No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
A Review of the Activity Profile and Physiological Demands of Tennis Match Play
Abstract
THE AIM OF THIS REVIEW IS TO PROVIDE A BRIEF INSIGHT AND UNDERSTANDING OF THE PHYSICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL DEMANDS OF COMPETITIVE TENNIS MATCH PLAY. IT ALSO PROVIDES USEFUL INFORMATION THAT MAY HELP STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING COACHES TO IMPLEMENT EFFECTIVE TRAINING PROTOCOLS TO IMPROVE ON-COURT TENNIS PERFORMANCE.
... Various studies have reported the characteristics of physical activity during a tennis match in competitive -level players [11][12][13][14][15][16]. In general, a tennis match consists of a repetition of vigorous-intensity physical activity interspersed with rest periods of de ned duration (10-20 s between points, 90 s during court changes, and 120 s between sets) [11,12]. ...
... Various studies have reported the characteristics of physical activity during a tennis match in competitive -level players [11][12][13][14][15][16]. In general, a tennis match consists of a repetition of vigorous-intensity physical activity interspersed with rest periods of de ned duration (10-20 s between points, 90 s during court changes, and 120 s between sets) [11,12]. Actual playing time, which excludes rest time from match time, has been reported to be 10-30% of the match time [12,13]. ...
... In addition, although the duration is separated by 2-12 s between each point, there are different, characteristics from continuous exercise [12,14,15]. Previous studies have shown that physical activity intensity during tennis is classi ed as moderate-to-vigorous based on oxygen intake measured during matches and practices [8,11,13,16]. Also, the Internationally used Compendium of Physical Activity doses states that playing tennis is equivalent to 4.5-8 METs [17]. ...
Tennis is a popular leisure sport, and studies have indicated that playing tennis regularly provides many health benefits. We aimed to clarify the characteristics of physical activity during beginner– level group tennis lessons and daily physical activity of the participants. Physical activity was measured using an accelerometer sensor device for four weeks, including the 80–minute duration tennis lessons held twice a week. Valid data were categorized for tennis and non-tennis days. The mean physical activity intensity during the tennis lesson was 3.37 METs. The mean ratio of short-bout rest periods to the tennis lesson time in 90 and 120 seconds was 7% and 4%, respectively. Compared to the day of tennis lessons, the mean physical activity intensity and steps taken were significantly lower on days with no tennis ( p < 0.0001 and, p < 0.0001, respectively). Tennis lessons provide continuous moderate– to– vigorous– intensity physical activity without continuous rest during the tennis lesson and raise the mean intensity of physical activity throughout the day. Tennis lessons enhance daily physical activity intensity, steps, and duration of vigorous –intensity physical activity.
... In tennis, players compete against one opponent in singles or two opponents in doubles who condition the motor actions of each player [1]. Tennis has significantly evolved during the last decades [2,3]. In addition to the well-known technical and tactical requirements, physical fitness is now also a relevant performance factor [3]. ...
... Tennis has significantly evolved during the last decades [2,3]. In addition to the well-known technical and tactical requirements, physical fitness is now also a relevant performance factor [3]. During the effective playing time, among all the technical skills and movements performed by the tennis players, serving, accelerations, and changes of directions are the key performance actions. ...
... During the effective playing time, among all the technical skills and movements performed by the tennis players, serving, accelerations, and changes of directions are the key performance actions. Therefore, performance in this sport is largely conditioned by power, agility, and speed abilities [2][3][4][5]. ...
Objective: This study aimed to compare the acute effects of a full squat (SQ) or hip thrust
(HT) with two different loading intensities (60% and 85% 1 RM) on sprint ability in junior male tennis players. Methods: Nineteen tennis players were included in this research. They underwent four different experimental conditions: HT at 60% 1 RM, HT at 85% 1 RM, SQ at 60% 1 RM, or SQ at 85%. The force–velocity (F–V) profile was used to assess tennis players’ sprint acceleration ability before and after applying the conditioning stimulus. The variables registered were as follows: 5 m test (5 m), 10 m test (10 m), maximum theoretical force (F0), maximum power (Pmax), and the maximal ratio of horizontal-to-resultant force (RFpeak). Results: Significant improvements in 5 m, Pmax, and RFpeak were observed when the conditioning stimulus was performing one set of seven reps of HT at 60% 1 RM. When the activation protocol was one set of seven reps of SQ at 60% 1 RM, significant improvements in 5 m, 10 m, F0, Pmax (N), and RFpeak were detected. Additionally, performing one set of three reps of SQ at 85% 1 RM as an activation protocol provided significant improvements in F0. Conclusion: The use of HT and SQ with a load of 60% 1 RM improved the sprint F–V profile components related to the acceleration phase of the sprint in junior tennis players. Using intensity loads of 85% 1 RM is not adequate to increase acute sprint performance in this population. HT presents a higher transferability to sprinting in the first 5 m of sprinting, whereas SQ provides acute improvements in different sprinting phases.
... O'Donoghue & Ingram, 2001), differences which still exist but have been reduced (6.5 s on clay, 5.1 on hard, and 3.5 on grass surfaces) (Takahashi et al., 2006). It therefore seems that on slow surfaces (e.g., clay court) rallies are longer and there are more shots per rally than on any other surface, whereas on fast surfaces (e.g., grass court) length of point and strokes per point are lower (Fernandez-Fernandez et al., 2006;Fernández-Fernández et al., 2009). The differences in the rally length and the effective playing time according to surface, have been some of the factors used to describe the pattern of tennis physical activity, showing that the court surface influences the player's physiological responses with higher heart rate values and blood lactate concentration in matches on clay than on a hard surface (Martin et al., 2011;Murias et al., 2007). ...
... These differences may be generated by player performance, and also by the equality between players, according to their ranking; in this regard, this study included the top 10 ranked players and, at the same time, this similar level of play could generate the need to play a third set to conclude the match; while previous studies showed differences in the competitive level of the players. The results in this study, between 70 and 100 minutes, are closer to the average value of 90 minutes in CT (Kovacs, 2007) and where grass surfaces also show the shortest match duration (Fernandez-Fernandez et al., 2006;Fernández-Fernández et al., 2009;Murias et al., 2007;Reid et al., 2016). Effective playing time (percentage of the total time of play in a game) amounted to approximately 19% on all surfaces, similar to other studies of WT (Filipčič & Filipčič, 2009;Sánchez-Pay et al., 2017;Veltmeijer et al., 2014). ...
... Effective playing time (percentage of the total time of play in a game) amounted to approximately 19% on all surfaces, similar to other studies of WT (Filipčič & Filipčič, 2009;Sánchez-Pay et al., 2017;Veltmeijer et al., 2014). This represents a 1:4 work/rest rate, near to the 1:3-1:5 rate of CT (Fernández-Fernández et al., 2009; Kovacs, 2007;Mendez-Villanueva, Fernandez-Fernandez, Bishop, Fernandez-Garcia, & Terrados, 2007). Concerning point length, the results showed differences according to the surface (p< 0.05), where the longest points were played on hard courts (8.86s), the average rally length on clay courts (6.97s), and the shortest on grass courts (6.33s) ( Table 1). ...
This study analysed and compared the physical and technical demands of professional wheelchair tennis (WT) on different surfaces (clay [C], hard [H] and grass [G] courts). A total of 6,720 shots from thirteen matches played by the best ten professional WT players was analysed. Physical demands (e.g., working time, resting time, shots per point …) and technical and tactical parameters (e.g., serve, effectivity, winner stroke, shots with two bounces …) were recorded and analysed. Most physical parameters (points, shots, duration) differed according to the surface (H > C > G). Point length and shot per point were longer on H, and lower on C and G surfaces (p < 0.001). Differences in technical performance were found mainly between C and G courts, with a high use of volleys on G but fewer winners (p < 0.01). The main finding indicates that the physical and technical demands facing professional WT players differed by surface, showing that the H surface involves a higher external load than the other surfaces. Coaches can use this information to adapt their players’ style depending on the playing surface as well as to design specific training drills according to the surface of play.
... This leads to inferring a load vs. rest ratio from 1:1 to 1:5 [2]. A point in tennis lasts approximately 8 to 10 s, with a mean of 10 strokes with four changes of direction, with sprints between 2 and 6 m [3]. The total duration of a match is, on average, 1.5 h for match of 2 or 3 sets and the percentage of effective playing time is 20% to 30% [4]. ...
... In physical performance, the results show that the preparation for many weeks to get ready for international tours should focus on neuromuscular, plyometric, and movement training at maximum intensity. This can avoid detected decrease in agility and sprint and consequently maintain or improve physical performance and quick (re) actions in young players, helping to satisfactorily meet competition demands [3,10]. This type of exercise should also be included during tournaments and international tours, whenever time slots in between matches and championships may allow. ...
... This leads to inferring a load vs. rest ratio from 1:1 to 1:5 [2]. A point in tennis lasts approximately 8 to 10 s, with a mean of 10 strokes with four changes of direction, with sprints between 2 and 6 m [3]. The total duration of a match is, on average, 1.5 h for match of 2 or 3 sets and the percentage of effective playing time is 20% to 30% [4]. ...
... In physical performance, the results show that the preparation for many weeks to get ready for international tours should focus on neuromuscular, plyometric, and movement training at maximum intensity. This can avoid detected decrease in agility and sprint and consequently maintain or improve physical performance and quick (re) actions in young players, helping to satisfactorily meet competition demands [3,10]. This type of exercise should also be included during tournaments and international tours, whenever time slots in between matches and championships may allow. ...
Abstract
In tennis, it is common for young male tennis players to spend several weeks away from their local training camps during the competition season, which could affect their performance. The purpose of the study was to analyze the effects of a six-week international tour on physical performance and body composition in young Chilean tennis players. Twenty-four men between the ages of 14 and 16 participated in this research. In body composition and anthropometric measurement, body weight, height, skinfolds, and perimeters were measured. Body fat percentage (BFP) and skeletal muscle mass (SMM) were calculated. For physical performance, 5-m and 10-m sprints, modified agility test (MAT test), countermovement jump (CMJ), and medicine ball throw (MBT) were evaluated. Results show that, in body composition, BFP and SMM significantly decreased post-tour (p < 0.05; effect sizes ranging from 0.23 to 0.33, respectively). In physical performance, agility and 5-m and 10-m sprints significantly decreased (p < 0.05, effect sizes ranging from −0.63 to 1.10). We conclude that after a six-week international tour, BFP, SMM, agility, and speed (linear sprint) tend to decrease significantly, with a greater effect in the sprint tests.
... In tennis matches, the duration of a point is about 2 to 10 s, and there are about 3-4 directional changes and 4-5 strokes in between points. For each shot, tennis players run at high intensity, and the distance depends on the player's age, level, and court surface [23][24][25]. ...
... In other words, each sprint has a purpose, and a tennis player must repeatedly execute a continuous pattern-sprint, abrupt stop, and swing. Fernandez-Fernandez, Sanz-Rivas, and Mendez-Villanueva (2009) [24]; Kovacs (2006) [25]; and Chiang, Tsai, and Chiang (2015) [20] pointed out that in a tennis match, the duration of a point is between 2 and 10 s, the number of directional changes in a point is about 3-4, and the number of strokes is about 4-5. Moreover, athletes run at high intensity to hit each ball, and the running distance depends on the player's age, level, and court surface. ...
In this study, we sought to develop a testing system to scientifically identify tennis talent. This testing system will provide helpful information for players who intend to pursue a professional tennis career. The experimental subjects were 18 college students consisting of 10 tennis players (including 4 soft tennis) and 8 basketball players (all males). The subjects were tested on their vertical jump, 60 m shuttle runs, and shoulder joint mobility to identify tennis talent. To statistically analyze the data, an R package was used to conduct a principal component analysis of the athletic performance indicators of the samples, and the samples were further classified via agglomerative hierarchical clustering. This study found that tennis players required more flexibility than basketball players. Regarding the differences between male and female soft tennis players, the unclassified results showed that there was a significant difference in explosive power. However, there was no significant difference in flexibility between genders. The research methods and results of this study can be used as a reference for others to build a system for identifying athletic performance characteristics in the future, and it is expected that the implementation of this system can provide sports coaches with more information for talent selection and improve the accuracy of their judgments, allowing athletes to play to their strengths.
... In tennis, various components of physical fitness play an important role. On the one hand, the average duration for scoring a point is less than 3-10 s [1,2] with sprints of 8-15 m (i.e., speed) and 3-4 directional changes (i.e., agility) taking place during rallies [3][4][5]. On the other hand, a match can last up to five hours, which shows the importance of tennis-specific endurance [1,2]. Further, different components of strength (e.g., lower extremity muscle power) are important to perform tennis-specific footwork and explosive strokes during rallies [2,6]. ...
... The tool consists of 20 questions that must be answered with "yes", "no", or "do not know". Seven questions (1,4,10,11,12,16,18) refer to the quality of reporting and further seven questions (2,3,5,8,17,19,20) to the study design. Another six questions (6,7,9,13,14,15) relate to a possible risk of bias. ...
