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Cross-Cultural Variation in Infant Motor Development
Abstract
Emphasis on early identification and remediation of abnormal movement patterns has encouraged pediatric therapists to look beyond pathology to normal development as a template for describing abnormal movement. The motor developmental sequence, an ordinal sequence which forms the basis for most developmental schedules, is frequently the criterion used for comparison of normal and abnormal development. These developmental schedules, however, have been standardized on western European and North American infants. Evidence from anthropological investigations suggests that considerable cross-cultural variation in motor development exists. The intent of this paper is to present specific culturally related examples of motor developmental variation and discuss the possible relationship of infant care practices, environmental stresses and selective factors on early motor behavior. In some cases, variation from North American infants care practices is striking, as is the motor precocity described in some African infants. Knowledge of culturally based developmental variation can be useful fro pediatric therapists who work in a multi-cultural environment and who wish to broaden their repertoire of intervention techniques.
... The children underwent a physiotherapeutic assessment carried out by an experienced paediatric physiotherapist. The normalisation of the distribution of muscle tone was indirectly assessed through the evaluation of the development of spontaneous motor skills by the development tables compiled by the Munich Functional Developmental Diagnostic (MFDD) [17,[22][23][24]. Due to the fact that all study participants exhibited minor impairment of spontaneous motor skills, consisting in the support and extension function being absent or inadequate for their age, the children underwent a one-time therapy session that included the stimulation of the breast zone-phase 1 of reflex rolling-according to the Vojta approach [17]. ...
... Therapy according to the Vojta approach allows physiotherapists to carry out a subjective assessment of the motor pattern by comparing the pattern exhibited by the child with the reference standard described in the literature [24]. Through the activation of postural muscles, the therapy influences the qualitative aspect of motor development in neonates, infants, and children. ...
... Through the activation of postural muscles, the therapy influences the qualitative aspect of motor development in neonates, infants, and children. The appropriate quality of the motor pattern is crucial for the healthy postural development of the child, marked by the acquisition of consecutive motor skills [2,23,24]. Normal body posture reflects the even distribution of muscle tone, which guarantees postural balance and goal-directed stepping movement [17,26]. ...
The aim of this study was to assess if there are any objective changes in the viscoelastic parameters of the erector spinae muscle after Vojta stimulation. The study involved 22 healthy children at an average age of 7 months and with an Apgar score of 8–10 points, who were referred for rehabilitation due to a slight delay in the phases of psychomotor development. The first group consisted of 11 children with increased muscle tone (IMT) and the second group consisted of 11 children with non-increased muscle tone (nonIMT). All study participants received a one-time Vojta therapy session, which was continued for 4 weeks by parents at home. The viscoelastic parameters of the dorsal extensor muscle were measured three times. In the first study group, changes in the viscoelastic parameters of the extensor muscles of the back occurred immediately after the therapy at the first examination, whereas changes in the supporting and extensor function of the limbs occurred in both groups at the second examination. Analysis featuring an objective assessment allows physiotherapists to diagnose local changes in the viscoelastic parameters after the implementation of therapy. These studies are the first pilot studies to be continued with a 30- or 60-day follow-up.
... in motor development are likely due to a variety of cultural effects (e.g., Brill, 1986; Cintas, 1988; Solomons, 1982; Super, 1976; Werner, 1972 ), namely, factors associated with child-rearing practices and family characteristics. In this study, we documented the developmental course of motor behavior in Brazilian infants over the first 12 months of postnatal life and examined the comparison with a popular North American norm, the Bayley Scales of Infant Development I1 (Bayley, 1993 ). ...
... This month had 3 items below 15% in the sitting and grasping GOMs. The percentage of passing in the group of sitting was the lowest (25%), followed by walking (32%), ungrouped (36%), and grasping (38%)., Ainsworth, 1967; Brill, 1986; Cintas, 1988; Geber, 1957; Hopkins & Westra, 1989; Kilbride, 1980; Super, 1976) and, we predicted, were quite likely in our study. Brazil is considered a Third World country, which suggests a lower level of parent education and prenatal-infant care. ...
... in motor development are likely due to a variety of cultural effects (e.g., Brill, 1986;Cintas, 1988;Solomons, 1982;Super, 1976;Werner, 1972), namely, factors associated with child-rearing practices and family characteristics. In this study, we documented the developmental course of motor behavior in Brazilian infants over the first 12 months of postnatal life and examined the comparison with a popular North American norm, the Bayley Scales of Infant Development I1 ( Bayley, 1993). ...
... A estimulação precoce e regular que o ambiente da casa familiar proporciona às crianças jovens tem provado vezes sem conta a sua importância na modelação do desenvolvimento motor infantil (e.g., Abbott et al., 2000;Cintas, 1988; Parks & Bradley, 1991). Neste contexto, a quantidade e qualidade das oportunidades ...
... A estimulação precoce e regular que o ambiente da casa familiar proporciona às crianças jovens tem provado vezes sem conta a sua importância na modelação do desenvolvimento motor infantil (e.g., Abbott et al., 2000;Cintas, 1988;Parks & Bradley, 1991 (affordances) motoras revestem-se da maior importância no espaço-tempo de desenvolvimento da criança. Embora a interpretação do termo affordances possa ser algo diversa, aquela a que nos referimos é de uma natureza mais geral. ...
