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An Introduction to the History of Medicine
... In the traditional medicine stage, the four main subjects wer considered , as a basis for the theory of medicine and is distributed into five subsections, including physiology,Pathology, semiotics, hygiene, and treatment The practice of medicine relied on monitoring individual diseases, while anatomy and surgery focused on studying the structure of the human body as an applied basis in Surgical operations, botany, and pharmacy also contributed to the preparation of plant remedies from herbs In developing drug and pharmaceutical education The practice of diagnosis and treatment was limited to systemic regional diseases such as fever [18,19]. A group of cases compatible with infectious diseases were identified and distributed to different departments In the absence of a collective concept of infectious diseases at that time Early modern medicine came in the 19th century With the brilliance of scientific research and technical innovations in the clinical field Pharmaceutical, surgical innovation, and discovery of pathogens by autopsy Consequently, a qualitative shift occurred The concept of the disease, and thus the anatomy, the observation of systemic symptoms, and the mechanisms of the digestive and respiratory systems became, so the disease was defined and identified and the search for pathogens began (20) In 1806, Jean-Nicolas Corvisart discovered the symptoms of cardiovascular disease using Chest percussion method In 1819, René Théophile Hyacinthe Laennec determined a method for developing indirect auscultation and identified pulmonary diseases . ...
... In conclusion, we conclude that credit goes to the first doctors who contributed to the discovery of the various branches of medicine, including medical physiology and pathological sciences of all kinds, such as dermatology, reproductive diseases, and andrology. It also included applied sciences, including biochemistry, and modern contributions to forensic medicine, clinical toxicology, andHistology and the most influential medical branches, such as neurosurgery, neurological and psychological diseases, developments in pathology, clinical pathology, and pediatrics By following the development of medicine since the ancient Greek and Roman era The current state of scientific achievements: Considering infectious diseases, and we noticed that advanced precision medicine has succeeded in reducing the effects of the Corona virus (COVID- 19), and ways have been developed to coexist with epidemics and pandemics, the international community may not return to what it was before [57]. A lot has been revealed Zoonotic diseases are infectious diseases transmitted from animals to humans. ...
In ancient times, humanity suffered from infectious diseases, Which was a factor in the delay and backwardness of societies due to the epidemics and catastrophic conditions it caused. In this paper, were view it Development of infectious diseases Beginning with the times of the physician-philosophers Hippocrates and Galen in the old ages , After a long time, medical education schools began to spread, until modern medicine appeared, with the discovery of disease-causing bacteria. That period was characterized by conducting scientific research in laboratories, using antibiotics in treatment, and raising questions about the structure of nucleic acids as a basis for genetics and molecular biology. In this paper we also discuss drug development Treatment management measures and verification of the effectiveness of pharmaceutical compounds. This paper aims to evaluate the ongoing medical problems resulting from infection despite the tremendous scientific development, which requires reviewing the literature and providing recommendations to reach the desired development in this branch of medical science .
... In the traditional medicine stage, the four main subjects wer considered , as a basis for the theory of medicine and is distributed into five subsections, including physiology,Pathology, semiotics, hygiene, and treatment The practice of medicine relied on monitoring individual diseases, while anatomy and surgery focused on studying the structure of the human body as an applied basis in Surgical operations, botany, and pharmacy also contributed to the preparation of plant remedies from herbs In developing drug and pharmaceutical education The practice of diagnosis and treatment was limited to systemic regional diseases such as fever [18,19]. A group of cases compatible with infectious diseases were identified and distributed to different departments In the absence of a collective concept of infectious diseases at that time Early modern medicine came in the 19th century With the brilliance of scientific research and technical innovations in the clinical field Pharmaceutical, surgical innovation, and discovery of pathogens by autopsy Consequently, a qualitative shift occurred The concept of the disease, and thus the anatomy, the observation of systemic symptoms, and the mechanisms of the digestive and respiratory systems became, so the disease was defined and identified and the search for pathogens began (20) In 1806, Jean-Nicolas Corvisart discovered the symptoms of cardiovascular disease using Chest percussion method In 1819, René Théophile Hyacinthe Laennec determined a method for developing indirect auscultation and identified pulmonary diseases . ...
... In conclusion, we conclude that credit goes to the first doctors who contributed to the discovery of the various branches of medicine, including medical physiology and pathological sciences of all kinds, such as dermatology, reproductive diseases, and andrology. It also included applied sciences, including biochemistry, and modern contributions to forensic medicine, clinical toxicology, andHistology and the most influential medical branches, such as neurosurgery, neurological and psychological diseases, developments in pathology, clinical pathology, and pediatrics By following the development of medicine since the ancient Greek and Roman era The current state of scientific achievements: Considering infectious diseases, and we noticed that advanced precision medicine has succeeded in reducing the effects of the Corona virus (COVID- 19), and ways have been developed to coexist with epidemics and pandemics, the international community may not return to what it was before [57]. A lot has been revealed Zoonotic diseases are infectious diseases transmitted from animals to humans. ...
... Claude Bernard: From the periphery back to the brain Fifty years before Karplus and Kreidl, Claude Bernard (Fig. 2.18;Garrison, 1917) did his famous experiments on the brainstem (Bernard, 1850;Vitturi and Sanvito, 2020). In 1850 he described that after the floor of the fourth ventricle was punctured, his animals developed hyperglycemia, which could be prevented by splanchnic nerve dissection. ...
... This milestone in science did not only connect the brain to the periphery, but also the nervous system to metabolism, which could now be studied due to the invention of new biochemical methods in the first half of the 19th century. From Garrison FH (1917). An introduction to the history of medicine, WB Saunders Company, Philadelphia. ...
The central brain region of interest for neuroendocrinology is the hypothalamus, a name coined by Wilhelm His in 1893. Neuroendocrinology is the discipline that studies hormone production by neurons, the sensitivity of neurons for hormones, as well as the dynamic, bidirectional interactions between neurons and endocrine glands. These interactions do not only occur through hormones, but are also partly accomplished by the autonomic nervous system that is regulated by the hypothalamus and that innervates the endocrine glands. A special characteristic of the hypothalamus is that it contains neuroendocrine neurons projecting either to the neurohypophysis or to the portal vessels of the anterior lobe of the pituitary in the median eminence, where they release their neuropeptides or other neuroactive compounds into the bloodstream, which subsequently act as neurohormones. In the 1970s it was found that vasopressin and oxytocin not only are released as hormones in the circulation but that their neurons project to other neurons within and outside the hypothalamus and function as neurotransmitters or neuromodulators that regulate central functions, including the autonomic innervation of all our body organs. Recently magnocellular oxytocin neurons were shown to send not only an axon to the neurohypophysis, but also axon collaterals of the same neuroendocrine neuron to a multitude of brain areas. In this way, the hypothalamus acts as a central integrator for endocrine, autonomic, and higher brain functions.