Differences in variables of physical fitness and stroke performance by competition level (i.e., elite vs. sub-elite players) have not been systematically investigated yet. Thus, the objective of the systematic review with meta-analysis was to characterize and quantify competition-level dependent differences in physical fitness and stroke performance in healthy tennis players. A systematic literature search was conducted in the databases PubMed, Web of Science, and SportDiscus from their inception date till May 2022. Studies were included if they investigated healthy tennis players and reported at least one measure of physical fitness (e.g., lower extremity muscle power, endurance, agility, speed) or stroke performance (e.g., stroke velocity). Weighted standardized mean differences ( SMD ) were calculated and reported according to their magnitude. The search identified a total of N = 12,714 records, 16 of which met the inclusion criteria. Competition-level dependent differences in physical fitness and stroke performance were investigated by 11 and 10 studies, respectively. For physical fitness, moderate (lower extremity muscle power: SMD = 0.53; endurance: SMD = 0.59; agility: SMD = 0.54) and small (speed: SMD = 0.35) effects were detected; all in favour of elite tennis players. However, sub-group analyses revealed an influence of players’ age showing higher SMD -values for adult than for young players. Further, a large effect ( SMD = 1.00) was observed for stroke performance again in favour of elite tennis players. Lastly, a larger but not significantly different association between physical fitness and stroke performance was observed for elite ( r = 0.562) compared to sub-elite ( r = 0.372) tennis players. This systematic review and meta-analysis revealed better physical fitness and stroke performances in healthy elite compared to sub-elite tennis players. The greatest differences by competition level were shown in measures of lower extremity muscle power, endurance, and agility. Thus, training programs for sub-elite tennis players should place a special focus on these physical components.
... Considering that most of the official matches were played on clay, the time indicators of the match sessions are consistent with the results of studies on female tennis players. 22,32,33 The total time is comparable to the results of Reid et al. 17 and Hornery et al., 15 who conducted studies with elite female tennis players on clay surfaces. The results show that the proportion of active time was 21% of the total match time. ...
... The frequency distribution of the number of shots per rally shows that in practice, more than 70% of rallies are completed after four shots, while in the match, more than 80% of rallies are completed after four shots executed by a tennis player. The values found are consistent with many studies 22,32,33 that also find that the duration of rallies on faster surfaces (e.g. hard court, grass) is shorter and the frequency distribution is in favor of a greater number of shorter points with fewer strokes in the rally. ...
The aim of this single case study was to monitor the external workload of a professional female tennis player between 314 training sessions and 115 matches. A wearable device was used during two fully consecutive tennis seasons (24 months). External workload was determined using time indicators (total and active session times), shots indicators (shots per week, session, hour, rally and minute) and frequency distribution of rallies. This case study showed that the workload during practice sessions was higher compared to matches in terms of active time, percentage of active time, shots per hour and rally, and frequency distribution of rallies with more than nine shots. The number of shots executed per minute was lower in the practice sessions than in the match. It is concluded that the recommended number of shots per hour in a 90-min practice session is for the player to perform 400 to 800 shots. The recommended average number of rallies in practice sessions is 144 and 70% of the rallies should consist of four shots. The pace of rallies in open match situations in the practice sessions should reach the level of official matches. These conclusions could be useful guidelines for determining the workload of female tennis players participating in entry-level professional tournaments.
... Desde un punto de vista mecánico, un jugador de tenis recorre una media de 8 a 15 metros y realiza 4 cambios de dirección, recorriendo una distancia media de 3 metros para cada movimiento (Durán, Martínez-Gallego & Gimeno, 2021;Fernández, Sanz & Méndez, 2009;Parsons & Jones, 1998;Weber, 2001), completando entre 1300 metros y 3600 metros por hora de juego y sumando un total de 300-500 esfuerzos a alta intensidad durante un partido al mejor de 3 sets (Fernández et al., 2009) en el que el 89.2% de la distancia recorrida durante un partido se realiza mediante aceleraciones (Galé, 2014). ...
... Desde un punto de vista mecánico, un jugador de tenis recorre una media de 8 a 15 metros y realiza 4 cambios de dirección, recorriendo una distancia media de 3 metros para cada movimiento (Durán, Martínez-Gallego & Gimeno, 2021;Fernández, Sanz & Méndez, 2009;Parsons & Jones, 1998;Weber, 2001), completando entre 1300 metros y 3600 metros por hora de juego y sumando un total de 300-500 esfuerzos a alta intensidad durante un partido al mejor de 3 sets (Fernández et al., 2009) en el que el 89.2% de la distancia recorrida durante un partido se realiza mediante aceleraciones (Galé, 2014). ...
The main objective of this research is to quantify the external load and the internal load in three types of training (buckets with the hand, buckets with racket and rallies) most used in the field of tennis and compare them to each other. Six tennis players participated (four male and two female players) with an average age of 16.67 (± 2.73) years.To quantify the loads, POLAR +M400 heart rate monitors were used to collect the data related to heart rate, distance covered, average and maximum speed, and ZEPP TENNIS sensors were used to collect the data related to type of stroke, number of strokes and racket speed for each of the strokes made. In addition, the Borg CR-10 Scale (Borg, 1982) has been used to record the rate of perceived exertion, in each task performed and at the end of each training session. Nine training sessions were carried out in pairs: three for drive training, three for backhand training and three for drive and backhand training together, one for each type of training.The results obtained show that bucket training with the hand has a greater internal load in terms of the number of strokes and average racket speed, with racket training having the greatest external load in relation to speed and distance travelled. © Copyright: Federación Española de Asociaciones de Docentes de Educación Física (FEADEF).
... For many sports, strength and power are foundational qualities [1]. Modern tennis has evolved from a primarily technical sport dominated by sport-specific technical skills [2] to a dynamic, advanced sport characterized by stroke and serve speed, higher physical speed, and movement demands that are both strategic and explosive [3]. Therefore, modern tennis players must be physically fit to execute more complex shots and compete against increasingly formidable opponents. ...
Background: Functional training is any type of training designed to improve a specific movement or activity for fitness or high performance sports. This study examined the effect of functional training on the strength and power of young tennis players. Methods: 40 male tennis players were assigned to the functional training group (n = 20; age, 16.7 ± 0.4 years) or the conventional training group (n = 20; age, 16.5 ± 0.6 years). The functional training group received three 60 min sessions per week for 12 weeks, while the conventional training group participated in three sessions per week of mono-strength exercise for 12 weeks. Strength and power were measured according to the International Tennis Federation protocol at baseline, 6 weeks after the intervention, and 12 weeks after the intervention. Results: Both forms of training increased (p < 0.05) push-ups, wall squat test, over medicine ball throw, and standing long jump after 6 weeks of training, and the effect improved further as the 12-week mark approached. Except for the wall squat test (left) at 6 weeks, functional training showed no advantage over conventional training. After an additional 6 weeks of training, all measures of strength and power were better (p < 0.05) in the functional training group. Conclusions: Improvements in strength and power could occur after as little as 6 weeks of functional training, and 12-week functional training could outperform conventional training in male adolescent tennis players.
... Numerous research have been conducted to determine the relationship between fitness parameters and performance assessments in various sports. [3][4][5] For instance, Lemos et al, 2017, reported a moderate correlation between shuttle run agility test (SR), repeated sprint ability with the ball (RSAB), and repeated sprint ability (RSA) in female professional hockey players. 6 Moreover, it has been suggested that repetitive badminton-specific fieldtest along with alternating vertical jump is associated with leg power performance and can thus be used to assess the sport's progression. ...
Objectives Lawn tennis is an explosive sport that involves various fitness parameters such as explosive strength, endurance, power, and agility. Improved physical fitness leads to superior athletic performance. The coach's perception is contingent upon his perception of the player at the time the athlete is comparing himself to the coach. Thus, this study aimed to determine the association between chosen fitness factors and perceived performance by coach in lawn tennis players. Thus, the study aims to detect the relationship between different fitness variables and perceived level of performance in lawn tennis player.
Materials and Methods Fifty-two lawn tennis players from two sports academies were measured for various parameters of fitness and perceived performance level as rated by the coach.
Statistical Analysis The association between selected fitness metrics and perceived performance in lawn tennis players was investigated using Pearson's correlation test. Furthermore, the data were analyzed with paired t -test for male and female group, and ANOVA was used to analyze the difference between the levels of performance.
Results Fatigue index, closed kinetic chain upper extremity stability (CKCUEST) test, and peak power and energy expenditure taken by metabolic equivalent (MET) calculation was found to be statistically different between males and females. While comparing BMI with the peak power, there was a weak positive correlation for males, while for female there was no correlation. Metabolic equivalent, energy expenditure, and peak power were positively correlated with the level of performance; however, fatigue index and level of performance had a negative nonsignificant correlation.
Conclusion Peak power, fatigue index, energy expenditure, and BMI were found to be associated in males, but not in females. Peak power and energy expenditure were connected to performance in both genders.
... In regards to communication strategies, verbal behavior, such as general technical rules and positive verbal encouragement (VE), can affect physical skills and mood in pupils and athletes. Studies have shown that performance can be affected by technical, tactical, and physical factors [10,11]. Other studies have pointed out that coach encouragement (CE) represents a crucial factor for training and exercise motivation, especially among young players [12,13]. ...
This study aimed to determine the impact of teacher verbal encouragement on physical fitness performance, technical skill, and physiological responses during small-sided soccer games (SSGs) of adolescent female students’ during a physical education session. Fifty-two adolescent female students were divided into a verbal encouragement group (VEG, 15.57 ± 0.50 years) and a contrast group (CG, 15.50 ± 0.51 years). Anthropometric measurements, soccer-specific cardiorespiratory endurance (Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 1; YYIRT1), muscle power (countermovement jump (CMJ); 5-jump-test (5JT), agility (t-test), sprint speed (30 m)), technical skill, and heart rate (HR) responses during SSG were measured. Additionally, heart rate (HR) was recorded throughout the SSG, and video analysis was used to quantify technical actions. The independent samples Student’s t-test was used to compare the difference between the verbal encouragement group and the CG. There was no difference between the verbal encouragement group and the CG in anthropometric characteristics and 30 m speed (p > 0.05). The total distance measured with YO-YOIRT level 1, t-test performance, CMJ, and 5JT performance results of the verbal encouragement group were considerably higher than the CG (p = 0.001, ES = 1.8, large; p = 0.001, ES = 1.09, large; and p = 0.001, ES = 1.15, large, respectively). Furthermore, the ball contacts, successful balls, and average heart rate were higher in the verbal encouragement group compared with the CG (p = 0.001, ES = 3.69, large; p = 0.001, ES = 5.25, large; and p = 0.001, ES = 5.14, large, respectively). These results could inform teachers of the usefulness of verbal encouragement in the teaching-learning process in the school setting during small-sided soccer games.
... Tennis players run approximately 8-15 m for one point and 3 m for each shot, on average, equating to a total of 1,300-3,600 m during a 1-h exercise session (Fernandez-Fernandez et al., 2009). Thus, tennis is a high-intensity activity. ...
Serve in tennis is a very important strokes and is positively correlated with the rankings of the Association of Tennis Professionals ranking. This study investigated the associations between time-course changes in the ratings for perceived exertion, executive function, and second serve accuracy during 30-min tennis exercise sessions. Eleven Japanese male tennis players participated in the study, and their executive function and second serve performance were evaluated using the paper version of the Stroop Color and Word Test, followed by a serve performance test. The participants took part in a 30-min tennis exercise program and performed the Stroop Color and Word Test, heart rate (HR) check, and second serve accuracy test before and after the tennis exercise. Pearson correlation was used to determine the relationships between the ratings for perceived exertion, interference scores on Stroop Color and Word Test performance, and second serve performance. Post exercise, the rating of perceived exertion tended to correlate with serve accuracy ( r = −0.57, p = 0.07) and interference score ( r = 0.65, p = 0.03). The pre-to-post changes in second serve accuracy were negatively associated with the changes in interference score ( r = −0.54, p = 0.08) and interference score in the posttest ( r = −0.73, p = 0.01). The results suggest that time-course changes in executive function when playing tennis are positively associated with the accuracy of the second serve. These findings expand the previous knowledge regarding the positive association between time-course changes in executive functions and percentage of points won when playing tennis by including more specific skills (i.e., second serve accuracy).
... In contemporary tennis, predicting variables involved in players' performance could help coaches and physical trainers design an effective training plan in order to enhance sport-specific performance. It is well-established that tennis matches require strength, cardiovascular endurance, speed and power to perform high stroke velocities, together with a complex interaction of technical and tactical skills [1][2][3][4][5][6][7]. Therefore, it is possible to infer that one predominant factor cannot define a successful performance. ...
