Article

Presence of Iberian wolf (Canis lupus signatus) in relation to land cover, livestock and human influence in Portugal

February 2011
Mammalian Biology 76(2):217-221

DOI:10.1016/j.mambio.2010.10.010

Authors:

Julia Eggermann

FernUniversität in Hagen

Gonçalo Ferrão da Costa

BE - Bioinsight & Ecoa

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From June 2005 to March 2007, we investigated wolf presence in an area of 1000 km2 in central northern Portugal by scat surveys along line transects. We aimed at predicting wolf presence by developing a habitat model using land cover classes, livestock density and human influence (e.g. population and road density). We confirmed the presence of three wolf packs by kernel density distribution analysis of scat location data and detected their rendezvous sites by howling simulations. Wolf habitats were char- acterized by lower human presence and higher densities of livestock. The model, developed by binary logistic regression, included the variables livestock and road density and correctly predicted 90.7% of areas with wolf presence. Wolves avoided the closer surroundings of villages and roads, as well as the general proximity to major roads. Our results show that the availability of prey (here: livestock) is the most important factor for wolf presence and that wolves can coexist with humans even in areas of poor land cover, unless these areas are excessively fragmented by anthropogenic infrastructures.

The wolf and the city: insights on wolves conservation in the anthropocene

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2023

After a long period of human persecution that led it to extinction in most of its distribution range, the wolf is undergoing a fast recovery. Despite being described as an elusive species only living in remote areas, wolves are recently occupying also human‐dominated landscapes, increasing the frequency of direct contacts with humans. Nevertheless, it is unclear whether this situation is only caused by a numerical increase or partially facilitated by a higher tolerance of wolves with respect to human proximity. We focused on a European region offering an abundant, widespread and long‐term monitored wolf population to analyse wolf pack distribution and its relationship with human presence across areas recolonized across four different time periods (1972, 1996, 2005 and 2016). Throughout areas recolonized during different periods, wolves were initially located in mountains and hills, occupying plains only in the recent past. Although they consistently tended to be located as far as possible from urban settlements, especially from those with over 5000 inhabitants, in 2016, 70% of packs included at least one urban settlement within the expected home range. Moreover, the distance kept by wolves from the nearest urban settlement was more constrained in areas of recent recolonization (2005 and 2016) and in the mountainous altitudinal range, likely due to a reduced availability of territories. We showed that wolves tend to keep as far away as possible from humans, but they can also permanently occupy human‐dominated landscapes to cope with the lower availability of space induced by their remarkably successful recolonization. Our results shed light on an upcoming scenario for the conservation of large carnivores.

A dieta do lobo e as suas implicações na conservação da espécie: caso de estudo na alcateia de Mogadouro Sul

Thesis

Full-text available

Feb 2018

Samuel Lemos

The Iberian wolf, Canis lupus signatus (Cabrera, 1907), is an endemic species of the Iberian Peninsula. It used to be widely distributed in Portugal, but by 1930 its populations declined, leading to its disappearance from the coastal, south and central regions of the country. This decline was in part consequence of the degradation and fragmentation of the habitat, the reduction of wild prey and of the ancestral persecution of the species by Man, as result of the attacks on livestock, despite its high ecological and trophic plasticity. Diet studies are important in the demand of conservation tools which minimize conflict with different stakeholders. The main aim of the present work was to study the diet of a small isolated pack in the Northeast of Trás-os-Montes (Portugal), denominated Mogadouro Sul, through the analysis of scats obtained between 2015 and the beginning of 2017. The specific origin of all samples analysed (n=78) was confirmed by molecular analysis. Prior to the analysis of the diet, based on the techniques of trichology, was created a reference collection of the main prey species present in the study area (Mogadouro county), both domestic and wild ones. The results showed that domestic animals were the most frequent food category of wolf diet (78,3 % FO), with a special incidence in goats (40,6 % FO). Wild ungulates, such as roe deer and wild boar, although both are present throughout the study area, represented only 21,7 % FO of the same. Seasonal analysis of the diet revealed a major consumption of domestic animals in summer and fall, but the goats consisted a regular food resource during the year. Sheep had more importance in summer (basic resource) and constituted a regular resource in the remaining seasons. The dog was always present in the wolf's diet, except in winter. The most consumed wild prey was the wild boar, establishing a regular resource during the year, increasing its importance in spring (basic resource) where equated the % FO of goats (36,4 % FO). Considering the feeding habits between the reproductive and non-reproductive periods, there were significant differences in the consumption of domestic prey between both (p<0.05), with higher consumption in the non-reproductive one. In a trophic level, the studied pack presented a low diversity (H'=0.65) and breadth of the food niche (AN=0.55), with a degree of specialization in the domestic ungulates, mainly goats, in part consequence of the size of the pack. These feeding habits can generate a threat in the pack conservation, due to the persecution that it can be targeted.