The history of neuroendocrinology is described in this chapter from the descriptions in De humani corporis fabrica by Vesalius (1537) to the present, with a timeline of the scientists and their findings.
... Some pictures carved on the door-posts of a tomb in Memphis may be considered as the earliest known pictures of surgical operations (2500B. C.) (Garrison, 1921). ...
... Medical practice was rigidly prescribed by the Hermetic Books of Thoth, and if a patient died as a result of a deviation from this strict line of treatment, it was regarded as a capital crime, if the patient didn't improve after four days of treatment, physicians were allowed to modify the treatment (Garrison, 1921). There was a hierarchy of medical profession starting with the 'swnw' (ordinary doctor); 'imyr swnw' (overseer of doctors); 'wr swnw' (chief of doctors); 'smsw swnw' (eldest of doctors); and 'shd swnw' (inspector of doctors) (Reeves, 1992;Sullivan, 1995), there is also evidence proved the existence of women physicians (Willerson and Teaff, 1996a). ...
The ancient Egyptians practiced medicine with highly professional methods. They had advanced knowledge of anatomy and surgery. Also, they treated a lot of diseases including dental, gynecological, gastrointestinal, and urinary disorders. They could diagnose diabetes and cancer. The used therapeutics extended from different plants to include several animal products and minerals. Some of these plants are still used in the present day. Fortunately, they documented their life details by carving on stone, clay, or papyri. Although a lot of these records have been lost or destroyed, the surviving documents represent a huge source of knowledge in different scientific aspects including medicine. This review article is an attempt to understand some information about traditional medicine in ancient Egypt, we will look closely at some basics, sources of information of Egyptian medicine in addition to common treated diseases and therapeutics in this great civilization.
... Последний тип он предлагал лечить хирургическим путем, а при невозможности использовать каустическую соду [16]. Известный поэт-сатирик древности, автор 16 поэм, объединенных в 5 томах, D. Juvenal оставил меткое упоминание о существовании эндемического зоба: «Кто в Альпах удивится шее набухшей» [4,8,10,25]. Существовало несколько обозначений зоба, хотя его в этот период не отличали от других опухолей шеи. ...
... К сожалению, они пропали и были обнаружены лишь в XVIII столетии. Не имея представлений о функции железы, автор считал, что она выполняет косметическую роль и фиксирует трахею [25,44,45]. Позднее B. Eustachius (1520-1574) [22,46] описал перешеек щитовидной железы -isthmus, и указал, что она является единым органом. ...
Представления о щитовидной железе восходят к глубокой древности. Однако тиреоидология — научно обоснованное учение о щитовидной железе, является сравнительно молодым разделом эндокринологии, который сформировался и получил развитие в ХІХ-ХХ ст.
... In 1889, he also established the relation between hemolysis and febrile paroxysms. In a series of works published from 1898 to 1890, Giovanni Battista Grassi (1854-1925), Amico Bignami (1862-1929 and Giuseppe Bastianelli (1862-1959) described the development of malaria parasites in female Anopheles mosquitos, whose role in the transmission of the disease was conclusively demonstrated by Ronald Ross , working in India, and by Grassi, working in Italy 32 . ...
The French philologist Émile Littré (1801-1881) is credited by several scholars as the first to propose that Alexander the Great died of malaria. This article demonstrates that this opinion of traditional origin is unsupported by Littré's scholarly production. He published only two full papers on the topic of Alexander's death, the first in 1844 and the latter in 1853. In both works he stated that Alexander died of a pseudo-continuous fever, that is, a long lasting fever characterized by initial phases of remission to become continuous at the end. This feverish pattern differed from that of intermittent fever of malarial type that Littré described in his medical Dictionary. The articles of 1865, 1872 and 1927 were reprints of the 1853 article. The 1927 version published in Æsculape was preceded by a preface in which the anonymous author arbitrarily introduced the new word “paludisme”, giving rise to the erroneous belief that has been handed down to date.
... After 1860 many facial prosthetic attempts have been reported by dental professionals. Morton T G, the discoverer of ether anaesthesia has attempted obturators and nose prosthesis made in ceramic [8][9][10][11][12]. ...
Facial deformities whether induced as part of punishment, accidents that happen during war or due to disease process have always intrigued fellow human beings. Those who were engaged in the profession of healing, in the ancient times have attempted surgical correction or created prostheses so that the humans could be rehabilitated both in appearance and in function. At times ingenious patients also have tried making prosthesis for themselves. The history of maxillofacial prosthetics has an abstract nature and it is developed through different periods of time. Initially maxillofacial prosthetics (MFP) was necessitated by humans who were not living but when the time transgressed from BC to AD, MFP was designed for living human beings.
... This period was called 'trentena.' As the 30-day period proved to be too short, in 1403 in Venice, travelers from the Levant in the eastern Mediterranean were isolated in a hospital for forty days, known as 'quarantena' or 'quarentagiorni', from which the term quarantine was derived (Garrison, 1921;Dobson, 2007). Thus, the period of 30 days (trentine) was extended to 40 days (quarantine) (Mackowiak and Sehdev, 2002). ...
The coronavirus pandemic has wreaked widespread havoc, triggering a global health and economic crisis that has alerted humanity to the potentially devastating impacts of pandemics. Although the mortality and incidence of the disease have decreased due to widespread vaccination and social measures aimed at preventing its occurrence and spread, its global ramifications should still be viewed as a challenge for humankind. In this context, we revisit past devastating pandemics to promote awareness for improved emergency preparedness in the face of emerging and reemerging infectious diseases, as well as to maintain the balance of nature and the equilibrium of ecosystems.
... Furthermore, the Hippocratic school considered pulmonary phthisis (TB) as a hereditary disease rather than an infectious one [19]. On the other hand, Aristotle regarded it as a contagious disease, describing scrofula, a characteristic skin lesion in tuberculous (phthisic) pigs, which he considered to be a contagious lesion [21]. ...
Tuberculosis is a contagious disease that has been a concern for humanity throughout history, being recognized and referred to as the white plague. Since ancient times, starting with Hippocrates and Galen of Pergamon, doctors and scientists have attempted to understand the pathogenesis of tuberculosis and its manifestations in the brain. If, in the medieval period, it was believed that only the touch of a king could cure the disease, it was only in the early 17th and 18th centuries that the first descriptions of tuberculous meningitis and the first clinico-pathological correlations began to emerge. While the understanding of neurotuberculosis progressed slowly, it was only after the discovery of the pathogenic agent in the late 19th century that there was an upward curve in the occurrence of treatment methods. This review aims to embark on an odyssey through the centuries, from ancient Egypt to the modern era, and explore the key moments that have contributed to the emergence of a new era of hope in the history of neurotuberculosis. Understanding the history of treatment methods against this disease, from empirical and primitive ones to the emergence of new drugs used in multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis, leads us, once again, to realize the significant contribution of science and medicine in treating a disease that was considered incurable not long ago.