Abstract: Given that serve velocity has been identified as one of the most important components influencing performance in tennis, identifying the factors associated with serve velocity is crucial for coaches and athletes. The aim of this study was to describe the relationship between physical performance, anthropometric characteristics and stroke velocity in youth tennis players. Twenty-seven youth players (male = 16, age = 15.69 ± 1.70 years; female = 11, age = 15.82 ± 1.40 years) underwent an anthropometric and physical performance assessment. On a tennis court, players were assessed for forehand, backhand and serve velocities. Pearson's correlation coefficient revealed that forehand velocity was significantly correlated with height (r = 0.58) and handgrip strength (right hand: r = 0.68; left hand: r = 0.57), whereas backhand velocity was significantly correlated with running time (r = 0.52) and handgrip strength (right hand: r = 0.67; left hand: r = 0.55) in males. Similarly, in males, serve velocity was significantly correlated with height (r = 0.60), running time (r = 0.62) and handgrip strength (right: r = 0.77, left hand: r = 0.71). In females, a significant correlation was only demonstrated between serve velocity and body weight (r = 0.69). These findings highlight that handgrip strength, running time and body height variables are positively associated with stroke velocities in male youth tennis players.
... Higher levels of physical fitness (e.g., strength, jump ability) are required to perform sport-specific tasks successfully [2][3][4]. For instance, to achieve better stroke performance in tennis, players will require a combination of power, agility, sprint, and welldeveloped aerobic fitness [5]. On the other hand, athletes with excellent physical fitness can increase their own sports ability and avoid injuries [6,7], and also have self-awareness of whether they can withstand higher-intensity sports training or competition [8]. ...
Objective: We aimed to meta-analyze the effects of combined upper and lower limb
plyometric training (ULLPT) on physical fitness attributes in athletes. Methods: A systematic
literature search was conducted in Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, PubMed, and SCOPUS, for up
to 13 August 2022. Controlled studies with baseline and follow-up measures were included if they
examined the effects of ULLPT on at least one measure of physical fitness indices in athletes. A random
effects meta-analysis was performed using the Comprehensive Meta-Analysis software. Results:
Fifteen moderate-to-high-quality studies with 523 participants aged 12–22.4 years were included in
the analyses. Small to large (ES = 0.42–1.66; p = 0.004 to <0.001) effects were noted for upper and
lower body muscle power, linear sprint speed, upper and lower body muscle strength, agility, and
flexibility, while no significant effects on static and dynamic balance were noted (ES = 0.44–0.10; all
p > 0.05). Athletes’ sex, age, and training program variables had no modulator role on the effects of
ULLPT in available data sets. Conclusions: ULLPT induces distinct neuro-muscular adaptations in the
upper and lower body musculature and is an efficient method for enhancing athletes’ physical fitness
... Tenis sporunun gerek fizyolojik gerek nöromekanik gereksinimleri uzun yıllardır araştırılmaktadır. Fizyolojik çalışmalar; puan ve oyun kazanmak için iyi düzeyde bir anaerobik, oyun ve set arası dinlenmelerde hemen toparlanabilmek için ise iyi düzeyde bir aerobik kapasiteye sahip olunması gerektiğini belirtmektedir (Fernandez-Fernandez, Sanz-Rivas ve Mendez-Villanueva, 2009;Kovacs, 2007). Hareket izleme ve değerlendirme teknolojilerindeki hızlı gelişim ile birlikte tenis biyomekaniği ve nöromekaniği çalışmaları da artış göstermektedir. ...
The aim of this study is to investigate the perception-reaction time, kinematics and muscular activation strategies of tennis players during the four stroke phases (preparation, back swing, forward swing and follow through) of successful and unsuccessful forehand strokes to the balls coming with a constant speed (72-75 km/h). The participants of the research were 12 volunteer male tennis players who play at club level and participate in national tournaments. Dual-Energy X-ray Absorbsiometry (DEXA) system [Lunar Progidy, USA] for collecting anthropometric, semi-infrared Motion Capture system [Qualisys, Sweden] for motion capture, and 16-channel wireless Electromyography (EMG) system [Delsys, USA] for muscle activation analysis were used during the data collection process. Players equipped with a total of 16 EMG electrodes and 52 reflective markers and then performed 10 strokes to the balls sent by the ball throwing machine placed on the opposite side of the court. All kinematic and EMG data were analyzed (Two-Way Repeated Measures ANOVA) in terms of 4 stroke phases created by the determination of 5 time points and 4 ball performance interaction determined as aut, net, low and high strokes. Based on ball performance in the study, it was concluded that muscular activation, timing and kinematic components differed according to stroke performance, but there was no statistical difference in total stroke times.
... Tennis is a versatile sport characterized by a one-sided movement pattern that requires repetitive high effort within 5-10 seconds of attack and 10-20 seconds of recovery (Fernandez-Fernandez, Sanz-Rivas, & Mendez-Villanueva, 2009). Although today's tennis game is at the forefront with its power and high ball speed, traumatic injuries are seen due to overuse as a result of the repetition of strong hits (Abrams, Sheets, Andriacchi, & Safran, 2011). ...
This research aims to investigate how tennis players' personality structures affect some variables related to the injuries they experience in sports. The research population consists of tennis players between the ages of 10-18 in Turkey. A total of 158 (female: 87, male: 71) tennis players between the ages of 10-18 who had at least one tennis-specific injury participated in the study. Demographic questions (gender, age, height, weight, time of sports injury, repetition of the same injury, and injury measure) used in the study were created by the researchers. The personality of the athlete was determined by the athlete himself, and the survey questions were determined by using the survey questions used in Kirişci's (2011) study. Data from tennis players were collected online via 'Google Form'. There is a low level of statistically positive correlation between re-experiencing the sports injury and the time of the sports injury (r=0.18, p=0.03). There is a low level of statistically positive correlation between the gender of the participants and taking precautions for sports injury (r=0.20, p=0.01). There is a low negative correlation between the gender of the participants and their athlete personality (r=26, p=0.001). There is no statistically significant difference between the participants' re-experiencing the same injury, taking precautions in sports injury, and athlete's personality (r=-0.013, p=0.87, r=0.010, p=0.90). It can be said that the sports injuries experienced by tennis players are related to their personality types and their gender. It can be said that injuries seen in tennis sports are more common during matches and women take more precautions for sports injuries than male athletes. In addition, it can be said that female athletes have both courageous-attentive and emotional-calm personality types, while males have the most courageous-active personality type.
Article visualizations:
</p
... Physical exertion in tennis involves high-intensity full-body work, including short-distance sprints (Fernandez-Fernandez et al., 2009). Most matches consist of work and rest periods of 5 to 10 s and 10 to 20 s, respectively, interspersed with longer (90 s) rest periods between changeover breaks (Ferrauti et al., 2003). ...
In recent years, the use of advanced wearable technologies in tennis has improved the ability to monitor workload and performance indicators. Using the device Armbeep Tennis, attached to the wrist of an entry level female tennis player, we recorded 97% of the tennis training and all official matches over two annual competitive seasons. The aim of the study was to determine the variation of different workload indicators during the preparation and competition phases in one annual season and to compare the workload indicators between the two seasons. We found no significant differences in the results of the training, tournament, and performance indicators between the two seasons. Our tennis player trained more on average in the second year (Y1 = 90.9 min, Y2 = 97.5 min) and the percentage of active time was also higher (Y1 = 30.6%, Y2 = 32.4%). A higher number of shots per week (Y1 = 3109.1, Y2 = 2869.4) was observed in the first year, while the number of shots per hour was higher in the second year (Y1 =420.6, Y2 = 430.1). The pace of the rally was higher in the first year (Y1 = 24.6, Y2 = 23.4). The differences between the other workload indicators were not significant in the two years. This single case study provides good insight into the overall progression of training and competition over two annual seasons and can serve as a basis for determining workload indicators for novice tennis players or those just embarking on this path.
... The common feature of most campaigns is that they begin at primary school age and, based on physical fitness and motor competence tests, predict future success based on a child's performance prerequisites profile [9][10][11][12]. This early testing and desired early start in tennis ensures that, in addition to a large number of training hours-athletes complete 20-30 h of technical training per week, even at a young age [13]-the athletes can gain competitive experience early and over a longer period of time [14]. Moreover, this offers a good opportunity for the acquisition of technical skills because there are sensitive learning phases that promote motor learning, particularly before puberty [15][16][17][18]. ...
Background: The search for talented young athletes is an important element of top-class sport. While performance profiles and suitable test tasks for talent identification have already been extensively investigated, there are few studies on statistical prediction methods for talent identification. Therefore, this long-term study examined the prognostic validity of four talent prediction methods. Methods: Tennis players (N = 174; n♀ = 62 and n♂ = 112) at the age of eight years (U9) were examined using five physical fitness tests and four motor competence tests. Based on the test results, four predictions regarding the individual future performance were made for each participant using a linear recommendation score, a logistic regression, a discriminant analysis, and a neural network. These forecasts were then compared with the athletes’ achieved performance success at least four years later (U13‒U18). Results: All four prediction methods showed a medium-to-high prognostic validity with respect to their forecasts. Their values of relative improvement over chance ranged from 0.447 (logistic regression) to 0.654 (tennis recommendation score). Conclusions: However, the best results are only obtained by combining the non-linear method (neural network) with one of the linear methods. Nevertheless, 18.75% of later high-performance tennis players could not be predicted using any of the methods.
... It was identified that power output, change of direction (CoD) ability and speed are the most important determinants of technical and fighting efficiency of karate athletes (Blažević et al., 2006). Power output, CoD ability and speed are important in a wide variety of sports such as soccer (Barnes et al., 2014), basketball (García et al., 2020) or tennis (Fernandez et al., 2009). While these physical determinants have been extensively studied in the aforementioned sports, less research has focused on karate, especially in terms of association to sportspecific performance. ...
The force-velocity (F-v) relationship has been proposed as a biomechanical characteristic to comprehensively evaluate neuromuscular capabilities within different tasks such as vertical jumping, sprinting and bench pressing. F-v relationship during flywheel (FW) squats was already validated, however, it was never compared to F-v profile of vertical jumps or associated with change of direction (CoD) performance. The aims of our study were (1) to compare F-v profiles measured during counter movement jumps (CMJs) and FW squats, (2) to determine correlations of F-v mechanical capacities with different CoD tests, (3) to investigate the portion of explained variance in CoD tests with the F-v outcome measures. A cross-sectional study was conducted on 39 elite karatekas. They performed CMJs and FW squats using progressive loads to calculate F-v profile outcome variables and different CoD tests (CoD at 90°, CoD at 180°, T-test, short karate specific test (KST) and long KST). Our results showed significantly higher values in all F-v outcome variables (F0 – maximal theoretical foce, v0 – maximal theoretical velocity, Pmax – maximal power output, F-vslope – the slope of F-v relationship) calculated from CMJs compared to FW squats (all p < 0.01). Significant positive moderate correlations between the tasks were found for F0 and Pmax (r = 0.323-0.378, p < 0.05). In comparison to F-v outcomes variables obtained in FW squats, higher correlations were found between F-v outcome variables calculated from CMJs and CoD tests. The only significant correlation in F-v outcome variables calculated from FW squats was found between Pmax and short KST time. For all CoD tests, only one F-v predictor was included; more specifically – CMJ-F0 for CoD 90°, CoD 180° and T-test, and FW-Pmax for short KST performance. To conclude, our results showed that F-v relationship between CMJs and FW squats differed significantly and cannot be used interchangeably for F-v profiling. Moreover, we confirmed that high force and power production is important for the successful performance of general and karate specific CoD tasks.
... Furthermore, players can make over 1,000 directional changes during a match [4]. Players are widely accepted to require high levels of physical fitness, including power, strength, COD, acceleration, dynamic balance, and a highly developed neuromuscular coordination ability, to execute difficult shots and compete effectively against skilled opponents [5,6]. ...
Athletes are currently fond of vibration foam rollers (VFRs) and commercial portable vibration percussion devices (PVPDs). It is still unknown whether using these devices during warm-up has an immediate impact on athletic performance. A randomized block design was used in this study. The acute effects of VFR and PVPD on tennis players’ athletic performance during warm-up were compared. For the countermovement jump (CMJ), reactive strength index (RSI), and hexagon test (HT), the difference in performance between all interventions was significant (p = 0.007–0.034, η ² p = 0.266–0.364). Only those who received VFR had significantly different CMJ and HT results when compared to the control group (CMJ height = 53.18 ±4.49 cm, p = 0.03, d = 1.26; HT time = 10.73 ±0.4 s, p = 0.03, d = 1.12). Participants’ RSI values were significantly different after VFR (RSI = 2.01 ±0.11 cm·mm –1 , p = 0.012, d = 1.76) and PVPD (RSI = 1.99 ±0.11 cm·mm –1 , p = 0.025, d = 1.52) compared to the control group. Therefore, when using VFR and PVPD as part of warm-up protocols for tennis players of varying skill levels, VFR could have an immediate positive effect on power, reactive strength, and change of direction performance, while PVPD could immediately improve reactive strength performance.