Resumo O AHEMD, (Affordances in the Home Environment for Motor Development), fruto da colaboração entre os laboratórios de desenvolvimento motor do Instituto Politécnico de Viana do Castelo e da Texas A&M University (EUA), é um instrumento adequado à idade das crianças e que permite uma avaliação simples, rápida, e eficaz das oportunidades (affordances) para o desenvolvimento motor na casa de família. A possibilidade do AHEMD poder ser utilizado indistintamente por famílias com crianças de ambos os sexos, é uma das preocupações e objectivos deste projecto. Neste artigo apresentamos um estudo piloto para testar formalmente se a sensibilidade estrutural do AHEMD e as suas propostas de classificações, resistem à prova da avaliação de casas habitadas por crianças de sexo diferente (199 de rapazes e 165 de raparigas). Os resultados encontrados permitem-nos inferir da invariância do modelo estrutural e de medida do AHEMD entre estes dois grupos, bem como obter sinais bastante positivos da sua sensibilidade (quanto ao género da criança) na avaliação das affordances motoras. Casas de rapazes e raparigas apresentam pequenas diferenças nos perfis médios das affordances motoras, provavelmente influenciadas pela esteoriotipia das decisões famiiares quanto ao género dos filhos, no entanto mantêm um tipo idêntico de organização dessas mesmas affordances na casa, o que potencia a utilização do AHEMD, independentemente do género da criança que nela habita. Palavras-chave AHEMD; diferenças sexo; avaliação; affordances; invariância A estimulação precoce e regular que o ambiente da casa familiar proporciona às crianças jovens tem provado vezes sem conta a sua importância na modelação do desenvolvimento motor infantil (e.g., Abbott et al., 2000; Cintas, 1988; Parks & Bradley, 1991). Neste contexto, a quantidade e qualidade das oportunidades
... 9 10 Given the high poverty exposure of children from low-income and middle-income countries (LMICs), 1 11 it is generally assumed that children from LMICs develop more slowly than their peers from more advantaged nations in the first years of their life, and that these early developmental deficits have large individual and societal costs in the long run. 2 3 12 The presumed negative relationship between country income and early childhood development (ECD) is contrasted by a large body of work from cross-cultural psychology documenting that children from sub-Saharan Africa and other low-income country settings develop specific basic motor skills substantially earlier than children in high-income settings. 13 and resource access may be more important for early development than local income levels. 18 A recent study assessing samples of healthy, hospital-born children in four middle-income countries found remarkably small differences in the age at which children attained early motor and language milestones. ...
... For example, children in Ghana and Lebanon appear to learn to walk before children in high-income settings; similar early advantages in physical skills have been documented in the cross-cultural psychology literature. [13][14][15][16][17] Maybe more surprisingly, children in the Pakistani site were reported to say their first words before children in higher HDI sites, and using short sentences was reported slightly earlier in Ghana than in the US sample. Even though this latter difference may to some extent be driven by how sentences are constructed in local languages (primarily Dagbani in the study area), it seems important to highlight that the ages at which children attain individual motor and language milestones are not always linked to the overall economic development of their given setting. ...
Objective
To compare early motor and language development of children <3 years of age growing up in high-income and low-income contexts.
Design
Cross-sectional study.
Setting
We analysed differences in motor and language skills across study sites in Cambodia, Chile, Ghana, Guatemala, Lebanon, Pakistan, the Philippines and the USA.
Main outcome measure
Cognitive and language development assessed with the Caregiver Reported Early Development Instruments (CREDI) tool.
Results
4649 children aged 0–35 months (mean age=18 months) were analysed. On average, children in sites with a low Human Development Index (HDI) had 0.54 SD (95% CI –0.63 to –0.44) lower CREDI motor scores and 0.73 SD (95% CI –0.82 to –0.64) lower language scores than children growing up in high HDI sites. On average, each unit increase in national log income per capita was associated with a 0.77-month (95% CI –0.93 to 0.60) reduction in the age of motor milestone attainment and a reduction in the age of language milestone attainment of 0.55 months (95% CI –0.79 to –0.30). These observed developmental differences were not universal: no developmental differences across sites with highly heterogeneous socioeconomic contexts were found among children growing up in households with highly educated caregivers providing stimulating early environments.
Conclusion
Developmental gaps in settings with low HDI are substantial on average, but appear to be largely attributable to differences in family-level socioeconomic status and caregiving practices. Programmes targeting the most vulnerable subpopulations will be essential to reduce early life disparities and improve long-run outcomes.
... in motor development are likely due to a variety of cultural effects (e.g., Brill, 1986;Cintas, 1988;Solomons, 1982;Super, 1976;Werner, 1972), namely, factors associated with child-rearing practices and family characteristics. ...
... As indicated earlier, differences in the pattern of motor development of infants from various countries have been reported (e.g., Ainsworth, 1967;Brill, 1986;Cintas, 1988;Geber, 1957;Hopkins & Westra, 1989;Kilbride, 1980;Super, 1976) and, we predicted, were quite likely in our study. Brazil is considered a Third World country, which suggests a lower level of parent education and prenatal-infant care. ...
... Including children in every day activities by all the people taking care of them allowed for the development of self-service skills based on manual functions. Abbot andBartlet (1999) in their research observe that activities supported and promoted by parents are achieved and used by children faster, which is also confirmed by own research33 .Cintas (1989) also analyzes the impact of the home environment on the development of skills in early life and proves the possibility of environmental influence as a modifier of socially acceptable behavior for a given region of the world14,43 . Own research confirms the possibility of modifying behavior through organized multi-level therapeutic activities. ...
Life-limiting conditions often cause children to be overlooked as participants in everyday activities. For parents child development should lead to independence in daily living activity. For parents of children who are disabled, independence is a step to a better quality of a child’s life. The aim of the study was to examine the effectiveness of functional intervention of self-service activities in children with life-limiting conditions at the age of 3–6 years of life. 32 children aged 3–6 years (N = 32, girls and boys) were followed for two years. The Progress Assessment Chart of Personal and Social Development (PPAC) H.C Gunzburg according to Witkowski inventory was used to assess. After two years of functional intervention, statistically significant improvement in everyday activities was observed in examining group. The control group showed less progress than the study group, even though the children in the control group were older. Functional intervention allows for effective work with a patient with life-limited conditions. Better progress was observed in the younger group, subjected to therapy for the existence of developmental potential occurring in children with limitations in intellectual development.