... Although some historians credit him with having pointed out the sweet taste of urine, the respected and accurate historian of medicine Garrison showed that this does not appear anywhere in Avicenna's work [6]. However, perhaps, more important than the above, is his attempt to explain the origin of the disease, not as the consequence of an alteration of the kidney, but of liver damage; with this clinical intuition he anticipated, by centuries, the future experimental studies of Claude Bernard. ...
This text makes a brief historical tour of the knowledge of diabetes mellitus, showing the sequence of ancient discoveries and the effort of several generations of physicians and researchers to better understand a pathology than remains a challenge for contemporary medicine. It also highlights the extraordinary episode of the discovery of insulin by Banting and best, in which some serendipitous facts were exploited by the observant and brilliant mind of Frederich Banting.
... Following the Marsh Test, arsenic poisoning cases substantially decreased. [31,32] An effort was made to address this with the Arsenic Act of 1851. Arsenic was only available to people who were at least 21 years old. ...
Arsenic tops the list of priority list of hazardous substances 2022. People are frequently exposed to the environmental pollutant metalloid arsenic through their food, water, air, and soil. Arsenic is famous for its toxic effects. However, arsenicals have recently gained attention due to promising clinical trials for the treatment of acute myeloid leukemia. Presently numerous studies on arsenic's anticancer effects have been done. So a review was conducted on the use of arsenicals as poison and medicine. Arsenical was used as a powerful medicine in the BC era. But arsenical became famous as "the King's Poison" and "the Poison of the King" due to its use as poison. But the development of Marsh’s Test in the 18th century led to a decrease in the use of arsenicals as poison. In the 18th century, arsenicals were used as medicine to treat a variety of diseases such as fever, rheumatism, psoriasis, and syphilis. The development of antibiotics, new, safer chemotherapeutic agents, and radiotherapy halted its use as medicine. The dose and form of arsenicals make them medicine or poison. Many literary works reveal that arsenic's journey as “medicine” and “poison” is still ongoing in the twenty-first century.
... Pooram is said to possess laxative, tonic, antiseptic, germicide, diuretic, sialagogue, alterative, cholagogue and purgative properties (39). It has broad spectrum antimicrobial activity against gram positive and gram negative bacteria and also against skin pathogens (42). ...
Liver disorders share a larger disease burden of the world every year. Liver disorders are caused by toxic chemicals, drugs, viruses (hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E), excess alcohol intake etc., and are ranked among the top ten killer diseases in India. With only meagre number of dependable drugs available for hepatoprotective action, the present scenario has created a stage for scientific evaluation of traditional medicines in the treatment of liver disorders. The Siddha literature has provided a lot of herbal and herbo- mineral formulations as indications for the management of liver disorders. Though several studies have been done on hepatoprotective herbs in recent years, very minimal researches have been done on herbo-mineral formulations. Therefore this review focuses on the literature search involving both traditional ancient Siddha texts as well as recent researches for hepatoprotective activity on all the ingredients of Santha Santhrodhaya Mathirai (SSM) a classical herbo-mineral formulation that has been indicated for the treatment of Pitha Suram and other biliary disorders.
... The last components of the nasopharyngeal boundaries to be discovered were its accumulations of lymphatic tissue. According to Chauveau (1901), the first description of the pharyngeal tonsil was by Schneider (1660) who, in the same publication, was among the first to successfully argue that nasal catarrh does not originate in the pituitary gland (an idea first reported by Galen; Garrison, 1917). von Luschka (1868) first described the adenoid tonsils and argued that the pharyngeal tonsil (of von Luschka) is not embryologically or functionally related to the drainage of the pituitary gland. ...
The nasopharynx has been understudied relative to neighboring anatomical regions. It is a highly complex, integrated space whose function, development, and evolution remains unclear after nearly 5,000 years of study. Historically, most work on the nasopharynx was done with a focus on adjacent structures. It has most often been mentioned in relation to the middle ear (via the Eustachian tube) in ancient texts and has only later been given a designation as one of three portions of a tripartite pharynx among adult humans. As human dissection became practiced more widely in Renaissance Europe, understanding of the nasopharyngeal boundaries improved. With further advancements in the study of nasopharyngeal development, evolution, and anatomical variation from the 19th century up until the present, this region has been shown to be functionally vital and still complicated to define.
... Gilbertus Anglicus brought the prescription to England in the thirteenth century. 28 There is no evidence that English to make sure, encased his head in a padded helmet which was then struck by a wooden mallet. 29 ...
... As a result of these observations, it seems quite reasonable to believe that SK44 made use of a walking aid, such as a bent-knee peg leg, a device employed during the Middle Ages that offered a solution for below-knee amputation (Hernigou, 2014), along with a staff or crutch (Fig. 7A, B), whereas SK18 most likely only used one of the latter, without the need for leg support (Fig. 7C). Wooden legs, crutches and walking sticks, so familiar in later works of artists such as Callot, Brueghel and Bosch are often mentioned in Medieval chronicles, frequently appearing in frescoes and other contemporary iconographic sources (Garrison, 1929;Hernigou, 2014). ...
Excavation carried out at the cemetery of Vetricella and dated between the 10th-11th centuries CE, has returned a high percentage of traumatized individuals, including two polytraumatized male skeletons, one featuring a well-healed amputation of the right leg, the other a mended femoral diaphysis fracture. Evidence of a healed amputation, the result of surgical work or interpersonal violence, is a rare case in the archaeological record.
The focus of this study is the nature of the recorded trauma, leading to observations on the effects of equestrian practice in an early medieval community, as well as survival and physical adaptation to new conditions, all of which have ultimately contributed towards the general interpretation of the archaeological context.
Images from CT scanning, external diameters and the degree of osteoarthrosis were used to quantify asymmetry between the left and right skeletal elements, providing further evidence of post-traumatic conditions. The recording of an iron spike-ferrule from the same burial area, identified as the lower end of a staff, would provide material indications as to the use of walking aids associated with individuals marked by clear issues of mobility.
... Hippocrates (460-375 BC) owes to the medicine the art of clinical inspection and observation and he is above all the example of that flexible, critical well poised attitude of mind ever on the lookout for sources of error which is the very essence of the scientific spirit [6]. It is to the Hippocratic collection that one turns for the first authentic account of clinical tuberculosis. ...