Promoting grazing or rewilding initiatives against rural exodus? The return of the wolf and other large carnivores must be considered

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2020

The human abandonment of rural areas facilitates rewilding, which is also supported by European projects and initiatives. Rewilding often implies the return of iconic predators such as the wolf (Canis lupus), leading to human–wildlife conflicts. To reverse human depopulation, initiatives such as the European Union’s Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) subsidize extensive grazing of areas unsuitable for intensive agriculture. Therefore, rewilding and reversing depopulation initiatives seem to be mutually incompatible, and further insight into controversial aspects of the return of apex predators is needed when considering the reform of the CAP for post-2020. To develop understanding of these different objectives in the context of large carnivore recolonizations, we analysed wolf attacks on livestock in central Spain, where livestock is managed differently between the plateau and the mountains. As with other European regions, this area is undergoing rural abandonment and is subsidized by the CAP. Free-roaming cattle at higher elevations were subject to increased attacks irrespective of the abundance of wild prey. Efforts to subsidize human repopulation of areas experiencing recolonization by large carnivores require consideration of a model of cohabitation with these predators assisted by mitigation and compensation measures. Rewilding could bring alternative sustainable income based on the values brought by the presence of large carnivores and associated ecosystem services.

The role of fire on wolf distribution and breeding-site selection: Insights from a generalist carnivore occurring in a fire-prone landscape

Article

Mar 2019
LANDSCAPE URBAN PLAN

Wildfires are a main driver of habitat disturbance, influencing landscape structure and resource availability. Large carnivores are expected to experience strong effects as recently burned areas influence prey availability and suitable conditions for refuge and breeding. However, there are substantial knowledge gaps regarding the interplay between fire and landscape attributes affecting large carnivore occurrence. In this work, we aim to assess the effects of fire in relation to human density, elevation, and land cover in determining wolf (Canis lupus) occurrence at two spatial scales. A regional scale considering temporal shifts in wolf distribution at country level (Portugal) and a local scale considering breeding-site selection and reuse from 11 packs. We hypothesized that fire disturbance in a human-dominated landscape is a significant factor influencing wolf occurrence. Our results showed that wolves persisted in areas with higher altitudes, lower forest cover and intensive fire regimes. Breeding-sites were located at higher altitudes, in land covers less prone to human activity and disturbance, but subjected to a higher burnt extent, although with no significant association between breeding-site displacement and fire occurrence. The multiple-scale approach demonstrated wolves’ remarkable resilience to fire, persisting and breeding in a human-dominated landscape under intensive fire regimes. However, burnt landscapes may induce higher exposure to human disturbance and persecution due to limited refuge conditions. This study provides valuable insights on the role of fire in the persistence and habitat selection of a large carnivore, an issue with relevant management implications in fire-prone landscapes, predicted to become a common scenario worldwide.