... A estimulação precoce e regular que a casa proporciona às crianças jovens tem provado vezes sem conta a sua importância na modelação do desenvolvimento motor infantil (e.g., Abbott & Bartlett, 1999;Lester & Brazelton, 1982), bem como os espaços existentes na casa (Bornstein, 1989), os tipos de revestimentos dos solos (texturas), a existência de escadas e desníveis (Adolph & Avolio, 2000;Gibson et al., 1987;Thelen & Smith, 1994), e a temperatura (Benson, 1993;Hayashi, 1990;Iwata, 1991). A presença e a variedade de brinquedos e jogos demonstraram ser uma condição ambiental estimuladora do desenvolvimento das habilidades motoras infantis (e.g., Bober, Humphry, Carswell, & Core, 2001;Parks & Bradley, 1991;Provasi & Lequien, 1993), tal como as práticas parentais (culturais e familiares), as expectativas que lhes estão naturamente associadas (e.g., Cintas, 1988;Dewey, Fleming, Golding, & ALSPAC Study Team, 1988;Santos, Gabbard, & Gonçalves, 2001), e a maior ou menor liberdade de movimentos proporcionada pela roupa (Hayashi, 1992). ...
As crianças apresentam variações individuais nos seus níveis de desenvolvi-mento que não podem ser explicadas apenas pelas influências genéticas e de ritmo maturacional. Na possível explicação deste fenómeno as influências ambientais, e mais especificamente o ambiente vivenciado na casa (habitação familiar) tem vindo a ter cada vez maior protagonismo. Durante o último meio século a comunidade cientí-fica empenhou-se activamente na tentativa de mapear as relações entre a casa e Resumo Nos últimos 40 anos a investigação em desenvolvimento humano tem devo-tado um enorme esforço na tentativa de decifrar as relações entre o ambien-te familiar e aspectos selectivos do percurso de desenvolvimento da criança. Entre as influências ambientais que são vistas como factores determinantes para este percurso, poucos duvidarão de que a casa de família cumpre um papel relevante como primeiro agente proporcionador de contextos para apren-dizagem e desenvolvimento nas primeiras idades. Apesar de alguns dos mais notáveis instrumentos utilizados nesta área possuírem na sua estrutura itens associados com o desempenho ou estimulação motora (veja-se o caso do HOME Inventory de Caldwell e Bradley, 1984), continuava a faltar uma medi-da válida que possibilitasse avaliar a casa familiar na sua relação própria com o desenvolvimento motor infantil. O projecto AHEMD, (Affordances in the Home Environment for Motor Development), fruto da colaboração entre os laboratórios de desenvolvimento motor do Instituto Politécnico de Viana do Castelo e da Texas A&M University (EUA), aparece com o objectivo explí-cito de preencher essa lacuna.
... Studies of parental investment have demonstrated that parents can accelerate the age of acquisition of walking by stimulating infants (e.g., leg exercises, aided walking; Gould, 1977;Thelen, 1985). Moreover, contemporary populations vary in the timing of important locomotor events such as the acquisition of independent gait, often based on cultural practices (Cintas, 1989). ...
The Border Cave 3 (BC3) infant skeleton has been understudied, despite its importance as an example of a well-preserved and fairly complete immature skeleton of early Homo sapiens which potentially provides a rare window into various aspects of ontogenetic development, including locomotor activity (e.g., timing of gait events). Trabecular structure in the BC3 ilium was evaluated to investigate whether it matches that of an equivalently aged infant from a postindustrialized society. Microcomputed tomography (μCT) scans were acquired from the BC3 infant and from an ontogenetic series of 25 postindustrial infants that were divided into three age classes (ACs) ranging from neonates to toddlers (<36 months). All ilia were qualitatively compared and then digitally subdivided into 10 volumes of interest (VOIs) based on anatomical reference points. The VOIs were quantified and ontogenetic differences in trabecular structure were statistically evaluated. Across the comparative ontogenetic series, trabecular architectural properties overlapped in all regions. However, trabecular thickness increased significantly after the first year of life. The BC3 infant demonstrated generally similar trabecular structure to that observed in the age-equivalent postindustrial infants (AC2), including relatively strong development of the trabecular chiasma qualitatively. However, some interesting distinctions were observed in BC3, such as low strut thickness compared with infants from the postindustrial sample, that bear further exploration in future studies. Evaluation of only one individual from the Middle Stone Age (MSA), coupled with the relatively small comparative sample, limit our ability to distinguish more meaningful biological differences in trabecular structure throughout ontogeny from idiosyncratic characteristics. Nonetheless, results of this study extend ongoing research on infant locomotor and morphological development to archeological populations in the Middle Stone Age. Further cross-cultural studies consisting of larger comparative postindustrial samples may provide additional information on trabecular structure in the infant ilium during this important developmental timeframe.
... Cultural context and social and physical environmental aspects influence motor development and motor competence (Adolph, Karasik, & Tamis-Lemonda, 2010;Venetsanou & Kambas, 2010). Although the basic motor functions, including manual, postural, and locomotor skills, are commonalities in different cultures (Adolph et al., 2010), there is clear evidence that considerable cross-cultural variation in motor development exists and that the context in which a child is reared is essential (Cintas, 1989;Hopkins & Westra, 1988, 1990. Bardid et al. (2015) compared the motor competence of children, aged 6 to 8 years, from Australia and Belgium, and revealed significant cross-cultural difference in motor scores by the use of the Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder (KTK) with the Australian children displaying significantly poorer performance. ...