Tuberculosis, one of the oldest diseases known to effect humans have preceded recorded history since the changes of spinal tuberculosis in the skeleton of a Neolithic man was described. The development of Greek medicine (Unani medicine) has been the hallmark in the history of medicine and it was with this civilization of ancient Greece that the history of tuberculosis really begins. Hippocrates (460-375 BC) owes to the medicine the art of clinical inspection and observation. It is to the Hippocratic collection that one turns for the first authentic account of clinical tuberculosis. Phthisis, White Plague and Consumption, were the terms used to refer to tuberculosis. Sil and dique, these terms are considered synonyms by Unani (Greco-Arab) physicians. Sil being emaciation and dique means low grade fever which is one of the cardinal symptoms of the disease. The Unani (Greco-Arab) physicians were well aware about the disease "tuberculosis". It is evident from the description of the disease given by them, the predisposing and exciting causes of the disease, susceptibility of individuals to the disease and the clinical features. While going through the Unani literature, it seems to be that Unani physicians used to give more emphasis on the importance of the environmental factors and internal factors. The general constitutional treatments that have been advocated through centuries by Unani physicians and the emphasis on the treatment of diseases are intended to improve the resistance of the patient to successfully combat the disease pathology.
... From Hippocrates (460 B.C. to 370 B.C.), and the times of papyrus that has the records of ancient Egyptian medicine (c. 1600 B.C.) to modern day, physicians have described interesting cases involving all specialties [10]. In 1817 James Parkinson reported an article with the title "An essay on the shaking palsy", which lead to the discovery of the disease carrying the author"s name (Parkinson"s disease) [11]. ...
... Chillies did not feature in traditional Indian medicine or cooking before the arrival of the Portuguese (Figs. 5,6). Although Maricha is mentioned in the works o f Charaka and Susruta (around the time of Christ) as a medicinal plant, this refers to black pepper (Garrison, 1929) which is Piper nigrum. The ...
Capsaicin is the pungent extract of red-hot chilli peppers. Chillies were grown as early as 5000 BC in Mexico and have been used medicinally, for a variety of seemingly unrelated disorders, for thousands of years. Animal experiments have demonstrated that capsaicin blocks a C-fibre mediated micturition reflex in spinal cats. The aim of this study was to investigate its role in the treatment of detrusor hyperreflexia due to spinal cord disease. Intravesical instillations of 1-2 mmol/l of capsaicin, dissolved as a powder in 30% alcohol in saline, were effective in 70% of patients with refractory detrusor hyperreflexia. After initial deterioration in voiding symptoms capsaicin caused an increase in the functional bladder capacity and decrease in the amplitude of hyperreflexic detrusor contractions. The beneficial effect of a single instillation lasted for 3-6 months. Even after repeated instillations over 5 years there was no evidence of pre-malignant or malignant changes in biopsies from bladders thus treated. Suprapubic discomfort during instillations was reduced by the prior use of intravesical lignocaine (40ml of 2% for 20 mins) or by anaesthetising the bladder with iontophoresis of intravesical lignocaine (electromotive drug administration) before capsaicin. Cryostat sections of flexible cystoscopic biopsies before and 6 weeks after capsaicin treatment were stained with the neuronal markers S 100 and PGP 9.5. By using computerized image analysis of lamina propria nerve densities ('MiniMOP' for S 100 and 'Seescan' imaging for PGP 9.5) it was found that intravesical capsaicin caused a reduction in densities of the presumptive sensory suburothelial nerves. Early data using electron microscopy seemed to show a reduction in the densities of clear and dense cored vesicles after capsaicin treatment. These findings indicate that capsaicin causes a sensory denervation the bladder in these patients. Intravesical capsaicin is a significant advance in Uro-Neurology and is likely to lead to the application of other vanilloids, such as resiniferatoxin, in the treatment of detrusor hyperreflexia.
... Yahudi, Yunan ve Roma halkında yaygın olan bu rahatsızlığa, Avrupa'nın kuzeyinde 6'ncı ve 7'nci yüzyıllarda rastlanmaya başlanmıştır. 8'inci ve 14'üncü yüzyıllardaki yüksek artışın sebebi Haçlı Seferleri esnasındaki kitlesel hareketliliğe bağlanmıştır (Garrison 1929). Museviliğin kutsal kitabı ve tecrübeler, yönetimleri cüzzamlı hastaları izole etmek gerektiği yargısına götürmüştür (Eren 1996). ...
Yeryüzünün bilinen tarihinde insanlığın karşılaştığı büyük salgın hastalıklar, aynı zamanda sonuçları itibariyle büyük sosyal, siyasi, ticari ve ideolojik değişimlere vesile olmuştur. Her büyük salgın sonrası, insanlık kendisini yeniden kurgulayarak form değiştirmiştir. Hâlihazırda bütün insanlığı tehdit etmeye devam eden salgının da öncüllerine benzer şekilde büyük değişimleri tetiklediği değerlendirilmektedir. Çalışmanın konusu itibariyle insanlığın idrak edeceği en önemli değişimlerden birisi de bireysel dindarlık algıları ve dini bilginin üretim merkezleri olan dini yapılanmalarda gerçekleşecek gibi görünmektedir. Her büyük salgın, aynı zamanda büyük bir travma yarattığından, takip eden dönemde insanlığın anlam arayışı yeniden şekillenmektedir. Çalışmanın amacı, post-pandemik dönem olarak isimlendirilen salgın sonrası dönemde bireysel dindarlık yönelimleri ve dini bilginin üretim merkezleri olan dinlerle birlikte sırf dini grupların geleceği konusunda öngörülerde bulunmaktır. Bununla birlikte söz konusu dönemde devlet mekanizması tarafından bireyin artan anlam arayışı, değişen bireysel dindarlık algıları ve sırf dini grupların olası yeni yapılanmalarını dikkate almak suretiyle alınması gereken tedbirler ifade edilmeye çalışılmıştır.
Este libro redacta de forma sencilla los principios físicos para formar un tomografía.