Risks a la carte: Modelling the occurrence and intensity of wolf predation on multiple livestock species

Article

Nov 2018
BIOL CONSERV

Predation on livestock is a source of human-wildlife conflicts and can undermine the conservation of large car-nivores. To design effective mitigation strategies, it is important to understand the determinants of predation across livestock species, which often differ in husbandry practices, vulnerability to predators and economic value. Moreover, attention should be given to both predation occurrence and intensity, because these can have different spatial patterns and predictors. We used spatial risk modelling to quantify factors affecting wolf predation on five livestock species in Portugal. Within the 1619 parishes encompassing the entire wolf range in the country, the national wolf compensation scheme recorded 17,670 predation events in 2009-2015, each involving one or more livestock species: sheep (31.7%), cattle (27.7%), goats (26.8%), horses (14.8%) and donkeys (3.2%). Models built with 2009-2013 data and validated with 2014-2015 data, showed a shared general pattern of predation probability on each species increasing with its own density and proximity to wolf packs. For some species there were positive relations with the density of other livestock species, and with habitat variables such as altitude, and land cover by shrubland and natural pastures. There was also a general pattern for predation intensity on each species increasing with its own density, while proximity to wolf packs had no significant effects. Predation intensity on goats, cattle and horses increased with the use of communal versus private pastures. Our results suggest that although predation may occur wherever wolves coexist with livestock species, high predation intensity is mainly restricted to particular areas where husbandry practices increase the vulnerability of animals, and this is where mitigation efforts should concentrate.

Biodiversity and Wind Farms in Portugal. Current knowledge and insights for an integrated impact assessment process

Book

Jan 2018

This book presents a review of the state-of-the-art knowledge on the interactions between biodiversity and wind energy development, focused on the Portuguese reality. The volume addresses the particularities of the impact assessment procedures in Portugal, contrasting it with the international practices and presenting its main findings by covering the following broader themes: i) evaluation of spatial and temporal dynamics of wildlife affected by wind farms, including birds, bats and terrestrial mammals (in particularly Portuguese wolf population); ii) the methodologies used to assess impacts caused by this type of developments in biodiversity; iii) the best practice methodologies to implement an adaptive management approach to reconcile biodiversity and wind farms. The knowledge presented in this book was gathered through the research and development activities developed by Bioinsight company (former Bio3 company) during the last 13 years and partially funded by a R&D project designated as “Integrated solutions for biodiversity management at wind farms: reduce and compensate bird and bat mortality” (acronym: Wind & Biodiversity), co-funded by the European Regional Development Fund (FEDER), under the Regional Operational Programme of Centre (Mais Centro). This volume fills a void in the literature as a book giving insights on the best practices to install and manage a wind farm from a biodiversity management point of view, while establishing a commitment between economic sustainability and biodiversity conservation.

The Indirect Impacts of Wind Farms on Terrestrial Mammals: Insights from the Disturbance and Exclusion Effects on Wolves (Canis lupus)

Chapter

Full-text available

Sep 2018

Due to the technical and functional characteristics of wind turbines, impact assessment studies have focused mainly on flying vertebrates. Nevertheless, evidence from the little available knowledge indicates potential impacts on large terrestrial mammals resulting from habitat fragmentation and increasing human disturbance. Over the last 15 years, more than 900 wind turbines were built inside the range of the Portuguese wolf. Due to the endangered status of this large carnivore in Portugal, several monitoring plans were conducted, resulting in a reasonable amount of information being collected on the effects of wind farms on wolves. We reviewed the methodological approaches, compiled major findings and summarised the mitigation/compensation measures used in Portuguese wind farms. The overall outcomes show increasing human disturbance in wind farm areas, resulting in lower wolf reproduction rates during construction and the first years of operation, as well as shifts in denning site locations of more than 2.5 km away from the wind farm. These findings are of major concern in humanised landscapes, where suitable wolf breeding habitats are reduced. As precautionary measure, new wind farm projects should be restricted in areas that are closer than 2 km from known wolf denning locations.