... Technical skills are predominant factors in tennis (Groppel, 1992;Smekal et al., 2001); thus, players spend much time on the court for technical training with a racket; however, it is difficult to devote the same time to on-court technical and physical training without a racket. However, as the level of competition increases, many players realise the importance of physical strength and fitness (Smekal et al., 2001;Reid and Schneiker, 2008;Fernandez-Fernandez et al., 2009. Functional links observed between muscular strength in the dominant upper and lower limbs and ranking position in competitive tennis players reinforce the notion that physical characteristics have a strong influence on tennis performance and may be important determinants for successful participation in elite tennis (Girard and Millet, 2009;Fernandez-Fernandez et al., 2013;Ulbricht et al., 2016). ...
In tennis, service requires a variety of complicated movements. Given the importance of taking the initiative to obtain points in a tennis match, it is crucial to make full use of speed and spin rate of service. Generally, a service that requires a higher spin rate would slow down, and a service that has increased speed would have a decreased spin rate. For players who are disadvantaged in height, although controlling spin rate is essential, slowing down service speed should be avoided. For these players, the challenge of service is to improve the speed without decreasing the spin rate. Players must also be trained to build physical strength required for this skill. It is not uncommon to work on physical training without a racket; however, few studies have reported on the effects of cultivated physical strength on on-court tennis performance. Therefore, this study aimed to propose physical measurements that could be used as indices to improve service performance in 58 elite Japanese junior players. To test service performance, we used TrackMan to assess speed, spin rate, impact height, and impact depth. To test physical strength, we measured 5-m and 20-m sprint, broad jump, medicine ball throw (forward, backward). We used a significant multiple regression equation to predict the first service speed obtained from the broad jump and the Medicine ball throw (backward). Additionally, a strong correlation was obtained between the predicted and measured values. In addition to physical strength, we suggest that the depth of the impact point (taking the hitting point forward toward the net) is important for improving the first service speed. However, we were not able to identify the physical strength test items that improve service spin rate. Other item should be examined in the future to determine the physical strength associated with spin rate. This result could help connect physical training and service performance.
... As a racquet sport, sharing many of the rules of tennis and squash and adopting a similar scoring system, padel fitness requirements would be expected to be very close to these sports [7]. Previous research has identified agility, short-distance sprints, strength, endurance, and balance as main determinants of performance in tennis players [8]. These determinants do not only serve to program and track training but also to identify risk factors for injuries [9]. ...
Padel is an intermittent multidirectional racket sport that uses tennis’ rules and its scoring system. The popularity of padel
has seen exponential growth; becoming one of the most practiced sports in the world. Balance constitutes a central component of racquet sports competitive demands. The aim of this study was exploring the efect of an exhaustive exercise on
dynamic balance in elite padel players. 34 frst division padel players with national rankings (age: 31.6±7.9 years, height:
181.1 cm±5.26 cm; body mass: 81.1 kg±9.95 kg) volunteered for this study. Subjects were frst tested for dynamic balance
using the Y balance test. Then, they performed a volitional exhaustion test, followed by a dynamic balance retest. A signifcant main efect of condition for all balance variables was detected (all p<0.03) except for the postero-lateral distance. A
signifcant main efect of time was only found for the anterior distance (p<0.001). Signifcant condition*time interaction
was found for all variables (p<0.02) except for the posterolateral distance. Posthoc analysis of the condition × time interaction indicated that compared to the control condition, exhaustive exercise deteriorated balance as showed by the signifcant
decrease in the composite score (p=0.05) and in the anterior direction (p<0.001). This makes us focus on elaborating novel
training systems in padel to improve the anterior direction distance after fatigue, being the reason of the decrease of dynamic
balance capacity. This will boost the possibilities of scoring during a competitive situation.
... Future descriptive or experimental studies could measure such physiological variables during and after a competitive pickleball match and across multiple ages and competition levels. Fernandez-Fernandez et al. (2009) measured many physiological parameters occurring in a tennis match; that article could serve as another template for future research inquiry specific to pickleball (13). ...
... Segundo Elliot (2006), para se alcançar o sucesso no tênis, é preciso que variáveis como talento, treino de qualidade, equipamento apropriado e compreensão das ciências desportivas sejam trabalhados de forma combinada. Deste modo, o desenvolvimento da performance do atleta se encontra alicerçado nas evidências científicas, a qual serve de auxílio ao treinador para desenvolver programas de treino mais eficazes (KOVACS, 2006; FERNANDEZ-FER-NANDEZ; SANZ-RIVAS; MENDEZ-VILLANUEVA, 2009). ...
INTRODUÇÃO: O tênis é um dos esportes mais competitivos no qual a diferença entre os jogadores melhores classificados é resultado da combinação de componentes físicos, técnicos, táticos e psicológicos.
OBJETIVO: Identificar as características demográficas, antropométricas e dominância lateral de tenistas profissionais e sua associação com o número de títulos conquistados na carreira.
MÉTODOS: Estudo observacional, transversal, com os 100 melhores tenistas ranqueados na Associação dos Tenistas Profissionais no ano 2017. Para o desfecho, número de títulos, foi levado em consideração todas as conquistas durante a carreira profissional do tenista. Foi realizada a análise descritiva das variáveis em estudo, com cálculo de média e respectivo desvio-padrão para variáveis contínuas e cálculo de proporção e intervalos de confiança para as variáveis categóricas. A análise bivariada foi realizada por meio do teste t de Student e Anova ou seu equivalente não paramétrico para diferenças de média.
RESULTADOS: A média de idade dos tenistas foi de 28,3±4,5 anos tendo o mais novo 18 anos e o mais velho 38 anos. A maioria possuía cor da pele branca (95,0%) e apresentavam, respectivamente, médias de peso e altura de 80,1±8,0 quilos e 1,87±0,07 metros. Em relação as características de jogo, 84,0% dos jogadores apresentaram dominância lateral direita e 81,0% realizavam o backhand com duas mãos. Quanto ao total de títulos, 37,0% nunca haviam conquistado títulos nos torneios disputados. Tenistas com até 29 anos de idade apresentaram média inferior de títulos comparados aos de 30 anos ou mais (p=0,001). Não houve diferença no número de vitórias entre jogadores com diferentes dominâncias laterais (p=0,80) ou realização de backhand com uma ou duas mãos (p=0,1).
CONCLUSÃO: Baseado nos achados do presente estudo, conclui-se que tenistas mais velhos, que se mantêm entre os 100 melhores, possuem maior número de títulos conquistados.
... Tennis is a sports branch in which high performance is determined by qualities such as speed, reaction time, accuracy and efficiency in the movement of the athlete (14). In competitions, professional tennis athletes' performances and match tactics can be affected by various factors (9,21,25). The most common surfaces used for playing professional and recreational tennis are clay and hard courts. ...
... Keywords: growth; injury; racquet sports; Y Balance Test; youth T ennis is a multidirectional sport characterized by repeated high-intensity efforts, such as strokes, sprints, accelerations, decelerations, and changes of direction (CODs), sometimes requiring extreme positions (ie, open stance strokes after under-pressure runs). 18,46 Despite the numerous evidence-based health benefits at both amateur and elite levels (eg, higher cardiovascular fitness, better body composition, and psychological profile), 62 previous research has also shown the potential injury risk of competitive tennis in both the upper and the lower body. 1,63 The most frequently diagnosed injuries in youth tennis players (ie, thigh muscle strains, knee and ankle ligaments sprains and tears, groin and patellofemoral pain, and femoroacetabular impingement) may lead to moderate absence from sport participation, negatively affect short-and long-term athlete development, cause long-term disability (development of knee osteoarthritis in adulthood), and increase medical costs. ...
Background: Tennis is one of the most popular sports among youth. At elite levels, a notable increase in injury incidence and a temporary decline in performance may occur when children progress through puberty. However, limited research has explored maturity-associated variations in clinical measurements suggested as predictors of injury and tennis performance in elite youth players. Therefore, the main purpose of this study was to analyse the association between chronological age and maturity status on several measures of neuromuscular capability and physical performance as well as bilateral asymmetries in elite youth tennis players.
Hypothesis: Youth tennis players around-peak height velocity (PHV) will show higher growth-related impairments or deficits in measures of neuromuscular capability and physical performance than their less (pre-PHV) and more (post-PHV) mature counterparts irrespective of sex.
Level of evidence: Level IV.
Methods: A total of 68 male (age: 13.7 ± 1.1 y; stature: 162.4 ± 9.4 cm; body mass: 51.4 ± 10.3 kg) and 60 female (age: 13.6 ± 1.1 y; stature: 162.8 ± 7.2 cm; body mass: 52.7 ± 7.5 kg) elite youth tennis players from two different age groups (under 13 [U13] and under 15 [U15]) and maturity status [pre, around and post-PHV], were tested during national training camps. Tests included the Y-Balance test, isometric hip abduction and adduction strength, hip ROMs and countermovement jump (CMJ) height. Bayesian analysis were used to establish any significant between-group differences.
Results: Only dynamic balance (in males) (Bayesian factor [BF10] = 88.2) and jump height (in both males and females) (BF10 > 100) were significatively associated with chronological age, whereby U15 group showed lower Y-Balance reach distances (-6%; standardized effect size [δ] = -0.62) but higher CMJ height scores (+18%; δ = 0.73) than the U13 group. While males jump higher (+11%, δ = 0.62) and were stronger in isometric hip adduction strength (+14%, δ = 0.92) than females, the latter had greater hip internal ROM values (+15%, δ = 0.75). Furthermore, relevant maturity-associate effects (BF10 = 34.6) were solely observed for the CMJ test in males, with the most mature players demonstrating higher jump height scores (+12%, δ = 0.93). Finally, a significant percentage (>25%) of tennis players, independent of sex, demonstrated bilateral asymmetries in hip ROMs, hip strength and jump height values.
Conclusions: The findings of this study show that in U13 and U15 male and female tennis players there were neither positive nor negative maturity-associated variations in the clinical measurements analysed (with the exception of jump height in males). The high proportion of tennis players showing bilateral asymmetries in dynamic balance, hip ROM and strength and jump performance, highlight the need of future studies to analyse these factors in relation to unilateral tennis-specific adaptations in the musculoskeletal and sensorimotor systems.
Clinical relevance: These results may help to better understand how different clinical measurements are associated with the process of growth and maturation in elite youth tennis players and may aid in the design of specific training interventions during these stages of development.
Keywords: Y-Balance, racquet sports, injury, youth, growth.
... Tennis is considered as one of the highly demanding sport. In order to be competitive and successful, a tennis player will need a mixture of agility, speed, and power combined with medium to high aerobic abilities (Fernandez et al., 2009). The tennis game can be defined as a multi-directional, explosive, stop and start activity with a player maintaining dynamic balance and control so he can hit the ball effectively (Pearson, 2006). ...
Objectives: the aims of the study were the preparation of balance exercises to develop the agility for young tennis players, and to identify the effect of practicing balance exercise on developing the agility for young tennis players. Design: an experimental design was used. Setting: Subject was randomly divided into two groups; the control group and the experimental group.
... The directional changes required in tennis result from running mainly toward the forehand side but also into a backhand or a ball at the net, with subsequent recovery to the baseline. The majority of distances to cover are between 2.5 and 4.5 m, with four COD´s per point, and 20% of these actions must be executed under time pressure (Fernandez et al., 2006;Fernandez-Fernandez, Sanz-Rivas, & Mendez-Villanueva, 2009;Ferrauti et al., 2013). Therefore, the present results fit the assumption that the ability to appropriately combine acceleration, deceleration and footwork can be considered a determining factor in tennis performance (Cooke et al., 2011;Ferrauti et al., 2013). ...
Movement speed is considered essential for success in elite tennis. The aim of the present study was to develop a model of movement speed components and quantify their age – and gender-related relevance for tennis performance. Physical testing data obtained from 1,434 nationally ranked junior squad tennis players were divided according to the age at peak height velocity (YPHV) into two age groups (pre-PHV: n=103 girls, 11.7 ± 0.6 yrs.; n=466 boys, 12.7 ± 1.0 yrs.; post-PHV: n=524 girls, 14.2 ± 1.4 yrs.; n=344 boys, 15.3 ± 1.2 yrs.). After assessing anthropometrics and maturity status, all players passed a series of standardized physical tests on an indoor hard court. All data were z-standardized, filtered and sorted by gender, maturity level, and ranking position. The structuring of the speed-related performance parameters resulted in four factors (“Elementary Speed”, “Jumping Power”, “Linear Speed”, and “COD Speed”), which were then confirmed by factor analysis. The correlation of these factors to the national ranking position was mostly significant but rather low, with “Linear Speed” reaching the lowest (r=0.10–0.18) and “COD Speed” the highest correlation (r=0.22–0.34). Path analytic models revealed “COD Speed” as the most important factor, which is strongly influenced by “Jumping Power” and “Linear Speed,” with medium effect sizes, while “Elementary Speed” affects this factor only slightly. It can be concluded that the relationship between movement speed and junior players’ tennis ranking is lower than expected. The development of “COD Speed” should be prioritized during testing, training, and talent identification, independent of age group and gender.
Highlights
• Performance parameters for 1,434 junior players with national rankings were analyzed and assigned to four superior factors.