According to the explicit admission of Western historians, Europe's scientific movement was inspired by the scientific movement of Muslims, and Europeans owe their scientific advancements to Islamic scholars! Based on the admissions of Western scholars, "When we consider the contributions of Muslims to Western culture, we see that science illuminated the West from the East!" Dr. Max Meyerhof states: "Muslim science was like the shining moon that illuminated the darkest nights of medieval Europe. As new sciences emerged, the moon faded in color, but it was that same moon that guided us through the dark nights to where we are now. We can say that its rays are still with us!" In the same book, we read: "In short, with the translation of Muslim scholars' books, Europe’s barren land was blessed with rainfall, making it fertile, and gradually Europeans became acquainted with Eastern sciences!" He writes: "Recent discoveries have shed new light on the ancient history of Islamic world sciences, but it must be admitted that these discoveries are still insufficient; the world will increasingly realize the significance of Islamic sciences in the future." Professor Gibb writes: "Looking back at the past, we see that the science and literature of the East acted like leavening for Western civilization, in such a way that the influence of Eastern spirit and thought illuminated the dark minds of people in past centuries in the West and led them to a broader world!" The famous Christian historian George Zaidan writes: "When Islamic civilization reached its full stage and foreign sciences were published in the lands of Islam, Muslims began to study them. A group of Islamic scholars, using their genius, surpassed the original owners of those sciences, adding new ideas and discoveries to them. Thus, the sciences and knowledge branched out, evolving and blending with Islamic culture and traditions, forming the shape of Islamic civilization." He writes: "From what we have said about the role of education in Islamic civilization, it is well understood that knowledge and science flourished in various directions among Muslims. Scholars, jurists, physicians, and philosophers brought forth their genius through this path."
Thyroidectomy is one of the most commonly performed operations in general surgery. Absolute indications include compression of the trachea and malignancy or suspicion of malignancy. Currently, an increasing number of “total thyroidectomies” are being performed in specialist endocrine surgery units, and the indications include multinodular goiter and Graves’ disease. Conventional (open) thyroidectomy has many advantages. There is no need to divide any muscle, except the platysma. This operation has a high success rate with negligible operative mortality and morbidity. Most of the procedures can be carried out through cervical incisions of 4–6 cm in length, in <90 min, with an excellent cosmetic result. The “flapless” conventional thyroidectomy is a safe and technically feasible surgical modality, which is therefore an effective alternative to conventional thyroidectomy. Many different techniques have been developed for minimally invasive thyroid surgery (MITS) over a short period; these can be broadly classified into minimally-invasive/mini-incision open surgery, minimally invasive video-assisted thyroidectomy (MIVAT), and pure/or completely closed endoscopic techniques (supraclavicular approach, axillary approach, anterior chest approach, and breast approach). However, some authors believe that the extra-cervical endoscopic approaches, while they have the advantage of avoiding a cervical incision, require extensive dissection that exceeds that of conventional surgery, and in this regard cannot be considered minimally invasive. This chapter describes the different thyroidectomy procedures and discusses the indications, advantages, and disadvantages of each.
Although there had been many previous inklings, the field of xenobiotic metabolism (as we know it today) began with an experiment reported in the 1841 literature proclaiming that the ingestion of benzoic acid led to the subsequent excretion of hippuric acid in human urine. A metabolic transformation undertaken by a living organism. One worker involved in the early stages of this discovery was Wilhelm Keller, although very little information about him is readily available. Hopefully, this article will go some way to counter this dearth and also highlight Keller's pioneering contribution in the development of the fields of drug metabolism and xenobiochemistry.
Do ważnych tekstów medycznych powstałych w XIX w. należy „Praktische Wahrnehmungen…” Józefa Dietla (1804-1878), lekarza urodzonego w zaborze austriackim w austriacko- -polskiej rodzinie i uważającego się za Polaka, ale publikującego przeważnie po niemiecku. Przez kilkanaście lat pracował w szpitalu na przedmieściach Wiednia, a potem został profesorem Uniwersytetu w Krakowie, a z czasem także prezydentem tego miasta. Większość artykułów Dietla to spostrzeżenia kliniczne. Inny charakter ma „Praktische Wahrnehmungen…” (1846), praca, w której Dietl zanegował dotychczasowe metody terapii i wytyczył nowe kierunki rozwoju medycyny naukowej, uważana za manifest nowej szkoły wiedeńskiej. Praca ta jest, poniżej, po raz pierwszy opublikowana w języku polskim
The waning of Egyptian civilization coincided with the early years of the Greek one, around the tenth century B.C. This lasted until 146 B.C., with the arrival of the Romans. City states divided the territory and were governed by local authorities. In Athens there was a democracy, in Macedonia a dictatorship and in Sparta military rule.
The author dwells in detail on the search in the medical literature of the nineteenth - twenty-first centuries for various options for describing the anatomy, physiology and pathological physiology of the appendix, as well as its acute inflammation, complicated course, the spectrum of principles of its treatment, as well as their outcomes from antiquity to the present day. At the same time, the emphasis is placed on the study of foreign literature reviews and the search for primary sources of priority works to identify historical facts described in previously unquoted works and unknown to domestic specialists, in order to familiarize domestic specialists in the history of medical science with important details of the formation of general surgery.There is a two-hundred-year period between the anatomical description of the appendix and the recognition that it is the appendix that is the focus of acute inflammatory disease in the lower right quadrant of the abdomen. This truth was not widely recognized until the publication of R. Fitz's work 120 years later. The disease of acute appendicitis has a social character and, apparently, influenced the course of history. A comparative analysis of the possibilities of treatment of acute appendicitis and their results allowed us to establish five stages in the history of the study of acute appendicitis
The Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries: Salient Events in Surgery and Plastic Surgery
Learned societies and scientific organizations are established in Italy, England, France, and Germany to coordinate and promote research and experiments.
Plastic surgery disappears almost completely. The arm flap procedure for nasal reconstruction is often reported in medical literature, but rarely practiced and becomes prey to charlatans and mockery. Readers enjoy curious and peculiar stories regarding the art of nasal reconstruction, in particular the use of the arm flap harvested from a servant instead of from the patient’s own arm.
W. Fabry von Hilden is one of the most talented German surgeons of the seventeenth century. His Opera omnia, issued in 1646, contains a series of unusual surgical cases and their treatment covering the entire field of surgery. Among them are scar contracture of the hand after a burn and the device to maintain the hand straight, breast cancer and axillary lymph node excision, removal of an iron splinter from the eye using a magnet, and upper arm lymphoedema.
Johannes Schultes publishes Armamentarium Chirurgicum (Surgical Armamentarium) in 1655, the most influential and successful textbook of surgery in the seventeenth century, with numerous plastic surgery procedures.
William Harvey publishes his discovery of blood circulation in 1628. As a result, physicians and scientists try to inject drugs into the bloodstream to carry them directly to various parts of the body, favoring the healing of wounds, curing diseases, and improving the quality of life. In 1654, Francesco Folli, an Italian physician practicing in Florence, conceives the idea of performing transfusions for ailing bodies recovering from sickness, favoring wound healing. However, the first attempt of blood transfusion in animals is attributed to Richard Lower, a British physician, who conducts experiments under the supervision of the Royal Society of London in 1665. Two years later, in 1667, Jean-Baptiste Denis practices the first animal-to-man transfusion in a 45-year-old man to relieve pain, ensuring longevity and introducing a youthful, healthy spirit into an old individual. The procedure is named chirurgia transfusoria (transfusory surgery), a technique that becomes quite popular in England, France, and Italy about 1667–1668. The drama occurs when Denis attempts a second transfusion in two patients who suddenly die. Blood transfusion is immediately discontinued.
