variables in the expanded PSDM correlated with one or
Table 1 Means, standard
deviations, alpha reliabilities,
and bivariate correlations
*p<.05. **p< .01. ***p< .001.
Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6
1. Perfectionistic attitudes –.68*** .47*** .02 .22*** .35***
2. Dependent attitudes –.27*** -.02 .06 .26***
3. Social disconnection –.05 .22*** .46***
4. Alcohol consumption –.56*** .12
5. Hazardous drinking –.32***
6. Depressive symptoms –
M47.50 41.93 15.53 2.89 1.32 6.97
SD 14.99 8.92 5.54 2.61 2.63 6.76
α.91 .76 .84 .86 .76 .89
374 J Psychopathol Behav Assess (2012) 34:370–381
more demographics (i.e., gender, age, year of study, years in
Country, and ethnicity). These demographics were used as
covariates in path analysis.
Path Analysis
Path analysis involved maximum likelihood estimation and
AMOS 7.0 software (Arbuckle 2006). Model fit was evalu-
ated with the comparative fit index (CFI), incremental fit
index (IFI), and root mean square error of approximation
(RMSEA) with 90 % confidence interval (90 % CI). A CFI
and an IFI in the range of .95 as well as a RMSEA in the
range of .05 indicate adequate model fit (Byrne 2001).
The Path Model for the Expanded PSDM
Model Testing Fit indices suggested the path model for the
expanded PSDM (see Fig. 2) was well-supported: χ
2
(21,
N0216)037.66, p0.01; χ
2
/df01.79; CFI0.96; IFI 0.97;
RMSEA0.06 (90 % CI: .03, .09). All predicted paths in
Fig. 2were significant and consistent with the expanded
PSDM: (a) perfectionistic attitudes were tied to social dis-
connection and hazardous drinking, (b) social disconnection
was tied to hazardous drinking, and (c) social disconnection
and hazardous drinking were tied to depressive symptoms.
Congruent with our mediational hypothesis (see Mediation-
al analyses below), in the context of variables shown in
Fig. 2, perfectionistic attitudes were unrelated to depressive
symptoms.
In our study, 50 of 216 participants (23.1 %) reported
they did not consume alcohol. We questioned if these
abstainers may impact the fit indices for and the path coef-
ficients in the path model for the expanded PSDM. In testing
this possibility, we conducted another path analysis drop-
ping these abstainers. This model continued to fit the data
well: χ
2
(21, N0166)036.50, p0.02; χ
2
/df01.74; CFI0.95;
IFI0.96; RMSEA0.07 (90 % CI: .03, .10). Paths in this
model were also virtually unchanged in terms of either their
magnitude or their significance.
Mediational Analyses A significant indirect effect indicates
mediation has occurred (Sherry and Hall 2009). Bootstrap
analyses were used to test the significance level of the
indirect effect hypothesized in the path model for the ex-
panded PSDM (see Fig. 2). We used random sampling with
replacement to generate 20,000 (n0216) bootstrap samples.
Bootstrap samples were used to estimate bias-corrected
standard errors, and associated 95 % CIs, for the indirect
effect hypothesized in the path model for the expanded
PSDM. If the 95 % CI for this indirect effect does not
include zero, then this indirect effect is significant at p
<.05. Bootstrap estimates suggested this indirect effect
was significant: β0.27, B0.13, (95 % CI: .08, .19), and
SE0.03. In summary, as hypothesized, the indirect effect
of perfectionistic attitudes on depressive symptoms through
social disconnection and hazardous drinking was
significant.
Figures 3and 4illustrate indirect effects when controlling
for dependent attitudes (see Fritz and MacKinnon 2008;
MacKinnon 2008). Values in Figs. 3and 4were computed
when both mediators (i.e., social disconnection and hazard-
ous drinking) were included. However, in the interest of
clarity, each mediator is graphed separately.
Figure 3shows the indirect effect of perfectionistic atti-
tudes on depressive symptoms via social disconnection
when controlling for hazardous drinking and dependent
attitudes. As seen in Fig. 3, for a one unit change in perfec-
tionistic attitudes there is a predicted 0.20 unit change in
social disconnection (a
1
′) when controlling for hazardous
drinking. In Fig. 3, the slope (b
1
) for social disconnection
indicates that for a one unit change in social disconnection
there is a predicted 0.42 unit change in depressive symptoms
Perfectionistic
attitudes
Dependent
attitudes
.26
Social
disconnection
.17
Hazardous
drinking
.3
5
Depressive
symptoms
.36
.19
.03
.24
.12
-.15
.51
-.08
.69
.26
Fig. 2 The double-headed
black arrow represents a signif-
icant correlation (i.e., p<.05).