• The impact of the factors on the ranking position, as well as the internal causal relationships, were investigated via path analysis.
• “COD Speed” was the most impactful factor for tennis performance and was strongly influenced by “Linear Speed” and “Jumping Power.”
... 1 Tenis, aerobik ve anaerobik yüklenmelerin birlikte olduğu ve aynı zamanda kuvvet, sürat, dayanıklılık, esneklik ve koordinasyon gibi biyomotorik özelliklerin de iyi bir seviyede olmasını gerektiren bir performans sporudur. 2 Tenis oyununun kuvvet yetisini, kısa me-safeli koşuları ve dayanıklılık egzersizlerinin tümünü kapsamasından dolayı fizyolojik gereksinimleri oldukça fazladır. Ayrıca aralıklı (interval) egzersizlerin uygulandığı eforlarda, sınırlı zamanda güç (zirve) üretiminin sağlanmasının yanında maksimal egzersiz şiddetinin müsabakanın sonuna kadar sürdürülebilmesi de gerekmektedir. ...
... In this way, this would be a tactical indication for matches in which the opponent has a decrease in passive range of movement and hypertonia, eligible conditions for PBd players. In this sense, world-class players prefer to serve short to prevent their opponents from gaining an offensive advantage (Fernandez-Fernandez et al., 2009;Phomsoupha & Laffaye, 2015). ...
Considering the smaller number of studies investigating Para-Badminton (PBd) and the need to understand the technical, tactical and functional classes, the purpose of this research is to investigate the frequency of technical components and timing characteristics in the PBd categories of WH1(Wheelchair/severe impairment) and WH2 (Wheelchair/minor impairment) and to compare between classes. Twenty PBd matches were analyzed in the men's individual category at the 11th World PBd Championship. The mean playing time of the matches was 1,780 (± 575) s for the WH1 class and 2,012 (± 1,098) s for WH2. The average rally time was 10.2 (± 8.4) min for the WH1 and 12.5 (± 12.5) min for WH2. The mean pause time was 15 (± 10.3) s for the WH1 class and 14.1 (±10.5) s for the WH2. The mean number of shots per game was 552 (±197) and 719 (±480) for class WH1 and WH2 respectively. In both classes: the most frequent shots performed by the players were Clear, Lob, Drop, and Net-shot; the players used backhand more often than the forehand service and the short service compared to the long one; the errors stood out in relation to the winner points. In addition, there was a higher proportion of shots at the front of the court in both classes. It was found that the WH2 class showed a higher intensity (longer rally time and shorter pause time) and a higher frequency of technical actions (higher number of shuttle hits) when compared to the WH1. This information can assist coaches during training to guide the development of the temporal and technical aspects of the PBd, as well as monitor them during matches to obtain victory.
... The common feature of most campaigns is that they begin at primary school age and, based on physical fitness and motor competence tests, predict future success based on a child's performance prerequisites profile [9][10][11][12]. This early testing and desired early start in tennis ensures that, in addition to a large number of training hours-athletes complete 20-30 h of technical training per week, even at a young age [13]-the athletes can gain competitive experience early and over a longer period of time [14]. Moreover, this offers a good opportunity for the acquisition of technical skills because there are sensitive learning phases that promote motor learning, particularly before puberty [15][16][17][18]. ...
(1) Background: The search for talented young athletes is an important element of top-class sport. While performance profiles and suitable test tasks for talent identification have already been extensively investigated, there are few studies on statistical prediction methods for talent identification. Therefore, this long-term study examined the prognostic validity of four talent prediction methods. (2) Methods: Tennis players (N = 174; n♀ = 62 and n♂ = 112) at the age of eight years (U9) were examined using five physical fitness tests and four motor competence tests. Based on the test results, four predictions regarding the individual future performance were made for each participant using a linear recommendation score, a logistic regression, a discriminant analysis, and a neural network. These forecasts were then compared with the athletes’ achieved performance success at least four years later (U13‒U18). (3) Results: All four prediction methods showed a medium-to-high prognostic validity with respect to their forecasts. Their values of relative improvement over chance ranged from 0.447 (logistic regression) to 0.654 (tennis recommendation score). (4) Conclusions: However, the best results are only obtained by combining the non-linear method (neural network) with one of the linear methods. Nevertheless, 18.75% of later high-performance tennis players could not be predicted using any of the methods.
... Furthermore, the use of slice and topspin effects to improve service accuracy was a special content of great relevance in the training session as pointed out by Chow et al. 21 Ferna´ndez-Ferna´ndez et al. 36 recommended dedicating sufficient on-court practice time to some of the variables reflected in the "Special content 2" category to assist players in developing a tactical all-court game. Finally, these results also coincide with those proposed by Torres-Luque et al. 12 regarding the importance of the technical and tactical features of the strokes, since aspects such as the type of technical and tactical stroke, the ball rebound zone, the hitting zone and its effectiveness were found crucial for the description of the activity. ...
In high performance tennis, different aspects like physical-conditioning, strategy-tactic, technical-biomechanical, psychology and skills acquisition have received large attention from the researchers. Nevertheless, the programming, period-ization and planning of training sessions and competitions have not been as studied in depth. Coaches still use their experience, trial-error and subjective perceptions as methods of conducting these fundamental tasks. This article presents the design and validation of an instrument to control the technical and tactical training content on-court. The instrument was conceived by 9 experts and validated by 23 experienced coaches, who used on-court tennis exercises examples. The instrument is a useful tool for helping the coaches to improve the control of the on-court technical and tactical content and the tennis training session contents in high performance tennis players.
... Starting games at 30-30 reduces the number of points played in matches which can help reduce match congestion. Match congestion is associated with decreased serve accuracy (Maraga, Duffield, Gescheit, Perri, and Reid, 2018), increased pain (Maraga et al., 2018), increased error rates (Gescheit et al., 2016) and fatigue (Fernandez-Fernandez, Sanz-Rivas, and Mendez-Villanueva, 2009). These problems can be addressed by the introduction of shorter formats of tennis such as Thirty30. ...
Thirty30 is a shorter format of tennis where games start at 30-30. This means that a greater proportion of points are game points or break points than would be the case in traditional tennis. The purpose of the current paper is to compare the probability of players of different abilities winning games, sets and matches between Thirty30 tennis and traditional tennis. This is done using probabilistic models of each format of tennis. The results show that there is reduced dominance of the serve and a greater probability of upsets in Thirty30 tennis than in traditional tennis. The models are also experimented with, adjusting the probability of winning points where the point is a game point or a break point. The paper shows that such scoreline effects have a greater impact in Thirty30 tennis than they do in traditional tennis. This has implications for player preparation for Thirty30 tennis.
... Tennis is an intermittent sport characterised by prolonged durations of repeated high intensity bouts interspersed with standardised rest periods, demanding high levels of fitness in components including speed, agility, power, and cardiovascular endurance (Fernandez-fernandez et al., 2009). Participation at the highest level of professional tennis is occurring at progressively younger ages. ...
During a 7-day training and/or competition period, macronutrient intake and distribution was assessed using food diaries, supported by remote food photography and 24-hr multiple pass recalls of youth tennis players categorised by under 12s, under 14s and under 16+ age groups (n = 27). Total energy did not differ between age groups nor type of day (training [TD], competition day [CD]), irrespective of a significant increase in body mass reported in the older players (U16+; p < 0.05). Average intakes were consistently below 2250 kcal·day-1 (range 1965 ± 317–2232 ± 612 kcal·day-1). Carbohydrate consumption was below guidelines for all groups (≤6g·kg-1). Conversely, protein intake met or exceeded guidelines throughout, with intakes ≥2 g·kg-1 for both the U12 and U14 age groups on both days. Protein intake was ~17% higher on TDs than CDs (p < 0.05), with protein intake at lunch significantly higher on TDs than CDs (p < 0.05). No further differences were observed between breakfast, lunch or dinner between group or day. Inconsistent snacking was reported, with players consuming snacks on less than half of the days reported (46 ± 12% of TDs and 43 ± 30% of CDs). In conclusion, youth tennis players present sub-optimal nutrition practices, appearing to under fuel and under consume carbohydrate for performance, adaptation, recovery and health.
... Tennis is a complex sport which involves sport-specific technical skills together with a high level of numerous physical components (Fernández-Fernández et al., 2009). In this regard, the concomitant development of strength, power, speed, and agility has been proposed as a prerequisite for success in tennis (Fernández-Fernández et al., 2014). ...
Objectives: The hexagon agility test is widely used in tennis players’ fitness evaluation, although its validity has not been fully stablished. This study aimed to assess the relationships between sprinting, jumping, and change of direction (COD) ability with the hexagon test performance. Methods: Thirty-five under-16 tennis players completed a testing battery including the hexagon test, 20-m linear sprint, bilateral and unilateral countermovement jumps (CMJ), triple leg-hop for distance, T-Test, 5-0-5 and Pro-Agility test on two different sessions separated by one week. The intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) and the standard error of measurement (SEM) were used to assess the reliability of the test. Pearson’s product correlations (r) were used to analyze the relationships between the hexagon test and the other fitness tests. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. Results: The hexagon test showed high relative reliability (ICC = 0.88) and low SEM values (0.17 s). Significant small to large correlations were found between the hexagon test time and linear sprint time (r = 0.40 to 0.60), COD tests (r = 0.53 to 0.79), and jumping performance (r = -0.40 to -0.68). Conclusions: The hexagon test is a simple, quick, easy-to-implement and reliable test, which allow it to be included in tennis players’ testing batteries. The test is related to measures of speed, power and agility, although the magnitude of these relationships do not allow for the replacement of most commonly used tests (e.g., CMJ, 20-m sprint, T-Test) within tennis players’ testing batteries.
Aim of our research was to investigate the relationship between high-intensity micromovements and accuracy of strokes in junior tennis players using the 'PlayerLoad' and 'IMA' mechanical indicators. The study involved 14 regularly competing Hungarian boy tennis players (14.13 ± 2.03 years). The most common (offensive, defensive and neutral) strokes during matches, as well as volume variables of high-intensity micromovements performed during matches, were measured with two specific court tests ('1-6' test and 'Big X' test). In case of '1-6' test, a significant relationship was established for forehand offensive stroke and 'Total PlayerLoad' parameter (χ 2 = 4.31; p = 0.04), while in case of 'Big X' test, during the backhand defensive stroke, 'Total IMA Events' showed a significant correlation with accuracy (χ 2 = 6.51; p = 0.04). We conclude that in this age group, effectiveness of each stroke is primarily due to the proper, stable impact position and precise technique of movements, and performance of high-intensity, small-scale movements are less weighted.
Background: Plyometric training (PT) has been researched extensively in athletic populations. However, the effects of PT on tennis players are less clear.
Methods: We aim to consolidate the existing research on the effects of PT on healthy tennis players’ skill and physical performance. On 30th May 2022, a comprehensive search of SCOPUS, PubMed, Web of Science, and SPORTDiscus ( via EBSCOhost) databases was performed. PICOS was employed to define the inclusion criteria: 1) healthy tennis players; 2) a PT program; 3) compared a plyometric intervention to a control group or another exercise group, and single-group trials; 4) tested at least one measures of tennis skill or physical performance; and 5) non-randomized study trials and randomized control designs. Individual studies’ methodological quality was evaluated by using the Cochrane RoB-2 and ROBINS-I instruments. Using Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE), the certainty of the body of evidence for each outcome was assessed, and Comprehensive Meta-Analysis software was employed for the meta-analysis.
Results: Twelve studies comprising 443 tennis players aged 12.5–25 years were eligible for inclusion. The PT lasted from 3 to 9 weeks. Eight studies provided data to allow for the pooling of results in a meta-analysis. A moderate positive effect was detected for PT programs on maximal serve velocity (ES = 0.75; p < 0.0001). In terms of measures of physical performance, small to moderate (ES = 0.43–0.88; p = 0.046 to < 0.001) effects were noted for sprint speed, lower extremity muscle power, and agility. While no significant and small effect was noted for lower extremity muscle strength (ES = 0.30; p = 0.115). We found no definitive evidence that PT changed other parameters (i.e., serve accuracy, upper extremity power and strength, reaction time, and aerobic endurance). Based on GRADE, the certainty of evidence across the included studies varied from very low to moderate.
Conclusion: PT may improve maximal serve velocity and physical performance components (sprint speed, lower extremity muscular power, and agility) for healthy tennis players; however, more high-quality evidence about the effects of PT on the skill and physical performance of tennis players merits further investigation.
Systematic Review Registration: [ https://inplasy.com/ ], identifier [INPLASY202250146].