In 1721, Tagliacozzi’s De Curtorum Chirurgia is reissued in Geneva, and two dissertations on nasal reconstruction are discussed in Uppsala and Paris, denoting an increasing interest in plastic and reconstructive surgery during the eighteenth century.
In Germany, Lorenz Heister publishes Chirurgie in 1718, one of the most important surgical tracts of the eighteenth century, with numerous plastic surgery procedures.
In France, Jean Louis Petit is one of the pioneers emphasizing the importance of mastectomy with concurrent excision of pectoralis muscle and axillary lymph nodes, in 1774.
Pierre-Joseph Desault is best remembered for the idea of wound debridement, the basis of reparative surgery in 1795.
KeywordsLearned societiesAccademia del CimentoAccademia de’ LinceiRoyal Society of LondonAcadémie Royal des SciencesAcademia Naturae CuriosorumGiovanni Battista CortesiCraniostenosisAthanasius KircherSympathetic noseKenelm DigbyPowder of sympathyBone graft; Fabricius ab AquapendenteGiulio CasserioFabry von HildenJohannes SchultesBlood transfusionLorenz HeisterJean Louis PetitRadical mastectomyPierre DesaultWound debridement
Warme Shoab Muzmin is a term which has been literally translated by the contemporary Unani physicians in an attempt to explain the disease
entity applicable to present day etymology. While going through literature, the term Warme Shoab Muzmin has not been mentioned as such but the
clinical features mentioned under the sual barid maddi, sual ratab and sual nazli muzmin as described by Ibn Sina, Jurjani and Azam khan are similar
to the clinical features found in Warme Shoab Muzmin (chronic bronchitis).1,2,3
Key words: Warme Shoab Muzmin; Chronic bronchitis; Unani medicine
Stroke is one of the most important and most feared conditions known to man. The threat of stroke is important to all people. What could be more devastating than to lose the ability to speak, move a limb, stand, talk, see, read, feel write or even think? This book brings together ideas, events and advances – the stories – before and during the 20th Century through the accounts of global experts in the field, many of them having been first-hand witnesses to progress. Focusing on selected stories of stroke, this book offers a readable summary of the most dramatic and extensive changes in knowledge about stroke and in caring for stroke patients. Of interest to anyone interested in neurosciences and for physicians caring for stroke patients, this book informs on moving forward, by looking to how we got to where we are.
Stroke is one of the most important and most feared conditions known to man. The threat of stroke is important to all people. What could be more devastating than to lose the ability to speak, move a limb, stand, talk, see, read, feel write or even think? This book brings together ideas, events and advances – the stories – before and during the 20th Century through the accounts of global experts in the field, many of them having been first-hand witnesses to progress. Focusing on selected stories of stroke, this book offers a readable summary of the most dramatic and extensive changes in knowledge about stroke and in caring for stroke patients. Of interest to anyone interested in neurosciences and for physicians caring for stroke patients, this book informs on moving forward, by looking to how we got to where we are.
Application of antisera to specimens for electron microscopic examination allowed recognition by aggregation of viral particles. The establishment of cellular pathology by Rudolf Ludwig Virchow was as important as the establishment of germ theory by Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch to understand the pathogenesis of disease, particularly viral diseases. The solution of aberrations of the compound microscope and the increased power of resolution brought about the need for improved methods of tissue preparation. Death from rabies, and it is virtually uniformly lethal, is one of the most horrifying deaths known to humankind. The importance of the distinction between chicken pox and smallpox had long‐term consequences for the individual and also signaled a shift in the basis of medical understanding. The microscope provided another means of solving the clinical conundrum of varicella versus variola in ambiguous cases. Virus‐induced cellular enlargement and intranuclear inclusions are associated with a disease of the newborn.
The first case of yellow fever in the Philadelphia 1793 outbreak was recognized in August by Benjamin Rush as the “bilious remitting yellow fever”. With the Philadelphia epidemic of 1793 as a dramatic backdrop, the details follow of how germ theory was proven and how the concepts of viral diseases, including yellow fever, were experimentally determined. For the first demonstration of a filterable agent in mammals, again the drive was commercial. Foot‐and‐mouth disease impaired cattle breeding and reduced milk production, bringing severe economic hardship to Prussian agriculture. Yellow fever was at once a political and commercial battle as well as a scientific matter. By 1900, several pieces of the puzzle were in place that would help to explain the spread of yellow fever. It was clear from the classic studies of the Yellow Fever Commission that transmission experiments had to be performed in human subjects.
In this paper we aim to acknowledge suicide both as a universality, omnipresent through various cultures and ages and always evoking potent reactions, as well as inspect its historical and geographical specificities. In particular, the historical transformation of discourse surrounding suicide in Europe is examined, including how judicial, religious, medical, psychological, literary, philosophical views, debates and writings on suicide have shaped the treatment of suicidality and the conceptualization of people with suicidal ideation. Parallels are drawn between past and current approaches to treatment and concerns regarding the depiction of suicide, while changes are examined within the context of and as a reflection of societal changes, both in terms of empathy and knowledge available, as well as grand social revolutions and dominant political regimes and orientations.
Do ważnych tekstów medycznych powstałych w XIX w. należy „Praktische Wahrnehmungen…” Józefa Dietla (1804-1878), lekarza urodzonego w zaborze austriackim w austriacko-polskiej rodzinie i uważającego się za Polaka, ale publikującego przeważnie po niemiecku. Przez kilkanaście lat pracował w szpitalu na przedmieściach Wiednia, a potem został profesorem Uniwersytetu w Krakowie, a z czasem także prezydentem tego miasta. Większość artykułów Dietla to spostrzeżenia kliniczne. Inny charakter ma „Praktische Wahrnehmungen…” (1846), praca, w której Dietl zanegował dotychczasowe metody terapii i wytyczył nowe kierunki rozwoju medycyny naukowej, uważana za manifest nowej szkoły wiedeńskiej. Praca ta jest, poniżej, po raz pierwszy opublikowana w języku polskim.
„Praktische Wahrnehmungen…” was written by Joseph Dietl (1804-1878), a doctor born in Austrian Partition of Poland. He worked in a hospital close Vienna. In the following years, he took a Chair of Therapy in Cracow. In „Praktische Wahrnehmungen…” (1846) he criticized all therapeutic methods and found some new ways to develop the diagnostics. This text was the manifesto of the New School of Vienna.