Motor development is affected by maturation and growth but also influenced by the specific environmental and cultural context. Therefore, cross-cultural research can provide information about how different cultural contexts, lifestyles, and physical activity contexts can influence the process of developing motor competence. The purpose of this study was to evaluate aspects of motor competence among children from different cultural backgrounds. The sample of 463 children from 6 to 8 years consisting of 132 Greek children (52.3 % boys), 126 Italian children (53.9 % boys), and 205 Norwegian children (52.7) completed the Test of Motor Competence (TMC) including two fine motor tasks—Placing Bricks and Building Bricks—and two gross motor tasks—Heel to Toe Walking and Walking/Running in Slopes. The results indicate that the Norwegian children performed better in all tests; the differences were statistically significant in all four tasks compared with Italian children and in two tasks compared with the Greek children (Building Bricks and Heel to Toe Walking). Greek children performed significantly better than the Italians in two tasks: Placing Bricks and Heel to Toe Walking. Italian children were significantly faster than the Greek ones in one task: Walking/Running in Slopes. The differences in terms of levels of basic fine and gross motor skills between children from the different countries may be a consequence of both different physical activity contexts and cultural policies, attitudes, and habits toward movement.
... Two considerations might affect dissimilarities in the structural validity of the MABC-2 test examined in these studies. First, there may be cross-cultural variations in motor development, as reported in infants (Cintas, 1989) and preschoolers (Venetsanou & Kambas, 2010). Second, there may be variations in how well particular motor tasks (test items) contribute to the assessment of presumed latent motor components of motor competency. ...
The Movement Assessment Battery for Children—2nd Edition (MABC-2) is a test of motor development, widely used in clinical and research settings. To address which motor abilities are actually captured by the motor tasks in the two age versions of the MABC-2, the AB2 for 7- 10-year-olds and the AB3 for 11- 16-year-olds, we examined AB2 and AB3 factorial validity. We conducted confirmatory factor analysis (SPSS AMOS 22.0) on data from the test’s standardization samples of children aged 7–10, n = 483, and 11–16, n = 674, in order to find the best fitting models. The covariance matrix of AB2 and AB3 fit a three-factor model that included tasks of manual dexterity, aiming and catching, and balance. However, factor analytic models fitting AB2 and AB3 did not involve the dynamic balance tasks of hopping with the better leg and hopping with the other leg; and the drawing trail showed very low factor validity. In sum, both AB2 and AB3 of the MABC-2 test are able to discriminate between the three specific motor abilities; but due to questionable psychometric quality, the drawing trail and hopping tasks should be modified to improve the construct validity for both age versions of the MABC-2.
... The percentage of passing in the group of sitting was the lowest (25%), followed by walking (32%), ungrouped (36%), and grasping (38%). , Ainsworth, 1967; Brill, 1986; Cintas, 1988; Geber, 1957; Hopkins & Westra, 1989; Kilbride, 1980; Super, 1976) and, we predicted, were quite likely in our study. Brazil is considered a Third World country, which suggests a lower level of parent education and prenatal-infant care. ...
This investigation of the motor development characteristics of Brazilian infants during the Ist year of postnatal life compared the findings with those of a widely used U.S. sample (N. Bayley, 1993). Analysis of the 12 monthly assessments indicated that Brazilian infants' scores increased with age, with the greatest increase occurring over the first 8 months. As a general comparison, the results are similar to the U.S. patterns of development. However, the Brazilian sample exhibited mean scores significantly lower than the U.S. sample's in the 3rd, 4th, and 5th months. More specific analyses indicated that the difference within these months was on tasks of sitting and grasping. Possible explanations for the differences focus on variations in child-rearing practices and the influence of biological maturation in early movement behaviors.
... Nevertheless, general as well as specific criticism has been articulated. General criticism concerns the applicability of tests that were developed and standardized with Western samples to be used with other cultural/ethnic samples (e.g., Cintas, 1988; Greenfield, 1997). Ogunnaike and Houser (2002) demonstrated a more specific concern when they showed that the Bayley scores were not related to culture-appropriate achievements (e.g., running errands) in Nigerian children. ...
Based on longitudinal data, this study compared the gross and fine motor development of Cameroonian Nso children and German middle-class children with assessments at 3, 6, 9, and 40 months. A total of 345 infants from Cameroon (n = 73) and Germany (n = 272) were recruited for this study. Complete longitudinal gross and fine motor assessments based on the Bayley Scales of Infant Development III were available for subsamples of the originally recruited children. As the results show, the predictability of the 40-months assessments from the previous assessments at 3, 6, and 9 months was low. The early gross motor differences between the Cameroonian and the German children decreased across age. Although the differences had disappeared at 40 months at the Bayley scale level, differences at the item level were still substantial. In contrast to gross motor development, the cultural differences regarding fine motor development increased from 3 to 40 months. This increase was not only shown at the scale level but also reflected at the item level. The developmental pattern is discussed with regard to possible consequences for using developmental tests in different cultural contexts.
... A estimulação precoce e regular que a casa proporciona às crianças jovens tem provado vezes sem conta a sua importância na modelação do desenvolvimento motor infantil (e.g., Abbott & Bartlett, 1999; Lester & Brazelton, 1982), bem como os espaços existentes na casa (Bornstein, 1989), os tipos de revestimentos dos solos (texturas), a existência de escadas e desníveis (Adolph & Avolio, 2000; Gibson et al., 1987; Thelen & Smith, 1994), e a temperatura (Benson, 1993; Hayashi, 1990; Iwata, 1991). A presença e a variedade de brinquedos e jogos demonstraram ser uma condição ambiental estimuladora do desenvolvimento das habilidades motoras infantis (e.g., Abbott & Bartlett, 2000; Bober, Humphry, Carswell, & Core, 2001; Parks & Bradley, 1991; Provasi & Lequien, 1993), tal como as práticas parentais (culturais e familiares), as expectativas que lhes estão naturamente associadas (e.g., Cintas, 1988; Dewey, Fleming, Golding, & ALSPAC Study Team, 1988; Santos, Gabbard, & Gonçalves, 2001), e a maior ou menor liberdade de movimentos proporcionada pela roupa (Hayashi, 1992). ...