Perri, T, Reid, M, Murphy, A, Howle, K, and Duffield, R. Differentiating stroke and movement accelerometer profiles to improve prescription of tennis training drills. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2022-This study compared the movement- and stroke-related accelerometer profiles and stroke counts between common on-court tennis training drills. Ten, junior-elite, male tennis players wore a cervical-mounted global positioning systems, with in-built accelerometer, gyroscope, and magnetometer during hard court training sessions (n = 189). Individual training drills were classified into 8 categories based on previous research descriptions. Manufacturer software calculated total player load (tPL), while a prototype algorithm detected forehand (FH), backhands (BH), and serves and then calculated a stroke player load (sPL) from individual strokes. Movement player load (mPL) was calculated as the difference between tPL and sPL. Drill categories were compared for relative (.min-1) tPL, sPL, mPL, and stroke counts via a 1-way analysis of variance with effect sizes (Cohen's d) and 95% confidence intervals. Highest tPL.min-1 existed in accuracy and recovery or defensive drills (p < 0.05), with lowest tPL·min-1 values observed in match-play simulation (p < 0.05). For sPL·min-1, accuracy drills elicited greater values compared with all other drill types (p < 0.05), partly via greater FH-sPL·min-1 (p < 0.05), with lowest sPL·min-1 existing for match-play (p < 0.05). Accuracy, open, and recovery or defensive drills result in greater BH-sPL·min-1 and BH.min-1 (p < 0.05). Serve-sPL·min-1 is highest in technical and match-play drills (p < 0.05). Higher mPL·min-1 existed in accuracy, recovery or defensive, 2v1 net, open, and 2v1 baseline (p < 0.05). Furthermore, mPL·min-1 in points drills was greater than technical and match-play simulation drills (p < 0.05). Higher hitting-based accelerometer loads (sPL·min-1) exist in accuracy drills, whereas technical and match-play drills show the lowest movement demands (mPL·min-1). These findings can aid individual drill prescription for targeting movement or hitting load.
Padel is a complex sport within which performance relies on the interrelation of multiple factors such as physiological and physical capacities, psychological skills, and tactical and technical knowledge. Padel match involves intermittent whole-body efforts, evidenced by a large number of strokes and repeated high-intensity running actions such as accelerations, decelerations and changes of direction. Due to its recent creation, little is known about the activity and energy demands of padel match play. The purpose of the present study was to systematically review physiological demands of padel match play by assessing parameters related to external load, such as notational analysis or time-motion studies, and internal load through the analysis of physiological responses during the match. The systematic review process was conducted in accordance with the PRISMA guidelines. The electronic databases PubMed, Scopus and SportDiscus were searched using: ("padel" OR "pádel" OR "paddle tennis"). Twelve papers matched the inclusion criteria, from which four addressed internal load, six external load, and two analyzed both. A total of 203 padel players across all competition levels participated in the 12 selected studies. Study outcomes have probed prevalence of moderate physiological responses, low contribution of anaerobic glycolytic processes to supply energy, VO 2 not being a limiting factor, and moderate to relatively high perceived effort rate. The highest game durations were found in professional players. Work-to-rest ratios reaffirm the intermittent nature of padel. Distance covered per set and match as well as speed are reciprocally proportional to player's standard level.
Objectives
The primary objective of this scoping review was to examine existing evidence regarding the dietary intake and nutrition habits of elite and highly trained junior and young adult tennis players.
Methods
Systematic searches of MEDLINE, EBSCOHost and Scopus were undertaken from the earliest record to December 2021. Reference lists of articles selected were manually searched. A five-stage protocol informed by Arkey and O’Malley's framework with consideration for the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) methodology from scoping reviews was followed.
Results
The initial searches yielded an initial 145 records following the removal of duplicates. Following the screening process 14 articles were accepted for analyses. Three major themes were identified: (1) dietary intake and negative energy balance, (2) sub-optimal nutrient intake/habits, and (3) the use and impact of dietary supplements/ergogenic aids.
Conclusion
Research indicates sub-optimal nutritional practices amongst elite and highly trained junior and young adult tennis players. Particular concerns have emerged regarding insufficient calorie consumption to support performance, growth, and wellbeing.
The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of static and dynamic core trainings on some motoric characteristics and tennis service velocity of tennis athletes. Thirty-six healthy male (n = 21) and female (n = 15) junior tennis players who were between the ages of 10-14 participated in this study voluntarily. Subjects were randomly and equally divided into control (n = 12), static core training (n = 12) and dynamic core training (n = 12) groups. It was implemented the tests of ages, length, weight, body mass index, vertical jump, flexibility, handgrip strength, 10 m speed, y-balance, seated medicine ball throw tests, velocity analysis and radar specifications to subjects attended to this study.The normality distribution of data was checked with using Shapiro-Wilk test and parametric analysis techniques were employed. The differences between pre and post tests were analyzed using Paired Samples T test and variation ratio of numerical difference between some motoric characteristics and tennis service velocity of the training and control groups were analyzed with Independent Samples T test. While there was a statistically significant increase (p <0.05) between some motoric characteristics and tennis service speed pre-post test values of the training group athletes, there was no significant difference in the control group (p>0.05). Core region strength is very important in terms of being the starting point of force and balance in a branch such as tennis where there is a lot of change of direction, mobility and imbalance. The inclusion of core exercises in the training programs of athletes, trainers and conditioners who work with tennis athletes can contribute to the performance development of athletes.
Teniste Servis Hızının Önemi
There is little information on the female doubles tennis. The aim of this study was to describe the activity profile of women’s doubles tennis, and to analyse the differences between playing surfaces. Twenty-one matches of three Grand Slams (GS) tournaments and played on 3 different surfaces, were analysed. Activity profile included rally duration (RD), resting time between points (RTP), resting time between games (RTG), resting time between sets (RTS), resting time (RT), effective playing time (EPT), total match time (TMT), work-to-rest ratio (W: R), shots per rally (SPR), shots per game (SPG), shots per set (SPS), shots per match (SPM), shot frequency (shots/second) (SPSc), and type of shots. Results showed that RTG and RT was longer at the Australian Open than at Roland Garros and Wimbledon, and the number of forehand (F) shots at Roland Garros was higher than at Wimbledon. The most common tennis shots are the F, the backhand (B), the first service and the volley (V), and more than 50% of the total shots in a match come from the baseline and mid court game. These results show that in women’s doubles the stimuli are short and intense and that net game is very important.
Methods:
Doubly labeled water assessed TEE during a 17-d period analyzed by days 1 to 7 (P1) and 7-17 (P2) which included a Women's Tennis Association/Association of Tennis Professionals tournament and culminated at the Wimbledon Championships. Daily training and match loads were assessed using a 10-point Borg scale multiplied by time. Match data were provided by video analysis and player tracking technology.
Results:
The TEE during P1 for the female player was 3383 kcal·d-1 (63.5 kcal·kg-1) fat-free mass (FFM) with 362 points played over 241 min in three matches covering a distance of 2569 m, with an additional 875 min training. During P2, TEE was 3824 kcal·d-1 (71.7 kcal·kg-1) FFM with 706 points played over 519 min during five matches, covering a distance of 7357 m with an additional 795 min training. The TEE during P1 for the male player was 3712 kcal·d-1 (56.3 kcal·kg-1) FFM with 133 points played over 88 min during one match covering 1125 m, with an additional 795 min training. During P2, TEE was 5520 kcal·d-1 (83.7 kcal·kg-1) FFM with 891 points played over 734 min during five matches, covering 10,043 m, with an additional 350 min training.
Conclusions:
This novel data positions elite tennis, played at the highest level, as a highly energetic demanding sport, highlighting that nutritional strategies should ensure sufficient energy availability during competition schedules.
The research aims to examine the static and dynamic balance capacities of 5-9-year-old children who receive gymnastics training. The research group consists of 101 children, 21 boys and 80 girls, between the ages of 5-9 who are trained in gymnastics. Static balance (Flamingo balance test) and dynamic balance (Y balance test) tests, which are among the basic motor movement performance tests, were applied to examine the balance ability, one of the basic motor capacities of children aged 5-9. Arithmetic average and standard deviation, frequency and percentage distribution from general distribution statistics were obtained as data and Independent T test and One Way Anova tests were used to determine the significance levels between variables. With this research, it was concluded that the static and dynamic balance capacities of children who received gymnastics training at the age of 5-9 differ according to the age variable.
While the physiological adaptations that occur following endurance training in previously sedentary and recreationally active individuals are relatively well understood, the adaptations to training in already highly trained endurance athletes remain unclear. While significant improvements in endurance performance and corresponding physiological markers are evident following submaximal endurance training in sedentary and recreationally active groups, an additional increase in submaximal training (i.e. volume) in highly trained individuals does not appear to further enhance either endurance performance or associated physiological variables [e.g. peak oxygen uptake (V̇O2peak), oxidative enzyme activity]. It seems that, for athletes who are already trained, improvements in endurance performance can be achieved only through high-intensity interval training (HIT). The limited research which has examined changes in muscle enzyme activity in highly trained athletes, following HIT, has revealed no change in oxidative or glycolytic enzyme activity, despite significant improvements in endurance performance (p 2max is achieved (Vmax) as the interval intensity, and fractions (50 to 75%) of the time to exhaustion at Vmax (Tmax) as the interval duration has been successful in eliciting improvements in performance in long-distance runners. However, Vmax and Tmax have not been used with cyclists. Instead, HIT programme optimisation research in cyclists has revealed that repeated supramaximal sprinting may be equally effective as more traditional HIT programmes for eliciting improvements in endurance performance. Further examination of the biochemical and physiological adaptations which accompany different HIT programmes, as well as investigation into the optimal HIT programme for eliciting performance enhancements in highly trained athletes is required.
The game of tennis has evolved from the wooden-racket era of long, crafty points based on style and finesse, to the current fast paced, explosive sport based on power, strength and speed, where 210 km/h serves are common. This evolution over the last 20 years has led to an increased interest in tennis research. Competitive tennis athletes need a mixture of anaerobic skills, such as speed, agility and power, combined with high aerobic capabilities. The work-to-rest ratios of competitive tennis athletes range between 1: 3 and 1: 5, and fatigue has been shown to greatly reduce the hitting accuracy. Competitive male tennis athletes maintain body fat <12% and have maximal oxygen uptake values >50 mL/kg/min, and as high as 70 mL/kg/min. Results from lactate testing in tennis players are inconclusive as some studies have shown increased levels, whilst other studies have shown little or no change. Further investigation is required to determine the production and utilisation effects of lactate from playing tennis. The average length of time to play a point in tennis is <10 seconds and this has declined substantially in the last 20 years. Further research is needed to investigate tournament performance and its effect on fatigue, recovery, hormonal and injury levels. As the game of tennis continues to change, the physiological parameters must be continually investigated to help provide athletes, coaches and trainers with information that will aid in the development of efficient and productive tennis performance and injury prevention programmes.
With the general acceptance that high ambient temperature and humidity have a detrimental effect on performance, the topic of whole-body cooling and sport performance has received considerable attention from sport scientists, particularly in the lead up to the relatively hot Olympic games of 1996 in Atlanta, Georgia, USA, and 2004 in Athens, Greece. This trend is likely to continue as athletes begin to prepare for what will likely be another hot Olympic games in 2008 in Beijing, China. To overcome the reduced exercise capacity associated with the heat, a number of precooling methods have been utilised to cool the body prior to exercise, with the greatest benefits likely associated with prolonged endurance-type exercise. An increase in heat storage capacity following a precooling manoeuvre has been suggested as the primary means of delaying fatigue during endurance exercise performance in the heat; the notion being that the increased heat storage capacity will allow an athlete to complete a greater amount of work before a critical body temperature is reached. However, the specific underlying mechanisms responsible for delaying fatigue during exercise in hot ambient conditions remains unclear. While significant research in this area has been completed in the laboratory setting, few studies utilise performance protocols, and even less address the practical and logistical issues associated with precooling an athlete prior to elite competition in the field. This review addresses evidence supporting the use of a precooling manoeuvre prior to endurance exercise, the potential underlying mechanisms responsible for improved endurance performance following precooling, and the practical issues associated with the use of precooling prior to competition for elite athletes.
Spatially indirect radiative recombinations (type II) have been studied in InAlAs–InP heterostructures grown by gas source molecular beam epitaxy with emphasis on the direct (InAlAs grown on InP) or inverse (InP on InAlAs) interface composition profile. Based on the results of their injection-dependent energy, lifetime and polarization, a new transition scheme is proposed: type II transitions have a low injection limit between 1.27 and 1.28 eV, a long lifetime (τ>1 μs) and strongly shift towards higher energy when increasing the injection. The type II recombination is polarized, the direction of maximum intensity being correlated with the expected interface structure. Lower energy transitions (E ⩽ 1.2 eV) indicate the presence of a well transition material at the interface: they should be better labeled as mixed type I–II. Previously published results are also reconsidered and seem to fit well within this model. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.