With this scholarly—and fascinating-paper, the Journal begins publication of a series of articles to commemorate our nations Bicentennial.
A long and winding road leads from the ideas of antiquity to today's knowledge of digestive processes. Much of what we take for granted, e.g. hydrochloric acid, pepsin, neurotransmitters, etc., was initially thought to be unbelievable, but eventually made possible several "revolutions" in the therapy of acid-associated diseases in the second half of the 20th century. (article in German language)
Hekim Bereket, Anadolu’da Türkçe yazılmış ilk tıp kitapları arasında olduğu kabul edilen Tuhfe-i Mübarizi adlı kitabında, tıbbın çeşitli alanlarında teorik ve pratik bilgiler vermiştir. Antik Dönem Tıbbının yapı taşı olan humoral patoloji kuramının temel alındığı bu kitapta, hastalık ve sağlık kavramlarını çeşitli modellerle açıklamıştır. Sağlığı korumak ve hastalığın kronik doğasıyla savaşmak için hastalık önleyici yaklaşımlara öncelik tanımıştır. Hastalık durumunun var olduğu iyileşme sürecinde, boşaltım tedavilerinden, farmasötik tedavi metotlarına dek geniş bir yelpaze sunmuştur. Bu eser vasıtasıyla; Antik Dönem’de temelleri belirgin bir şekilde atılan ve Orta Çağ’da Doğu’da gelişen tıp biliminin, Anadolu Selçukluları Dönemi’nden itibaren ve sonrasında kesinti görmeden ilerleme kaydettiği takip edilebilmektedir.
THE INFLUENCES OF MEDICINE OF ANTIQUITY ON THE MEDICAL PRACTICES OF PHYSICIAN BEREKET
ABSTRACT
Physician Bereket gave theoretical and practical information of various fields of medicine in his book titled Tufhe-i Mübarizi which is accepted as one of the first Turkish medicine books written in Anatolia. He explained the concepts of health and illness by using various models in this book in which the theory of humoral pathology that was the constituent of the medicine of antiquity is the basis. He gave priority to disease-preventive approaches to maintain good health and to fight against the chronic nature of disease. He presented a wide spectrum of treatment in the process of healing while disease condition lasts, from discharge treatments to pharmaceutical treatments. By this book, it can be seen that the medicine has been progressing continuously since antiquity when the foundations of medicine established, including the Anatolian Seljuk period and the Medieval period of Orient and later on.
The story of prehospital care is as old as the Bible. Over centuries, wartime has often spawned innovations in care and systems to deliver it. The pace of change quickened over the 50 years, or so. Investments, monetary and effort, have birthed and matured emergency medical services systems to take advantage of opportunities to intervene to improve outcomes for illness and injury.
Palpation is derived from the Latin word palpare, meaning to feel or touch [1]. The history of palpation of the precordium dates back to ancient Egyptian writings of the Ebers papyrus (c. 1550 BC) in which physicians were able to detect the pulsation of heart beat: “[I]f (…) any physician put his hands (or) his fingers [upon the head, upon the back of the] head, upon the two hands, upon the pulse, upon the two feet” [2, p. 41]. Furthermore, as translated by Breasted, the papyrus:
Prior to the advent of advanced imaging techniques, physicians devised a variety of physical examination maneuvers, described as signs of medical eponyms, as methods to detect lower extremity deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and pulmonary embolism (PE) or venothromboembolism (VTE). Eponyms are present in the medical literature because they often reflect a simpler and concise way of describing a phenomenon. They are honorific terms ascribed to individuals for their accomplishments, which may include identifying such things as a disease, structure, sign, test, procedure, syndrome, maneuver, medical device, or surgical technique. Eponyms are derived from the name of a person, but not necessarily the first, who reported, described, or significantly contributed to the clinical understanding of the occurrence. The use of eponyms remains controversial and important questions have been raised regarding their appropriateness. Although there have been instances where eponyms were abandoned, the remainder are by and large embedded within the established and contemporary medical literature making their disappearance unlikely.
Health sector reforms aimed at addressing fundamental problems in health care delivery, and also at preparing the ground for a National Health Service, are currently underway. The reform programme is crucially dependent on improving information flows and information management to facilitate resource planning, monitoring and evaluation. Medical record systems and their management are central to this process, and are here made the subject of review. The emphasis throughout is upon practical solutions that are appropriate to the Ghanaian situation. My purpose is to outline a framework for the development and management of a standardised, coherent medical record system. The state of the art in the creation, maintenance, use and final disposition of medical records is critically reviewed and evaluated with a view to recommending remedial measures and formulating research proposals that could contribute to the improvement of the existing system. The study is limited to selected government-run regional and teaching hospitals (6 in all). For purposes of data collection, the study relied on survey research and adopted the 'records life cycle' concept for its analysis. The study revealed that the problems inherent in the present record systems are due to the absence of sufficiently formalised policies, guidelines and procedures, and to the fact that those that exist are not properly enforced. It is argued that the causes of these deficiencies lie in a lack of accountability and lack of appropriate organisational and managerial structures. A second problem has been the paucity of essential resources; financial, material and human. The study is organised into three sections, each divided into a number of chapters. Section I outlines the context of the study and has three chapters: Introduction, Overview of the Ghana Health Service, and The Medical Record in Historical Perspective. Section II presents the case study and documents the findings of the research (Chapters 4, 5, 6, and 7). A detailed analysis of existing routines and procedures (making comparisons with working methods elsewhere, chiefly English and Scottish hospitals) is presented, painting a picture of the current condition of the function, and providing essential insights regarding the changes required. Section III has two chapters. Chapter 8 recapitulates in brief the key problems discussed in the case study and for which practical solutions are required in order to substantially improve the medical record function. This chapter further proposes solutions to the problems that require intervention at the institutional or operational level, and also to problems which require a strategic approach. Chapter 9 concludes the study and outlines the proposals for reforms presented in Chapter 8.