Single-headed black arrows
represent significant paths (i.e.,
p<.05). Single-headed grey
arrows represent nonsignificant
paths (i.e., p>.05). The single-
headed grey arrow between
perfectionistic attitudes and de-
pressive symptoms represents
the indirect effect hypothesized
in the path model for the ex-
panded PSDM. Path coeffi-
cients are standardized.
Italicized numbers represent the
proportion of variance
accounted for by associated
exogenous variables
J Psychopathol Behav Assess (2012) 34:370–381 375
when controlling for hazardous drinking and adjusting for
the level of perfectionistic attitudes.
Figure 4shows the indirect effect of perfectionistic atti-
tudes on depressive symptoms via hazardous drinking when
controlling for social disconnection and dependent attitudes.
As seen in Fig. 4, for a one unit change in perfectionistic
attitudes there is a predicted 0.06 unit change in hazardous
drinking (a
2
′) when controlling for social disconnection. In
Fig. 4, the slope (b
2
) for hazardous drinking indicates that
for a one unit change in hazardous drinking there is a
predicted 0.56 unit change in depressive symptoms when
controlling for social disconnection and adjusting for the
level of perfectionistic attitudes.
Figures 3and 4show that for a one unit change in
perfectionistic attitudes there is a predicted 0.15 unit change
in depressive symptoms (c). Both Figs. 3and 4also show
that for a one unit change in perfectionistic attitudes there is
a predicted 0.03 unit change in depressive symptoms when
holding hazardous drinking and social disconnection con-
stant (c′). The total indirect effect is the difference between c
and c′(c - c′), which is equal to 0.12 units. In sum, Figs. 3
and 4provide a graphical representation of the indirect
effects observed in our study.
Incremental Validity Perfectionistic and dependent attitudes
were correlated in the hypothesized manner (see Ta-
ble 1). Whereas perfectionistic attitudes were linked to
social disconnection and hazardous drinking in Fig. 2,
dependent attitudes were not. Dependent attitudes were
also unrelated to depressive symptoms. In sum, paths in
the path model for the expanded PSDM were consistent
with hypotheses even after controlling for dependent
attitudes.
Discussion
This study expands, tests, and supports the PSDM, a model
explaining why perfectionism is linked with depressive
symptoms. The path model for the expanded PSDM fit the
data well and all path coefficients were as hypothesized.
Bootstrap analyses supported hypotheses and indicated so-
cial disconnection and hazardous drinking are explanatory
mechanisms linking perfectionistic attitudes to depressive
symptoms. Perfectionistic attitudes also explained incre-
mental variance in the variables of the expanded PSDM
beyond dependent attitudes.
Fig. 3 A graphical representation of the relationship between social
disconnection and depressive symptoms at different levels of perfec-
tionistic attitudes when controlling for dependent attitudes and hazard-
ous drinking (Fritz and MacKinnon 2008; MacKinnon 2008). In the
interest of clarity, only a small section of the overall graph is presented.
Dots represent participant scores. Larger dots represent more observa-
tions. The distance between vertical lines (a
1
′) represents the predicted
unit change in social disconnection for a one unit change in perfec-
tionistic attitudes. The slope (b
1
) represents the linear relationship of
social disconnection with depressive symptoms at various levels of
perfectionistic attitudes. The distance between horizontal lines (c)
represents the predicted unit change in depressive symptoms for a
one unit change in perfectionistic attitudes. The distance between
adjacent parallel slopes (c′) represents the predicted unit change in
depressive symptoms for a one unit change in perfectionistic attitudes
when holding social disconnection constant. The total indirect effect is
the difference between c and c′(c - c′)
376 J Psychopathol Behav Assess (2012) 34:370–381
The Path Model for the Expanded PSDM
The expanded PSDM integrated perfectionistic attitudes,
social disconnection, hazardous drinking, and depressive
symptoms into a single, coherent model (see Fig. 2). The
expanded PSDM offers a novel explanation for why people
high in perfectionistic attitudes experience depressive symp-
toms: they feel isolated, lonely, and alienated and engage in
hazardous drinking.
Congruent with the expanded PSDM, our results indicated
perfectionistic attitudes were tied to depressive symptoms,
and the indirect effect of perfectionistic attitudes on depressive
symptoms through social disconnection and hazardous drink-
ing was significant. The present study is thus generally con-
sistent with our initial test of the PSDM, where social
disconnection mediated the relationship between perfection-
ism and depressive symptoms (Sherry et al. 2008). Our study
also extends past research on this emerging model (Sherry et
al. 2008) by implicating hazardous drinking in the PSDM.