This article examines how pacing strategies during exercise are controlled by information processing between the brain and peripheral physiological systems. It is suggested that, although several different pacing strategies can be used by athletes for events of different distance or duration, the underlying principle of how these different overall pacing strategies are controlled is similar. Perhaps the most important factor allowing the establishment of a pacing strategy is knowledge of the endpoint of a particular event. The brain centre controlling pace incorporates knowledge of the endpoint into an algorithm, together with memory of prior events of similar distance or duration, and knowledge of external (environmental) and internal (metabolic) conditions to set a particular optimal pacing strategy for a particular exercise bout. It is proposed that an internal clock, which appears to use scalar rather than absolute time scales, is used by the brain to generate knowledge of the duration or distance still to be covered, so that power output and metabolic rate can be altered appropriately throughout an event of a particular duration or distance. Although the initial pace is set at the beginning of an event in a feedforward manner, no event or internal physiological state will be identical to what has occurred previously. Therefore, continuous adjustments to the power output in the context of the overall pacing strategy occur throughout the exercise bout using feedback information from internal and external receptors. These continuous adjustments in power output require a specific length of time for afferent information to be assessed by the brain's pace control algorithm, and for efferent neural commands to be generated, and we suggest that it is this time lag that crates the fluctuations in power output that occur during an exercise bout. These non-monotonic changes in power output during exercise, associated with information processing between the brain and peripheral physiological systems, are crucial to maintain the overall pacing strategy chosen by the brain algorithm of each athlete at the start of the exercise bout.
summary: The intricacies of team sports competition pose unique challenges for metabolic conditioning. The unpredictability and intermittent nature of competitive matches leads to great variability in the order, duration, and intensity of the various modes of locomotion and game-related activities players are required to perform. This article describes novel sport-specific solutions to metabolic conditioning for team sports players. The practicalities of implementing these game-related approaches are examined.
(C) 2007 National Strength and Conditioning Association
The primary purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between performance ability in junior tennis players, tennis stroke ratings and United States Tennis Association (USTA) rankings. A performance test battery evaluating strength, agility, speed and endurance was completed by 83 ranked male junior tennis players between the ages of 8 and 12. Ratings and videotape analysis of actual match play, along with USTA rankings, were quantified for tennis skill evaluation. Both sectional and national rankings were significantly related to tennis stroke ratings but higher correlations emerged between tennis stroke ratings and national rankings (r's from 0.57 to 0.68). Regression analysis indicated that 47 percent of the shared variance in national ranking was explained by the forehand tennis stroke rating. The results of this study appear to suggest that agility is the only physical performance variable used to predict competitive rankings in younger male tennis players (age 11.62 +/- 0.62 yr.). No other physical performance measures were related to the level of tennis rankings. Conversely, tennis-specific skills as measured by tennis stroke ratings may be very good indicators of competitive tennis rankings in this age group. In young prepubescent and pubescent male tennis players, physical maturation may differentiate between tennis skills and ability.
(C) 1992 National Strength and Conditioning Association
This article traces the history of scientific and empirical interval training. Scientific research has shed some light on the choice of intensity, work duration and rest periods in so-called ‘interval training’. Interval training involves repeated short to long bouts of rather high intensity exercise (equal or superior to maximal lactate steady-state velocity) interspersed with recovery periods (light exercise or rest). Interval training was first described by Reindell and Roskamm and was popularised in the 1950s by the Olympic champion, Emil Zatopek.
Since then middle- and long- distance runners have used this technique to train at velocities close to their own specific competition velocity. In fact, trainers have used specific velocities from 800 to 5000m to calibrate interval training without taking into account physiological markers. However, outside of the competition season it seems better to refer to the velocities associated with particular physiological responses in the range from maximal lactate steady state to the absolute maximal velocity. The range of velocities used in a race must be taken into consideration, since even world records are not run at a constant pace.
To determine the effects of prolonged simulated tennis on performance and the ergogenic potential of caffeine, carbohydrates, and cooling.
Twelve highly trained male tennis players (age 18.3 +/- 3.0 y, height 178.8 +/- 8.5 cm, body mass 73.95 +/- 12.30 kg, mean +/- SD) performed 4 simulated matches (2 h 40 min) against a ball machine on an indoor hard court. The counterbalanced experimental trials involved caffeine supplementation (3 mg/kg), carbohydrate supplementation (6% solution), precooling and intermittent cooling, and placebo control. Physiological markers (core temperature, heart rate, blood lactate, and blood glucose), subjective responses (ratings of perceived exertion and thermal sensation), stroke velocity and accuracy, serve kinematics, and tennis-specific perceptual skill quantified the efficacy of interventions.
Significant effects of time (P < .01) reflected increased physiological demand, reduced serve velocity and ground-stroke velocity and accuracy, and a slowing of the serve racket-arm acceleration phase. Caffeine increased serve velocity (165 +/- 15 km/h) in the final set of the match (P = .014) compared with placebo (159 +/- 15 km/h, P = .008) and carbohydrate (158 +/- 13 km/h, P = .001) conditions. Carbohydrate and cooling conditions afforded physiological advantage (increased blood glucose, P < .01, and reduced preexercise thermal sensation, P < .01) but did not affect performance relative to the placebo condition.
Prolonged simulated tennis induced significant decrements in tennis skills. Caffeine supplementation partly attenuated the effects of fatigue and increased serve velocity. In contrast, carbohydrate and cooling strategies had little ergogenic effect on tennis performance.
A short recovery period between same-day competitions is common practice in organized youth sports. We hypothesized that young athletes will experience an increase in physiological strain and perceptual discomfort during a second identical exercise bout in the heat, with 1 h (21 degrees C) between bouts, even with ample hydration. Twenty-four athletes (6 boys and 6 girls: 12-13 yr old, 47.7 +/- 8.3 kg; 6 boys and 6 girls: 16-17 yr old, 61.0 +/- 8.6 kg) completed two 80-min intermittent exercise bouts (treadmill 60%, cycle 40% peak oxygen uptake) in the heat (33 degrees C, 48.9 +/- 6.1% relative humidity). Sweat loss during each bout was similar within each age group (12-13 yr old: bout 1, 943.6 +/- 237.1 ml; bout 2, 955.5 +/- 250.3 ml; 16-17 yr old: bout 1, 1,382.2 +/- 480.7 ml; bout 2, 1,373.1 +/- 472.2 ml). Area under the curve (AUC) was not statistically different (P > 0.05) between bouts for core body temperature (12-13 yr old: bout 1 peak, 38.6 +/- 0.4 degrees C; bout 2, 38.4 +/- 0.2 degrees C; 16-17 yr old: bout 1 peak, 38.8 +/- 0.7 degrees C; bout 2, 38.7 +/- 0.6 degrees C), physiological strain index (12-13 yr old: bout 1 peak, 7.9 +/- 0.9; bout 2, 7.5 +/- 0.7; 16-17 yr old: bout 1 peak, 8.1 +/- 1.5; bout 2, 7.9 +/- 1.4), or thermal sensation for any age/sex subgroup or for all subjects combined. However, rating of perceived exertion AUC and peak were higher (P = 0.0090 and 0.0004, respectively) during bout 2 in the older age group. Notably, four subjects experienced consistently higher responses throughout bout 2. With these healthy, fit, young athletes, 1 h of complete rest, cool down, and rehydration following 80 min of strenuous exercise in the heat was generally effective in eliminating any apparent carryover effects that would have resulted in greater thermal and cardiovascular strain during a subsequent identical exercise bout.
To determine whether the reduced blood lactate concentrations [La] during submaximal exercise in humans after endurance training result from a decreased rate of lactate appearance (Ra) or an increased rate of lactate metabolic clearance (MCR), interrelationships among blood [La], lactate Ra, and lactate MCR were investigated in eight untrained men during progressive exercise before and after a 9-wk endurance training program. Radioisotope dilution measurements of L-[U-14C]lactate revealed that the slower rise in blood [La] with increasing O2 uptake (VO2) after training was due to a reduced lactate Ra at the lower work rates [VO2 less than 2.27 l/min, less than 60% maximum VO2 (VO2max); P less than 0.01]. At power outputs closer to maximum, peak lactate Ra values before (215 +/- 28 mumol.min-1.kg-1) and after training (244 +/- 12 mumol.min-1.kg-1) became similar. In contrast, submaximal (less than 75% VO2max) and peak lactate MCR values were higher after than before training (40 +/- 3 vs. 31 +/- 4 ml.min-1.kg-1, P less than 0.05). Thus the lower blood [La] values during exercise after training in this study were caused by a diminished lactate Ra at low absolute and relative work rates and an elevated MCR at higher absolute and all relative work rates during exercise.
During exercise in the heat, sweat output often exceeds water intake, which results in a body water deficit or hypohydration. This water deficit occurs from both the intracellular and extracellular fluid compartments, and causes a hypertonic-hypovolemia of the blood. Aerobic exercise tasks are likely to be adversely affected by hypohydration; and the warmer the environment the greater the potential for performance decrements. Hypohydration causes greater heat storage and reduces one's ability to tolerate heat strain. The greater heat storage is mediated by reduced sweating rate (evaporative heat loss) and reduced skin blood flow (dry heat loss) for a given core temperature. Reductions of sweating rate and skin blood flow are most tightly coupled to blood hypertonicity and hypovolemia, respectively. In addition, hypovolemia and the displacement of blood to the skin make it difficult to maintain central venous pressure and thus an adequate cardiac output to simultaneously support metabolism and thermoregulation during exercise-heat stress.
Heart rate (HR), hematocrit, hemoglobin, blood glucose, and plasma concentrations of lactate, cortisol, and testosterone were monitored in 10 male subjects (Division I, 20.3 +/- 2.5 yrs, VO2max: 58.5 +/- 9.4 ml.kg-1.min-1) during singles tennis and a treadmill test. During the on-court session, HR was 144.6 +/- 13.2 beats.min-1 for the 85 min of play. Plasma lactate rose 50% from a post-warmup value of 1.6 +/- 0.6 mmol.l-1 to 2.3 +/- 1.2 mmol.l-1 during play (p greater than 0.05). Blood glucose slightly decreased (8%, p greater than 0.05) from a pre-exercise value of 4.6 +/- 0.8 mmol.l-1 as a result of the 10-min warmup. This was followed by a 23% rise (p less than 0.05) from 4.2 +/- 1.0 mmol.l-1 to 5.2 +/- 0.6 mmol.l-1, measured after the first 30 min of play. Blood glucose subsequently remained steady at slightly above the pre-exercise value. Plasma cortisol rose (9%, p greater than 0.05) during the warmup and subsequently decreased (p less than 0.05) from a post-warmup value of 558.2 +/- 285.2 nmol.l-1 to 337.1 +/- 173.3 nmol.l-1 (a 40% decrease), and remained decreased during recovery. Plasma testosterone rose 22% (p less than 0.05) from pre-exercise to recovery (13.5 +/- 3.8 nmol.l-1 and 16.5 +/- 2.6 nmol.l-1, respectively). Although tennis is characterized by periods of high-intensity exercise, the overall metabolic response resembles prolonged moderate-intensity exercise.
Twenty (12 male and 8 female) tennis players from two Division I university tennis teams performed three days of round-robin tournament play (i.e., two singles tennis matches followed by one doubles match per day) in a hot environment (32.2 +/- 1.5 degrees C and 53.9 +/- 2.4% rh at 1200 hr), so that fluid-electrolyte balance could be evaluated. During singles play, body weight percentage changes were minimal and were similar for males and females (males -1.3 +/- 0.8%, females -0.7 +/- 0.8%). Estimated daily losses (mmol.day-1) of sweat sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+) (males, Na+ 158.7, K+ 31.3; females, Na+ 86.5, K+ 18.9) were met by the players' daily dietary intakes (mmol.day-1) of these electrolytes (males, Na+ 279.1 +/- 109.4, K+ 173.5 +/- 57.7; females, Na+ 178.9 +/- 68.9, K+ 116.1 +/- 37.5). Daily plasma volume and electrolyte (Na+, K+) levels were generally conserved, although, plasma [Na+] was lower (p < .05) on the morning of Day 4. This study indicated that these athletes generally maintained overall fluid-electrolyte balance, in response to playing multiple tennis matches on 3 successive days in a hot environment, without the occurrence of heat illness.
The effect of carbohydrate supplementation on stroke quality during prolonged simulated tennis match-play was investigated. Well-trained tennis palyers reported to the test center three times. At each occasion they performed a pretest, consisting of the leuven Tennis Performance Test (LTPT) and a shuttle run (SHR), which they repeated (posttest) after a 2-h strenuous training session. Throughout the test session, they received in a double blind random order either a placebo drink (P), a carbohydrate solution (0.7 gxkg(-1) BWxh(-1); CHO), or CHO plus a dose of caffeine (5 mg per kg BW). Stroke quality was evaluated during the LTPT by means of measurements of error rate, ball velocity, precision of ball placement, and a velocity-precision (VP) and a velocity-precision-error (VPE) index. Pretest scores were similar during P and CHO. During P, compared with the pretest, stroke quality during the posttest deteriorated (P < 0.05) both for the first service and strokes during defensive rallies and for SHR performance. However, compared with P, the increase in error rate and number of nonreached balls indefensive rallies was smaller (P < 0.05) during CHO. Similarily, CHO attenuated (P < 0.05) the increase in error rate and the decrease in both the VP (P < 0.1) and VPE (P < 0.05) indices for the first service upon fatigue. Furthermore, CHO improved posttest SHR performance. Stroke quality and SHR time were similar during CHO alone and during combined CHO plus caffeine administration, both for the pretest and for the pretest and for the posttest. It is concluded that CHO supplementation improves stroke quality during the final stages of prolonged tennis play. The data prove that CHO intake may facilitate the maintenance of physical quality during long-lasting intermittent exercise to fatigue.