Plant-based remedies for wolf bites and rituals against wolves in the Iberian Peninsula: Therapeutic opportunities and cultural values for the conservation of biocultural diversity

Article

Sep 2017

Ethnopharmacological relevance: Combined approaches to local knowledge and folk plant use improve awareness and promote effective strategies for the conservation of significant biocultural patrimony. Moreover, the information reported might be the basis for further appropriate phytochemical and pharmacological research. Therefore we provide an insight into traditional herbal remedies and practices for healing bite injuries in humans and domestic animals caused by the Iberian wolf. Wolf bites are associated with inflammatory processes and rabies is a potential complication AIMS: This paper describes and summarises the medicinal-veterinary empirical and ritual uses of the Iberian flora for wolf injuries and reviews the ethnopharmacological data of specific plants that are already published. The Iberian wolf is a critically endangered subspecies of the grey wolf. Livestock attacks attributed to wolves are increasingly frequent in the Iberian Peninsula, resulting in serious social problems. Interesting strategies for Iberian wolf conservation might be related to traditional grazing practices that are deeply linked with empirical knowledge and local practices passed on by oral tradition, which are also vulnerable now. Materials and methods: Based on documentary sources from the beginning of the twentieth century to the present, we systematically searched old monographs, regional documents, technical papers, project reports, as well as the international and national databases and the available scientific literature, without restrictions regarding the language of the publications consulted. Results: A total of 39 remedies for healing wolf bite injuries in humans and domestic animals was reported, highlighting the medicinal use of 33 species of vascular plants, mostly wild herbs, belonging to 18 botanical families. The use of wood ashes was also reported. The number of use-reports found represents a very high number considering similar European studies. Leaves were the predominant plant part mentioned. Boiling plant materials in water for topical uses was the most frequent method of preparation found. Some traditional remedies combined two or more plant species in order to potentiate their effects. Moreover, some plant-based traditional practices and rituals to ward off wolves and to prevent wolf attacks were also documented. In these practices eleven other species (belonging to seven more families) were used. Conclusions: Despite the decline of the Iberian wolf over the last few decades, wolves are still in the imaginary of rural communities that perceive this large carnivore as both a diabolic creature and a mythic and benign animal. Wolf-related cultural heritage is of great interest in terms of conservation strategies. This review emphasises the importance of local knowledge and provides useful information about several potential sources of phytochemicals and their claimed therapeutic effects, aiming at contributing to the conservation and appreciation of the Iberian biocultural heritage.

Portuguese mammalian carnivores: bibliometrics, species distribution models and a baseline for a future distribution atlas