The social world involves frequent appraisals—including
subjective perceptions of other people and social exchanges
(Hewitt et al. 2006). Our results suggest when people high
in perfectionistic attitudes appraise their social world, they
tend to conclude others are disinterested, rejecting, or un-
caring. In fact, a sense of isolation, loneliness, and alienation
seems central to the phenomenology of people high in
perfectionistic attitudes (Chang et al. 2011; Hewitt et al.
2006). Perfectionistic attitudes may also involve (or pro-
mote) an imbalanced behavioral pattern where work is
privileged over relationships, thereby increasing experien-
ces of isolation (e.g., studying alone) and decreasing oppor-
tunities for intimacy (e.g., dating; Erikson 1963). Instead of
cooperating and communing with others (Ansbacher and
Ansbacher 1956), it appears people high in perfectionistic
attitudes turn inward, living in a narrow, private world
where they rigidly pursue unrealistic goals, ruminate over
perceived imperfections, and strive for superiority over
others (Sherry et al. 2007). Without positive connections
to others or a sense of community and collaboration with
others, our results also suggest people high in perfectionistic
attitudes experience depressive symptoms. The present
study thus complements a broader literature suggesting
unsatisfying and disturbed social relationships contribute
to depressive symptoms (Baumeister and Leary 1995).
As in earlier research, perfectionistic attitudes were un-
related to alcohol consumption, but positively linked to
Fig. 4 A graphical representation of the relationship between hazard-
ous drinking and depressive symptoms at different levels of perfec-
tionistic attitudes when controlling for dependent attitudes and social
disconnection (Fritz and MacKinnon 2008; MacKinnon 2008). In the
interest of clarity, only a small section of the overall graph is presented.
Dots represent participant scores. Larger dots represent more observa-
tions. The distance between vertical lines (a
2
′) represents the predicted
unit change in hazardous drinking for a one unit change in perfection-
istic attitudes. The slope (b
2
) represents the linear relationship of
hazardous drinking with depressive symptoms at various levels of
perfectionistic attitudes. The distance between horizontal lines (c)
represents the predicted unit change in depressive symptoms for a
one unit change in perfectionistic attitudes. The distance between
adjacent parallel slopes (c′) represents the predicted unit change in
depressive symptoms for a one unit change in perfectionistic attitudes
when holding hazardous drinking constant. The total indirect effect is
the difference between c and c′(c - c′)
J Psychopathol Behav Assess (2012) 34:370–381 377
hazardous drinking (Flett et al. 2008; Rice and Van Arsdale
2010). These results support our hypotheses and suggest
that, although people high in perfectionistic attitudes are
no more likely to drink heavily than others, when they do
drink, problems ensue. Our study thus converges with ear-
lier investigations suggesting people high in perfectionistic
attitudes are prone to patterns of extreme, all-or-nothing
behaviors where they cycle between periods of overcontrol
(e.g., total abstinence from alcohol or rigid self-starvation)
and undercontrol (e.g., hazardous drinking or binge eating;
Flett et al. 2008; Sherry and Hall 2009).
Hazardous drinking may provide a means of temporarily
escaping the harsh self-criticism and the evaluative concerns
endemic to perfectionistic attitudes (Baumeister 1991).
However, this coping response offers only a brief—and
ultimately ineffective—way of dealing with perfectionistic
attitudes. In fact, such hazardous drinking may, in the
longer-term, contribute to problems triggering even more
self-criticism and evaluative concerns (e.g., lower marks).
Consistent with research linking social tensions to alcohol
misuse (Mohr et al. 2010), our results also suggest people
high in perfectionistic attitudes try to cope with their feel-
ings of isolation, loneliness, and alienation through hazard-
ous drinking. Struggling with a chronic sense of not
belonging, people high in perfectionistic attitudes appear
to turn to alcohol instead of others. As predicted by the
expanded PSDM and suggested by our results, what may
initially seem like a solution for people high in perfection-
istic attitudes (i.e., drinking in an hazardous way to escape
their perfectionism and to cope with social problems) even-
tually becomes a serious problem that contributes to depres-
sive symptoms.
Incremental Validity
As hypothesized, after controlling for the potentially con-
founding influence of dependent attitudes, all path coef-
ficients in the expanded PSDM remained significant. In
fact, dependent attitudes were unrelated to the variables
of the expanded PSDM (see Fig. 2). These results fit
with evidence suggesting that, though perfectionistic atti-
tudes and dependent attitudes both involve salient inter-
personal content (Sherry et al. 2003), differences exist
between these constructs, with dependent attitudes in-
volving a needy interpersonal style (e.g., clinging to
others in an attempt to obtain affection) and perfection-
istic attitudes involving a defensive interpersonal style
(e.g., avoiding others in order to escape from anticipated
criticism; Dunkley and Kyparissis 2008). Overall, our
study meshes well with research indicating perfectionistic
attitudes are a unique cognitive-personality trait that is
neither redundant with nor captured by other constructs,
including dependent attitudes (Sherry et al. 2003).