We investigated whether fatigue during prolonged exercise in uncompensable hot environments occurred at the same critical level of hyperthermia when the initial value and the rate of increase in body temperature are altered. To examine the effect of initial body temperature [esophageal temperature (Tes) = 35.9 +/- 0.2, 37.4 +/- 0. 1, or 38.2 +/- 0.1 (SE) degrees C induced by 30 min of water immersion], seven cyclists (maximal O2 uptake = 5.1 +/- 0.1 l/min) performed three randomly assigned bouts of cycle ergometer exercise (60% maximal O2 uptake) in the heat (40 degrees C) until volitional exhaustion. To determine the influence of rate of heat storage (0.10 vs. 0.05 degrees C/min induced by a water-perfused jacket), four cyclists performed two additional exercise bouts, starting with Tes of 37.0 degrees C. Despite different initial temperatures, all subjects fatigued at an identical level of hyperthermia (Tes = 40. 1-40.2 degrees C, muscle temperature = 40.7-40.9 degrees C, skin temperature = 37.0-37.2 degrees C) and cardiovascular strain (heart rate = 196-198 beats/min, cardiac output = 19.9-20.8 l/min). Time to exhaustion was inversely related to the initial body temperature: 63 +/- 3, 46 +/- 3, and 28 +/- 2 min with initial Tes of approximately 36, 37, and 38 degrees C, respectively (all P < 0.05). Similarly, with different rates of heat storage, all subjects reached exhaustion at similar Tes and muscle temperature (40.1-40.3 and 40. 7-40.9 degrees C, respectively), but with significantly different skin temperature (38.4 +/- 0.4 vs. 35.6 +/- 0.2 degrees C during high vs. low rate of heat storage, respectively, P < 0.05). Time to exhaustion was significantly shorter at the high than at the lower rate of heat storage (31 +/- 4 vs. 56 +/- 11 min, respectively, P < 0.05). Increases in heart rate and reductions in stroke volume paralleled the rise in core temperature (36-40 degrees C), with skin blood flow plateauing at Tes of approximately 38 degrees C. These results demonstrate that high internal body temperature per se causes fatigue in trained subjects during prolonged exercise in uncompensable hot environments. Furthermore, time to exhaustion in hot environments is inversely related to the initial temperature and directly related to the rate of heat storage.
The aim of this study was to determine exercise intensity and metabolic response during singles tennis play. Techniques for assessment of exercise intensity were studied on-court and in the laboratory. The on-court study required eight State-level tennis players to complete a competitive singles tennis match. During the laboratory study, a separate group of seven male subjects performed an intermittent and a continuous treadmill run. During tennis play, heart rate (HR) and relative exercise intensity (72 +/- 1.9% VO2max; estimated from measurement of heart rate) remained constant (83.4 +/- 0.9% HRmax; mean +/- s(x)) after the second change of end. The peak value for estimated play intensity (1.25 +/- 0.11 steps x s(-1); from video analysis) occurred after the fourth change of end (P< 0.005). Plasma lactate concentration, measured at rest and at the change of ends, increased 175% from 2.13 +/- 0.32 mmol x l(-1) at rest to a peak 5.86 +/- 1.33 mmol x l(-1) after the sixth change of end (P < 0.001). A linear regression model, which included significant terms for %HRmax (P< 0.001), estimated play intensity (P < 0.001) and subject (P < 0.00), as well as a %HRmax subject interaction (P < 0.05), accounted for 82% of the variation in plasma lactate concentration. During intermittent laboratory treadmill running, % VO2peak estimated from heart rate was 17% higher than the value derived from the measured VO2 (79.7 +/- 2.2% and 69.0 +/- 2.5% VO2peak respectively; P< 0.001). The %VO2peak was estimated with reasonable accuracy during continuous treadmill running (5% error). We conclude that changes in exercise intensity based on measurements of heart rate and a time-motion analysis of court movement patterns explain the variation in lactate concentration observed during singles tennis, and that measuring heart rate during play, in association with preliminary fitness tests to estimate VO2, will overestimate the aerobic response.
The development of fatigue during exercise and the subsequent onset of exhaustion occur earlier in the heat than in cooler environments. The underlying mechanisms responsible for the premature development of fatigue in the heat have yet to be clearly identified. However, the proposed mechanisms include metabolic, cardiovascular and central nervous system perturbations, together with an elevated core temperature. Fluid ingestion is one of three strategies that have been shown to be successful in enhancing the performance of endurance exercise in the heat, with the other interventions being precooling and acclimatization. However, like the development of fatigue in the heat, the mechanisms by which fluid ingestion allows for improved exercise performance remain unclear. We propose that fluid ingestion enhances exercise performance in the heat by increasing the heat storage capacity of the body. We suggest that the thermoregulatory, metabolic and cardiovascular alterations that occur as a result of this increased heat storage capacity contribute to performance enhancement when fluid is ingested during exercise heat stress.
This article traces the history of scientific and empirical interval training. Scientific research has shed some light on the choice of intensity, work duration and rest periods in so-called 'interval training'. Interval training involves repeated short to long bouts of rather high intensity exercise (equal or superior to maximal lactate steady-state velocity) interspersed with recovery periods (light exercise or rest). Interval training was first described by Reindell and Roskamm and was popularised in the 1950s by the Olympic champion, Emil Zatopek. Since then middle- and long- distance runners have used this technique to train at velocities close to their own specific competition velocity. In fact, trainers have used specific velocities from 800 to 5000m to calibrate interval training without taking into account physiological markers. However, outside of the competition season it seems better to refer to the velocities associated with particular physiological responses in the range from maximal lactate steady state to the absolute maximal velocity. The range of velocities used in a race must be taken into consideration, since even world records are not run at a constant pace.
This study examined the independent and combined importance of aerobic fitness and body fatness on physiological tolerance and exercise time during weight-bearing exercise while wearing a semipermeable protective ensemble. Twenty-four men and women were matched for aerobic fitness and body fatness in one of four groups (4 men and 2 women in each group). Aerobic fitness was expressed per kilogram of lean body mass (LBM) to eliminate the influence of body fatness on the expression of fitness. Subjects were defined as trained (T; regularly active with a peak aerobic power of 65 ml · kg LBM ⁻¹ · min ⁻¹ ) or untrained (UT; sedentary with a peak aerobic power of 53 ml · kg LBM ⁻¹ · min ⁻¹ ) with high (High; 20%) or low (Low; 11%) body fatness. Subjects exercised until exhaustion or until rectal temperature reached 39.5°C or heart rate reached 95% of maximum. Exercise times were significantly greater in T Low (116 ± 6.5 min) compared with their matched sedentary (UT Low ; 70 ± 3.6 min) or fatness (T High ; 82 ± 3.9 min) counterparts, indicating an advantage for both a high aerobic fitness and low body fatness. However, similar effects were not evident between T High and UT High (74 ± 4.1 min) or between the UT groups (UT Low and UT High ). The major advantage attributed to a higher aerobic fitness was the ability to tolerate a higher core temperature at exhaustion (the difference being as great as 0.9°C), whereas both body fatness and rate of heat storage affected the exercise time as independent factors.
summary: The article reviews current data on work/rest intervals in tennis competition and provides energy system-specific training ideas for improved tennis performance. (C) 2004 National Strength and Conditioning Association
In brief: The heart rates of 17 male tennis players (aged 18 to 44, mean 31.4 ± 7.3 years) were monitored during singles and doubles competition. The purposes were to compare average heart rate intensities of players during singles and doubles competition, and to document the amount of time spent in continuous activity. In a one-hour singles match, subjects reached an average of 61% of their maximal heart rate reserve (MHRR), whereas in doubles competition they averaged only 33%. The authors concluded that singles competition in tennis meets the MHRR intensity criteria established by the American College of Sports Medicine for developing and maintaining cardiorespiratory fitness. However, doubles competition does not meet those criteria and should not be considered as an exercise regimen for developing fitness.
In soccer, the players perform intermittent work. Despite the players performing low-intensity activities for more than 70% of the game, heart rate and body temperature measurements suggest that the average oxygen uptake for elite soccer players is around 70% of maximum (VO2max). This may be partly explained by the 150-250 brief intense actions a top-class player performs during a game, which also indicates that the rates of creatine phosphate (CP) utilization and glycolysis are frequently high during a game. Muscle glycogen is probably the most important substrate for energy production, and fatigue towards the end of a game may be related to depletion of glycogen in some muscle fibres. Blood free-fatty acids (FFAs) increase progressively during a game, partly compensating for the progressive lowering of muscle glycogen. Fatigue also occurs temporarily during matches, but it is still unclear what causes the reduced ability to perform maximally. There are major individual differences in the physical demands of players during a game related to physical capacity and tactical role in the team. These differences should be taken into account when planning the training and nutritional strategies of top-class players, who require a significant energy intake during a week. © 2007 Ron Maughan for editorial material and selection. Individual chapters the contributors. All rights reserved.
Team sports require players to perform multiple work bouts at near maximal effort, punctuated with intervals of low intensity exercise or rest for the duration of a game. Such activity patterns are associated with a significant loss of body water which has a negative impact on physical and mental performance, as well as temperature regulation. There are a number of ways in which sweat losses incurred during team sports differ from those measured during prolonged, continuous exercise. Firstly, the work rate in team sports is intermittent, largely unpredictable and random in nature. Second, analyses of various team sports reveal that such games are characterised by a high degree of inter and intra-individual variability in work rates between players from the same sport. Finally, team players are less able to anticipate sweat losses than athletes competing in events which involve prolonged, continuous, moderate intensity exercise. Yet, compared with most endurance events, many team sports offer frequent opportunities to ingest adequate volumes of fluid and thus prevent exercise-induced hypohydration. The present review details the findings of modern studies which have determined body water losses and fluid intake practices of athletes from a variety of team sports. Special considerations which influence sweat loss and fluid intake that are unique to team sports are discussed, and guidelines for sound hydration strategies during training and competition are provided.
The purpose of this investigation was to study the physiological and psychological
states of 16 tennis players (8 males, 8 females) during the day of the first match of a tennis
tournament and their relation to performance. Athletes completed the Competitive State
Anxiety Inventory-2, including both intensity and direction subscales prior to the first match
and collected saliva for cortisol analysis on several occasions: during a resting day (baseline
values) and prior to and after both competitions.
Results showed the males and females have different responses in the CSAI-2 subcomponents.
Somatic anxiety was significantly higher (+23%: p < .05) in females compared to males whereas
self-confidence was significantly higher in males (+34%: p < .05). Winners had significantly lower
cognitive anxiety and higher Self-confidence scores than losers. Somatic anxiety was significantly
higher in the losers. Our results showed a cortisol response to competition, which was especially
characterized by an anticipatory rise. Males had the same pattern of cortisol responses than
females, even if the cortisol concentrations were significantly higher in females the day of the
competition. According to the outcome, significant differences between winners and losers
cortisol concentrations were observed whatever the hour of taking (except in the evening),
cortisol concentrations being the highest at the loser’s. The measurement of cortisol at the same
time that self-report psychological indicators would provide an approach to examine changes in
anxiety, and its relationship to performance
In this study we examined the performance during, and the physiological and metabolic responses to, prolonged, intermittent, high-intensity shuttle running in hot (~30 C, dry bulb temperature) and moderate (~20 C) environmental conditions. Twelve male students, whose mean (sx) age, body mass and maximal oxygen uptake (V O2m ax) were 22 +/- 1 years, 69.8 +/- 01.8 kg and 56.9 +/- 1.1 ml . kg-1 . min-1 respectively, performed intermittent high- and low-speed running involving five sets of ~15 min of repeated cycles of walking and variable speed running followed by 60 s run/rest exercise until fatigue. The total distance completed in the hot and moderate trials was 8842 790 m and 11,280 214 m respectively (P < 0.01). This decrement in performance occurred even though no differences existed in the level of dehydration, rating of perceived exertion, blood glucose and lactate, plasma free fatty acid and ammonia concentrations between the two trials. However, water consumption was almost twice as great in the hot trial (hot vs moderate: 1.18 +/- 0.12 vs 0.63 +/- 0.07 l . h-1, P < 0.01). Rectal temperature (hot vs moderate: 39.4 +/- 0.1 vs 38.0 +/- 0.1o C, P < 0.01) and heart rate (hot vs moderate: 186 +/- 2 vs 179 +/- 2 beats . min-1, P < 0.05) were higher at the end of the hot condition than at the same point in time in the moderate condition. The correlation between the rate of rise in rectal temperature and the distance completed during the hot condition was -0.94 (P < 0.01); for the moderate condition it was -0.65 (P <0.05). The reduced performance in the hot condition was associated with high body temperature; the precise mechanisms by which the performance decrement was brought about are, however, unclear.