... in motor development are likely due to a variety of cultural effects (e.g., Brill, 1986; Cintas, 1988; Solomons, 1982; Super, 1976; Werner, 1972), namely, factors associated with child-rearing practices and family characteristics. ...
This investigation of the motor development characteristics of Brazilian infants during the 1st year of postnatal life compared the findings with those of a widely used U.S. sample (N. Bayley, 1993). Analysis of the 12 monthly assessments indicated that Brazilian infants' scores increased with age, with the greatest increase occurring over the first 8 months. As a general comparison, the results are similar to the U.S. patterns of development. However, the Brazilian sample exhibited mean scores significantly lower than the U.S. sample's in the 3rd, 4th, and 5th months. More specific analyses indicated that the difference within these months was on tasks of sitting and grasping. Possible explanations for the differences focus on variations in child-rearing practices and the influence of biological maturation in early movement behaviors.
Background
The Alberta Infant Motor Scale (AIMS) is a widely used screening tool used to measure gross-motor maturation for clinical and research usage in various countries. A cross-cultural translation and adaptation process is essential to produce reliable and applicable translated assessment tools.
Aims
The purposes of this cross-sectional study were to obtain the Alberta Infant Motor Scale Thai version and to determine its reliability, validity, and applicability.
Methods
The process of translation and cultural adaptation of the AIMS Thai version was performed. The conceptual, semantic, and idiomatic equivalences of the language of the AIMS Thai version were strictly reviewed by committee. The intra-rater/inter-rater reliabilities and concurrent validity with the Bayley III were examined in 30 full-term typically developing infants. Then, 19 infants from an orphanage and 23 typically developing infants were assessed using the final translated version of the AIMS.
Results
The AIMS Thai version was generated systematically. Two therapists showed high intra-rater reliability using the Thai AIMS with an ICC of 0.995 (95% CI 0.989–0.998) and 0.979 (95%CI 0.919–0.992), and the inter-rater reliability was 0.988 (95%CI 0.976–0.994). The concurrent validity of the AIMS Thai version and the Bayley III was 0.969 (p < 0.01). The AIMS percentile of gross-motor development of orphaned infants (94.7%) were equal or lower than the 5th percentile, while the AIMS percentile of home-raised infants ranged from the 5th to the 90th percentile.
Conclusion
The translated and adapted AIMS Thai version is reliable and valid to use in Thai infants.
Changes in long bone strength associated with the onset of bipedal walking in humans have been previously documented in a longitudinal growth sample. However, it is unclear if this transition can be detected using archaeological, cross-sectional data, which likely encompass more cultural and biological variation than a single dataset of living children. Focusing on variation in cross-sectional polar second moment of area, we evaluate the ratios of femoral, tibial, and humeral strength in seven temporally diverse samples of individuals from birth to the age of eighteen years (n = 501), with subsequent comparisons to immature Late Pleistocene fossils. Using these samples, we determine whether changes related to the developmental onset of bipedality can be detected in a large, multi-population sample, test for differences in long bone strength ratios among Holocene groups that may indicate developmental differences in the onset of walking, and determine whether immature Late Pleistocene samples follow the same patterns as modern humans.
Despite great variation within the Holocene sample, clear changes in these ratios are apparent around the age of the onset of walking. Humeral-to-femoral strength increases briefly prior to the age of one, with a sharp decline in relative humeral strength thereafter until age four. A similar pattern is apparent in the ratio of humeral/tibial and femoral/tibial strength. While the general pattern is consistent across all human groups sampled, these ratios vary by skeletal population, which seems to be closely related to variation in tibial length among samples. Although the extremely small fossil sample makes differences difficult to interpret, Neandertals also differ from both Late Pleistocene and Holocene modern humans in their strength ratios. Further research in this area may provide additional information about the skeletal impact of the onset of walking in the past and in additional fossil taxa.
The achievement of human bipedal ambulation is the result of a coming together of many critical factors through a variety of pathways. Not the outcome of a single developmental sequence, it is a multisystem phenomenon based on the interaction of evolutionary pressures, biological competence, environmental facilitators and constraints, neuromusculoskeletal maturation, and culturally related care practices. The objective of this paper is to integrate and critically evaluate known factors that contribute to the shaping of this motor skill from its fetal origins to its mature form at age 4 to 5 years. Limited emphasis is placed on gait morphology, which is well known; rather, a systems approach to gait development illustrates how some factors facilitate the gait progression, while others constrain it. This interaction is the basis for the U-shaped developmental curve described by the appearance, disappearance, and reappearance of bipedalism, which characterizes human ambulation.
The assessment of motor abilities is important to identify atypical development, to measure progress obtained with intervention, and for research. Motor assessment usually is based on the use of standardized tests, on which children are expected to perform specific tasks that are deemed common. As the majority of the motor development tests were created by researchers from European and North American countries, concepts from these cultures are embedded in the tasks, materials, and format of the instruments. This raises the question as to whether these instruments can be used internationally, with the perhaps misguided assumption that motor skill development is the same across different countries. Is it necessary to adapt standardized motor ability tests for cross-cultural use? This paper discusses the relationship between culture and motor development and points out some aspects that should be considered to make our assessment of motor ability more relevant cross-culturally.
The objectives of this article are to examine theoretical views regarding the appearance and disappearance of primitive reflexes and to dsicuss their implications for therapeutic intervention. According to the traditional view, primitive reflexes are inhibited or integrated by highher central nervous system centers. After central nervous system (CNS) damage, these primitive reflexes are released from inhibition by higher centers. This view implies a model of CNS organization for motor control that is hierachially organized. Alternatively, according to the more contemporary systems view, the development of reflexive and volitional behavior is the results of an interaction of central and external environmental influences. Research on primitive stepping indicates that such factors as decreased body mass and practice can contribute to the prolonged retention of this reflex. The systems view implies a distributed control model on CNS motor control in which peripheral and CNS factors participate in the control of movement. if environmental demands can alter reflexive as well as volitional movement, then then traditional view of the relationship between primitive and pathological reflexes is challenged. The systems view and implied distributed control of the CNS should lead therapists to reassess their treatment rationales.