Limitations and Future Directions
Based on prior research (Hewitt et al. 2006), the expanded
PSDM proposes a specific, unfolding sequence of events.
However, different sequences are possible. Experience sam-
pling and multi-wave longitudinal designs would help clarify
questions about directionality. There is, for example, a need to
strictly test if social disconnection is an antecedent, concom-
itant, or consequence of hazardous drinking. Furthermore, our
use of a predominantly female sample raises questions about
whether our results generalize to men. Many of our partici-
pants were also of Asian ethnicity, which is notable as Asians
appear less likely to drink hazardously (Wall et al. 2001). Our
sample may not generalize to other samples of predominantly
Caucasian drinkers. Additionally, hazardous drinking may
represent but one way people high in perfectionistic attitudes
escape from their problems. Other means of escape need
investigation (e.g., internet or marijuana misuse).
More research is also needed to understand the motives
that underlie and the contexts that surround hazardous
drinking among people high in perfectionistic attitudes. As
an impetus for future studies, we speculate people high in
perfectionistic attitudes may drink-to-cope in solitary con-
texts (e.g., alone at home) following negative social inter-
actions (Rice and Van Arsdale 2010).
In the present research, perfectionism was conceptualized
as perfectionistic attitudes, a unidimensional construct com-
bining self-directed perfectionistic demands (e.g., extreme
self-expectations) and perfectionistic social processes (e.g.,
evaluative concerns). However, other established models of
perfectionism exist, including research suggesting perfection-
ism may be conceptualized as a multidimensional construct
where self-directed perfectionistic demands are differentiated
from perfectionistic social processes (Hewitt and Flett 1991).
More research is thus needed to test which model of perfec-
tionism is most relevant to the expanded PSDM.
Implications for Treatment Providers
Our research clarifies why college students experience de-
pressive symptoms and points toward treatment targets.
Considering the central role perfectionistic attitudes play in
the expanded PSDM, a reduction in perfectionistic attitudes
may lead to a reduction in social disconnection, hazardous
drinking, and depressive symptoms. Treatment providers
might use cognitive-behavioral therapy for perfectionism
(Flett and Hewitt 2008) to alter perfectionism-linked cogni-
tive errors (e.g., black-and-white thinking) and behavioral
patterns (e.g., avoiding situations where imperfections may
be seen) through cognitive restructuring or behavioral
experiments (Flett and Hewitt 2008).
Given the key role of social disconnection in our study,
interpersonal therapy should be well-suited to assisting
378 J Psychopathol Behav Assess (2012) 34:370–381
college students struggling with perfectionistic attitudes,
social disconnection, hazardous drinking, and depressive
symptoms. Interpersonal therapy involves modifying impor-
tant interpersonal problems, including interpersonal dis-
putes, losses, deficits, and transitions (Weissman et al.
2003). By improving aspects of their interpersonal function-
ing and by developing a caring, supportive social network,
people high in perfectionistic attitudes may reduce their
unhealthy involvement with alcohol and their vulnerability
to depressive symptoms (Weissman et al. 2003). Interper-
sonal therapy may be a vehicle to assist college students in
forming stable, positive relationships, forging a social iden-
tity, and integrating into college communities. That said, we
concede our observations about the expanded PSDM in
relation to treatment are speculative and should be viewed
with caution.
Conclusions
Our study synthesizes perfectionistic attitudes, social dis-
connection, hazardous drinking, and depressive symptoms
into the expanded PSDM, an integrative framework bring-
ing greater clarity to our understanding of why people high
in perfectionistic attitudes become depressed. Our study
paints a picture of a college student high in perfectionistic
attitudes who struggles greatly in connecting to others and
feels isolated, lonely, and alienated. In an effort to escape
this powerful sense of not belonging, s/he turns to alcohol in
a hazardous, self-destructive way. Now suffering from both
social disconnection and the effects of hazardous drinking,
s/he becomes depressed. We believe the expanded PSDM
allows us to better understand and help this student.
Acknowledgments This study was supported by grant 410-2000-1102
from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (P.
L. Hewitt), the H. J. Eysenck Memorial Fund Award (S. B. Sherry), and a
Killam Research Professorship from the Faculty of Science at Dalhousie
University (S. H. Stewart). Sarah Doucette, Nikola Hartling, and
Shawnda Lanting are thanked for their research assistance.
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