Tıp tarihi açısından incelendiğinde dünyada yaşanmış büyük pandemilerin olduğu ve bunların tıbbi, sosyal, etik ve ahlâki sonuçlarının ortaya çıktığı bilinmektedir. Hastalık etkeni kavramının geçmiş yüzyıllarda bilinmemesi nedeniyle bundan etkilenen toplumların korku, endişe ve panik içinde kaldığı, farklı değişimlerin yaşandığı görülmektedir. Ancak özellikle son 100 yıl içinde tıbbi teşhis ve tedavi olanaklarının artması sebebiyle hastalıkların geçmiş dönemdeki kadar etkin olmadığı fark edilmektedir. Buna rağmen 20. yüzyılda HIV ve AIDS, 21. yüzyılda SARS, MERS, Ebola gibi viral hastalıkların büyük sağlık sorunları oluşturduğu inkâr edilemez gerçektir. Son olarak Çin’in Hubei eyaleti Wuhan kentinde Aralık 2019 tarihinde başlayan ve COVID-19 olarak nitelendirilen viral bir salgın hastalığın hızla dünya geneline hızla yayılarak pandemi şekline dönüşmesi, pandemilerin tarihinin gidişatını değiştiren bir duruma sebep olmuştur. Görülmüştür ki, dünya hâlâ bu tür büyük sağlık sorunlarına karşı hazır değildir. Artan dünya nüfusunun da etkisiyle, hastalığın bulaştığı kitle sayısının yüksekliği ve ölümcül etkisinin yüksekliği yüzünden yetersiz kalan sağlık bakımının ve sosyal hizmetlerin bu hastalığın süreçlerinde bazı olumsuzluklara sebep olması yeni ve sorgulanması gereken bir dünya düzeninin varlığına işaret etmesi doğaldır. Yaşamış bütün pandemilerin sonrasında toplumların işlevsel yapısı derinden etkilenmiş, yeni değişimlerin ortaya çıkması kolaylaşmıştır. Aynı şekilde COVID-19 sonrasında da dünya genelinde ve birçok sektörde, çalışma ve mesleki alanda kalıcı değişimler ortaya çıkacaktır. Makalede, pandemi tarihindeki üç hastalığın kısa tarihsel öykülerine değindikten sonra, günümüzde yaşanan COVID-19 pandemisiyle birlikte değerlendirmesini tartışma ve sonuç bölümünde yapacağız.
Injury of the spinal cord has been known since antiquity. The spinal cord cannot be repaired. Treatment consists of preventing complications until the spine has stabilised and the patient can be rehabilitated to an independent life. Surgeons have concentrated upon carrying out an operation on the spine. There has been no improvement in treatment until the beginning of the 20th century. The development of treatment in the Ancient World and the Middle Ages until Paré is explored. After Paré medical traditions separated. In the 19th century the controversies over surgery in the United Kingdom between Cooper and Bell are described. The First World War led to the setting up of the first spinal unit in the United Kingdom with outstanding work by Head, Riddoch and Holmes. This work ceased and patients were looked after on a custodial basis at the Royal Star and Garter Home. The Second World War led to the development of modern treatment in the United Kingdom and Guttmann's role is evaluated. In the United States Munro developed the first spinal unit in 1936 and pioneered treatment. Initially Canada followed and then excelled the United States. In Germany, the leading country in Europe medically at the end of the 19th century, work started with Wagner and Kocher and was developed by the anatomical and physiological work of Foerster. The failure of treatment to evolve in Germany was due to the advent of the Nazi party with its policies of euthanasia, anti-intellectualism and anti-semitism. In France the descriptive work of Dupuytren, Duchenne and Charcot is presented. The therapeutic work of Dejerine and Marie, who set up the first French spinal units in the First World War, is evaluated. The failure of treatment to evolve is explored.
This historical review examined the onset of the vaccination method during the Ottoman Empire. Inoculation was performed in the regions of Thessaly, Macedonia, and Thrace using folk medicine as a measure against the spread of smallpox/variola infection. Greek physicians Emmanuel Timonis (1669–1720) and Jacobus Pylarinos (1659–1718) as well as several other Ottoman scientists of the Greek or Turkish descent pioneered the use and dissemination of variolation and the development of vaccination before or concurrently with Edward Jenner (1749–1823). During the 19th century in the Adrianople (Edirne) region and much earlier in Constantinople (İstanbul), vaccination programs used to be implemented as evidenced by various certificates distributed at that time. Ottoman vaccination documents from the early 20th century and the letter of Lady Mary Wortley Montagu (1689–1762), dated 1719, have been analyzed, which confirms the extensive use of the vaccination method. Smallpox was the first disease to have been treated with vaccination method. The difference between the Greek and Ottoman physicians and Edward Jenner lies in the fact that while the Greek and Ottoman physicians removed fluid from pustules of an infected person to perform inoculation, Edward Jenner removed fluid from pustules of infected cows, which is why Edward Jenner's method was coined vaccination (derived from the Latin word 'vacca' meaning 'cow'). Further, Turkish physicians Mustafa Behçet Efendi (1774–1834) and Sanizade Mehmed Ataullah Efendi (1771–1826) recommended the variolation method. It thus appears that the Ottomans provided care to all ethnicities of their Empire. Vaccines were initially used against smallpox, but the immunization program was eventually extended to other diseases.
In 1842, when John Goodsir was Conservator to the Museum of the RCSEd, he saw a 19-year-old male patient who vomited a large volume of acidic, fermented-smelling, watery fluid every morning. Under his microscope, Goodsir found the vomitus to be populated with a micro-organism he named Sarcina ventriculi, which he considered to be causative. In so-doing, Goodsir became one of the first people to link a specific micro-organism with a disease. Goodsir recommended small doses of creosote as an antiseptic and claimed that the boy was eventually cured of the vomiting condition. In August of 1863 Charles Darwin was hugely celebrated by the scientific community and the public, but he had suffered from severe stomach problems all his adult life and at this point, he was vomiting daily. He read Goodsir’s paper and contacted him and asked if he could send some vomitus samples to Edinburgh in the hope that Goodsir might find Sarcina in it and solve the mystery of his debilitating stomach symptoms and perhaps cure them with creosote. Goodsir examined samples in his microscope, but failed to find Sarcina. Sadly, Darwin went on to suffer constantly from severe stomach problems, recently attributed to lactose intolerance, until he died in 1882, some 20 years later.
Drawing on a wide range of primary historical and sociological sources and employing sharp philosophical analysis, this book investigates medical ethics from a Chinese-Western comparative perspective. In doing so, it offers a fascinating exploration of both cultural differences and commonalities exhibited by China and the West in medicine and medical ethics.
The book carefully examines a number of key bioethical issues in the Chinese socio-cultural context including: attitudes toward foetuses; disclosure of information by medical professionals; informed consent; professional medical ethics; health promotion; feminist bioethics; and human rights.
It not only provides insights into Chinese perspectives, but also sheds light on the appropriate methods for comparative cultural and ethical studies. Through his pioneering study, Jing-Bao Nie has put forward a theory of "trans-cultural bioethics," an ethical paradigm which upholds the primacy of morality whilst resisting cultural stereotypes, and appreciating the internal plurality, richness, dynamism and openness of medical ethics in any culture.
ResearchGate has not been able to resolve any references for this publication.