The purpose of this study was to examine the performance of Asian American infants on the Movement Assessment of Infants (MAI). The sample consisted of 30 full-term 6-month-old Asian American infants. These infants tended to have slightly slower integration of some primitive reflexes and to acquire automatic reactions and volitional motor skills at a slightly different rate than the predominantly Caucasian group of infants in a previous study. When the Washington and Deitz 6-Month Profile was used with the Asian American infants, 40% of them were identified as having risk scores higher than any of the infants in the Washington and Deitz study. This occurred even though the Asian American infants were full term, with unremarkable birth histories and, according to parent report, had no developmental concerns identified by either a parent or a health care provider. This finding suggests that clinicians should be cautious when using the MAI 6-Month Profile to assess Asian American infants.
“Growing pains” remains the stubborn yet unsatisfactory label for a form of recurrent limb pain in otherwise healthy children who have no history or evidence of local injury or disease. .... [See full commentary on selection of papers -]
Purpose:
The development and testing of a measure evaluating the quality and variability in the home environment as it relates to the motor development of infants during the first year of life.
Methods:
A sample of 112 boys and 95 girls with a mean age of 7.1 months (SD 1.8) and GA of 39.6 weeks (SD 1.5) participated in the study. The measurement development process was divided into three phases: measurement development (item generation or selection of items from existing measurement tools), pilot testing to determine acceptability and feasibility to parents, and exploratory factor analysis to organize items into meaningful concepts. Test-retest reliability and internal consistency were also determined.
Results:
The environmental opportunities questionnaire (EOQ) is a feasible 21-item measure comprised of three factors including opportunities in the play space, sensory variety and parental encouragement. Overall, test-retest reliability was 0.92 (CI 0.84-0.96) and the internal consistency is 0.79. The EOQ emphasizes quality of the environment and access to equipment and toys that have the potential to facilitate early motor development.
Conclusion:
The preliminary analyses reported here suggest more work could be done on the EOQ to strengthen its use for research or clinical purposes; however, it is adequate for use in its current form. Implications for Rehabilitation New and feasible 21-item questionnaire that enables identification of malleable environmental factors that serve as potential points of intervention for children that are not developing typically. Therapeutic tool for use by therapists to inform and guide discussions with caregivers about potential influences of environmental, social and attitudinal factors in their child's early development.
The effect of prenatal cocaine exposure on the neuromotor outcome of infants has been investigated through animal research, neurophysiological studies of neonates, and longitudinal follow-up of exposed infants. The inconsistency in reported findings may reflect methodological problems as well as variations among study populations and individual infants. Several studies using the Movement Assessment of Infants (MAI) have reported significant differences in motor performance at four months of age in infants who were cocaine-exposed prenatally, but specific clinical findings vary. A review of relevant work is presented here with a discussion of issues and variables which must be considered in an evaluation of the neuromotor consequences of intrauterine cocaine exposure for the developing infant.
Motor development, which allows infants to explore their environment, promoting cognitive, social, and perceptual development, can be influenced by cultural practices and nutritional factors, such as iron deficiency. This study compared fine and gross motor development in 209 9-month-old infants from urban areas of China, Ghana, and USA (African-Americans) and considered effects of iron status. Iron deficiency anemia was most common in the Ghana sample (55%) followed by USA and China samples. Controlling for iron status, Ghanaian infants displayed precocity in gross motor development and most fine-motor reach-and-grasp tasks. US African-Americans performed the poorest in all tasks except bimanual coordination and the large ball. Controlling for cultural site, iron status showed linear trends for gross motor milestones and fine motor skills with small objects. Our findings add to the sparse literature on infant fine motor development across cultures. The results also indicate the need to consider nutritional factors when examining cultural differences in infant development.
The objective was to assess the ability of the Test of Infant Motor Performance (TIMP) to discriminate among infants with varying degrees of risk for motor developmental morbidity on the basis of perinatal medical complications.
Ninety-eight infants were tested weekly with the TIMP until 4 months of age. Comparisons were made among 5 groups of infants: (1) term infants without significant medical problems (low risk); (2) infants born prematurely with no significant medical problems (medium risk); (3) infants born at <30 weeks' gestational age or with birth weight <1500 g (high risk); (4) infants with chronic lung disease (high risk); and (5) infants with brain insults (high risk). A random-effects growth curve analysis assessed differences between the groups in slope and level of development across time.
Infants in the low- and medium-risk groups did not differ from each other but were significantly better performers than infants in the high-risk groups. Infants with brain insults performed significantly less well than all other infants, both in absolute level of performance and in developmental slope across time. Performance by black infants averaged 2 points higher than that of other infants.
The TIMP can discriminate among infants with differing risks for motor developmental delay.
There is an increasing demand for the assessment of speech and language in clinical and research situations in countries where there are few assessment resources. Due to the nature of cultural variation and the potential for cultural bias, new assessment tools need to be developed or existing tools require adaptation. However, there are few guidelines on how to develop 'culturally appropriate' assessment tools.
To review the literature on cross-cultural assessment in order to identify the major issues in the development and adaptation of speech and language assessments for children and to illustrate these issues with practical examples from our own research programme in Kenya.
Five broad categories pertaining to cross-cultural assessment development were identified: the influence of culture on performance, familiarity with the testing situation, the effect of formal education, language issues and picture recognition. It was outlined how some of these issues were addressed in our research. The results of the review were integrated to produce a list of ten guidelines highlighting the importance of collaboration with mother tongue speakers; piloting; familiar assessment materials; assessment location; and practice items and prompts.
There are few clinicians and assessors, whether in the UK or abroad, who do not assess or treat children from a culture different to their own. Awareness of cultural variation and bias and cooperative efforts to develop and administer culturally appropriate assessment tools are the foundation of effective, valid treatment programmes.
The author reports on a pilot study of the psychological ‐ intellectual correlations with anthropometric data in a study of malnourished and adequately nourished African children.†This research was sponsored by the Nestle Foundation for the Study of the Problems of Nutrition in the World, and by the Fonds National Suisse de la Recherche Scicntifique (Grant no. I 133.69). Reprints of this summary and copies of the full report on which it is based (Dasen, 1972b) can be obtained from: Fondation Nestlé, Case postale 1051, 1001 Lausanne, Switzerland.
In order to clarify the extent and cause of African infants' precocity in motor development, as reported by Geber and others, 64 babies and their families were intensively studied in a rural Kenyan community. It was found that the motor skills of sitting and walking, which the Kenyan babies acquired early (by American standards), are (a) specifically taught by the caretakers and (b) can be practised in the course of their usual daily routines. They are not advanced in skills which are not taught or practised. Middle‐class urban Kenyan children from the same ethnic background were found generally to be intermediate in both environmental encouragement and rate of advancement. Preliminary results from other groups in Kenya suggest that encouragement of motor development is widespread and that for behaviors which are differentially encouraged among groups, the average age of attainment is predictable from environmental measures.
RÉSUMÉ
Effets de milieu sur le développement moteur: le cas de la'précocité du nourrisson africain
Dans le but de préciser l'étendue et la cause de la précocite du développement moteur chez les nourrissons africains comme cela a été rapporte par Geber et d'autres, 64 nourris‐sons et leur families ont été soigneusement étudiés dans une communauté rurale du Kenya. II a été trouvé que les performances acquises précocément par les nourrissons du Kenya (selon les standards américains) sont ceux qui sont spécialement enseignés par les éducateurs et que les nourrissons ont une opportunité supplémental de pratiquer: position assise et marche. Ils ne sont pas en avance pour les performances qui ne sont pas enseignées ou pratiquées. Les enfants du Kenya de classe moyenne en zone urbaine et de la même origine ethnique presentent généralement une situation intermidiaire aussi bien en ce qui concerne la stimulation par le milieu que la vitesse de développement. Des résultats préliminaires à partir d'autres groupes du Kenya suggèrent que Fencouragement au développement moteur est largement répandu et que pour les comportement différentiellement encouragés selon les groupes, l'âge moyen d'efficience peut être prédit à partir des critères d'environnement.
ZUSAMMENFASSUNG
Umwelteinfluß auf die motorische Entwicklung: Der Fallder ‘Frühreife afrikanischer Säuglinge’
64 Säuglinge und ihre Familien in einer ländlichen Ansiedlung in Kenia wurden genauestens studiert, um Ausmaß und Ursache der Frühreife afrikanischer Säuglinge in der motorischen Entwicklung, wie von Geber und anderen berichtet wurde, abzuklären. Es wurde gefunden, daß die Fähigkeiten, die die Babies in Kenia früh (gemessen am USA‐Standard) erwarben, solche sind, in denen sie speziell von den betreuenden Personen unterrichtet werden und die die Babies im besonderen Gelegenheit haben zu praktizieren‐nämlich Sitzen und Laufen. Sie sind nicht voraus in Fähigkeiten, die nicht gelehrt oder praktiziert werden. Es fand sich, daß Kinder in Kenia aus der städtischen Mittelklasse von demselben ethnischen Hintergrund allgemein mittelmäßig waren sowohl bezüglich der Unterstützung durch ihre Umwelt als auch im Grad ihrer Vorausentwicklung.
Vorläufige Resultate anderer Gruppen in Kenia lassen vermuten, daß die Förderung der motorischen Entwicklung weitverbreitet ist und daß für Verhaltensformen, die unter den Gruppen unterschiedlich gefördert werden, die mittlere Alterstufe, in der die Kenntnisse erreicht werden, von den Maßnahmen der Umwelt her vorhersagbar ist.
RESUMEN
Efectos ambientales sobre el desarrollo motor: el caso de la ‘precocidad infantil africana’
Con el objeto de esclarecer la extensión y causa de la precocidad de lactantes africanos en el desarrollo motor, según aportaron Geber y otros, se estudiaron intensivamente en una comunidad rural de Kenya 64 lactantes y sus familias. Se halló que las destrezas que los niños de Kenya adquirían tempranamente (según standards USA) son las enseñadas especificamente por los cuidadores y aquellas que los niños tienen oportunidad extra para practicar: sentarse y andar. No estan avanzados en habilidades que no son ensefiadas o practicadas. Se halló que los niños de ciudad de clase media de Kenya con un mismo trasfondo étnico presentaban en general un nivel intermedio tanto en la estimulación ambiental como en la proportión del progreso. Los resultados preliminares obtenidos en otros grupos de Kenya sugieren que la estimulacion del desarrollo motor està extendida ampliamente y, por lo que hace referencia a comportamientos que estàn estimulados diferentemente según los grupos, la edad de promedio de la habilidad es predecible a partir de mediciones ambientales.
Reviews studies of African infant development with reference to the possible phenomenon of African infant precocity. Although the majority of studies report precocity, it is held that defects of measurement and design must preclude the conclusion that precocity is an established fact. The conclusion of precocity has always been based on comparison with test norms, whereas studies involving actual comparative samples do not find precocity. It is also argued that infant diffferences by social milieu afford the most sensible basis for the necessary introduction of independent variables in this research area, and that improved techniques of assessment should be applied both in the neonatal period and beyond. (74 ref.)
Dennis (1940) found Hopi infants were slower in onset of walking whether or not the cradleboard was used, than infants from other socio-ethnic groups. This investigation supplemented a repetition of the interview procedure used by Dennis with questions concerning circumstances of Hopi life which may have been responsible for the retardation. Contemporary Hopi infants, who were discovered to begin walking at a mean age of 12.5 mo., were advanced by 2.5 mo. over the date of walking recorded by Dennis. Infants reared on the cradleboard, like those studied by Dennis, walked as early as unrestrained infants. Differences in genetic background, physical health, and nutritional status between the earlier time and the present day which could account for the delayed onset of walking noted by Dennis were evaluated. Former inadequacy of the infants' diet seemed to be the most significant of the possible underlying conditions. The accelerated date of walking at present may reflect the enhanced quality of Hopi infant nutrition brought about by external programs for food supplement, particularly the Indian Women, Infants and Children's program.
Comparisons were made of the findings of fifty cross-cultural studies of psychomotor development, from birth to two years, of contemporary groups of infants on five continents. The effects of ethnicity, amount and type of caretaker stimulation, and nutritional status were discussed. African infants showed the greatest early acceleration, Caucasian infants the least, while Latin American and Asian infants ranked intermediate. Within each ethnic group, "traditionally" reared, rural infants showed greater motor acceleration than "Westernized, " urban infants in the first six to twelve months, and a greater decline, after weaning, in adaptive and language development, in the second year. Within both traditional and Westernized samples of the same ethnic groups, infants with higher birthweight were more accelerated.
Various possible explanations for the psychomotor precocity of African infants as compared with Western infants are sought in African and Western differences, in maternal prenatal and postnatal attitudes and behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The ages at attainment of 12 gross motor milestones were obtained prospectively during well‐baby visits in the first two years of life for 381 children. All had been born at term and were judged to be normal at one year. A longitudinal analysis, using an index summarising each chilďs progress for eight selected milestones, is reported for the 284 children for whom data were complete. A high percentage of parents were able to report the age at attaining milestones with an acceptable degree of variability. The children attained milestones at earlier ages than traditionally reported. There were only minor sex differences in age at attainment, but black children attained milestones earlier than white children.
RÉSUMÉ
Développement moteur fondamental normal: influence de la race, du sexe et de la classe socio‐économique
Les ǎges oil sont atteints 12 réperes moteurs fondamentaux ont été obtenus prospectivement durant des visites de contrôle de bonne santé dans les deux premières années de la vie, chez 381 enfants. Tous étaient nés a terme et jugés normaux à I'ǎge ďun an. Une analyse longitudinale utilisant un index résumant les progrés de chaque enfant pour huit repéres séléctionnés est rapportée pour les 284 enfants, pour lesquels les données étaient complétes. Un pourcentage éléve de parents ont pu indiquer L'ǎge auquel les repèrés étaient atteints avec un degré acceptable de précision. Les enfants atteignaient les etapés à des ages plus précoces qu'il n'est traditionnellement rapporté. II n'a été rapporte que des différences minimes ďǎge de réussite selon le sexe mais les enfants noirs atteignaient les repéres plus tôt que les enfants blancs.
ZUSAMMENFASSUNG
Normale allgemein‐molorische Entwicklung: Beeinflussung durch Rasse, Geschlecht und gesellschafllichen Stand
Bei 381 Kindern wurde prospektiv bei Kontrolluntersuchungen in den ersten zwei Lebensjahren bestimmt, in welchem Alter die 12 Meilensteine der motorischen Entwicklung erreicht wurden. Alle Kinder wurden zum Termin geboren und im Alter von einem Jahr füesund befunden. Für 284 Kinder, deren Daten vollstandig waren, wird eine Longituinalanalyse gegeben, bei der ein Index verwendet wurde, der den Fortschritt eines jeden Kindes für acht ausgewählte Meilensteine zusammenfaßte. Die meisten Eltern konnten das Alter, mit dem die Meilensteine erreicht wurden, mit nur geringen Abweichungen angeben. Die Kinder erreichten die Meilensteine früher als bisher beschrieben. Es fanden sich nur unwestetliche Geschlechtsunterschiede, aber die schwarzen Kinder erreichten die Meilensteine eher als die weißen.
RESUMEN
Desarrollo motor grosero normal: influencia de la raza, sexo y nivel socio‐económico
Se obtuvieron prospectivamente 12 hitos de consecución de la motilidad no fina en el curso de visitas de puericultura realizadas en 381 niños en los primeros dos años de vida. Todos eran recién nacidos a término eran considerados normales al año de edad. Se muestra un estudio longitudinal, haciendo uso de un indice que resumía los progresos del nino en ocho hitos seleccionados, obtenidos de 284 niños de los que se consiguio la totalidad de los datos. Un elevado porcentaje de padres fueron capaces de decir la edad de consecución de hitos con un aceptable grado de variabilidad. Los niños consiguieron estos hitos antes de lo que tradicionalmente se afirma. Sólo habia pequeñas diferencias de sexo en las edades de consecución, pero los niños negros los conseguian antes que los blancos.
Baganda infants in Uganda were found to be significantly advanced in motor development during the first year of life when compared with Bayley's sample of American White and Black infants. Though they were not found to be as precocious as Geber's sample of Uganda infants, the same downward trend in degree of motor development during the second year of life was found. As age increased, developmental motor quotient (DMQ) decreased, but at 24 months of age the Baganda infants still obtained an average DMQ higher than either American sample. Several interpretations of these results are considered.
IN the course of an investigation of newborn behaviour among widely distributed ethnic groups, some interesting preliminary results have appeared.
The purpose of this study was to describe quantitatively the gait development of a group of African children to determine how the pattern changes would relate to growth and maturation. This work applies an established technology of gait analysis to field conditions. 65 children of the Gusii tribe from southwestern Kenya were selected for study with an age range from 13 months to 69 months. Gait evaluation was performed by film recording free-cadence walking of the children. Growth in stature and age both influence the gait patterns. Developmental patterns of alteration in velocity, stride length, and cadence quantitatively measured in this study closely parallel observations made on children in laboratory settings by other workers.