Thesis

Full-text available

Dec 2016

Joana Bencatel

Information regarding the status and distribution of species is crucial for an effective management and conservation of biodiversity, from local to global scales. Despite being included in the Mediterranean biodiversity hotspot, Portugal lacks a detailed assessment of the distribution patterns of mammalian carnivores, which are important both ecologically and economically. Moreover, the available information is scattered, often unreliable and biased towards some species or regions. The goals of this study were: i) to compile historical and current distribution data and evaluate the research trends on all species of mammalian carnivores in Portugal; ii) to determine the potential distribution of each species, using species distribution models based on the currently available records, and identify variables associated with their presence; and iii) to produce a detailed account of each carnivore species occurring since historical times in Portugal, as a baseline for a future distribution atlas. On a first approach, a comprehensive review of 755 scientific studies was conducted to analyse several publication metrics (e.g. year of publication, publication type and research topic). 20,189 presence records of all mammalian terrestrial carnivores occurring in Portugal since historical times were also compiled, to evaluate their distribution patterns, including Extent of Occurrence, Area of Occupancy and range trends. Carnivore research in Portugal began in the 18th century, with a boost in the mid-1990s, and has been biased towards regionally threatened species and mainly focused on the topics of General Ecology and Conservation. There are fifteen extant species in Portugal, with nine occurring across the country (>85% of the mainland area) and six showing a relatively limited range (<40%), while an additional species is currently extinct (Ursus arctos). During the last decades, the distribution ranges of seven species seem to have remained stable, two expanded, two contracted, and three showed unclear trends. The historical presence of the Eurasian Lynx (Lynx lynx) in the north of Portugal was hypothesised, based on historical records, and the confirmed presence of a new invasive carnivore in Portugal, the raccoon (Procyon lotor), is documented here for the first time. On a second chapter, the compiled presence data were used to produce predictive ensemble models of the distribution of all extant carnivore species in Portugal (except for the racoon, due to low sample size), and several criteria of variable selection were used to determine which predictor variables were most strongly related to species occurrences. As expected, the best-surveyed carnivore species produced the best performing models. For all species, at least one environmental variable was selected, and for nine species, also human-related variables emerged, mostly showing a negative relationship between species and human presence or activity. For several species known to occur throughout the country, a higher potential for occurrence was found in the north, suggesting better general conditions in this region. Furthermore, a possible connection was found between reduced consensus between model predictions and the latest range limits of expanding species. Finally, all the information collected was gathered and presented in a detailed account for each carnivore species with a summary of the general distributional context, bibliometric analysis, presence records and distribution patterns. The species of some conservation concern, either by being threatened, nationally or internationally or by currently undergoing an expansion process, are the ones for which there was generally more data and a better knowledge. Other common and widespread species with no pressing conservation concerns, along with Data Deficient and Extinct species, had the least available data. Concerning the records compiled, non-genetically validated presence signs constituted the majority of records, and most records were collected inside protected areas, stressing the need for collecting more reliable records (either by validating them genetically or using other methodologies) and for reducing survey bias. This study demonstrates the relevance of non-systematic data to assess the historical and current status of mammalian terrestrial carnivores in Portugal, allowing the identification of knowledge gaps and research priorities. It is the first study on Species Distribution Modelling addressing all carnivore species in Portugal, by using a large number of occurrence data for modelling purposes. Furthermore, it allows a preliminary assessment of the factors associated with each carnivore species, particularly those for which there were no previous studies on ecological modelling. The results of this work will serve as a baseline to produce a future Atlas of Portuguese Carnivores. This information will contribute to updating assessments of species presence and distribution at the level of Iberian Peninsula, Europe and the Mediterranean biodiversity hotspot, with important conservation and management implications.

European human-dominated landscapes provide ample space for the recolonization of large carnivore populations under future land change scenarios

Article

Nov 2016

Europe is currently being re-colonized by large carnivore species such as brown bear (Ursus arctos), Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) and grey wolf (Canis lupus). Approximately one-third of Europe currently hosts at least one of these large carnivore species: they show permanent occurrence in some regions and sporadic occurrence without reproduction in others. We investigated potential future range expansions of these three large carnivores using three different analyses. First, we compared niche overlap between the historical, current permanent and current sporadic occurrences using n-dimensional hypervolumes. Second, we identified the environmental variables that best explain differences between current sporadic and permanent occurrences through multi-model inference. Third, we projected permanent occurrences into the future across a range of land-use change scenarios. We also determined future refuges (i.e. sub-optimal habitat in the environmental model, good habitat in the human disturbance model) and ecological traps (i.e. good habitat in the environmental model, sub-optimal habitat in the human disturbance model). In the three large carnivores species, ecological niche overlap was higher between historical and current permanent occurrences than between historical and current sporadic occurrences, and we also found low ecological niche overlap between current permanent and sporadic occurrences. Between 20 and 24% (corresponding to 86,800 to 173,200 km2) of the current sporadic occurrences could result in permanent settlement of large carnivores in the year 2040, while 17-24% (corresponding to 122,200 to 104,100 km2) and 2.7-4.6% (corresponding to 11,800 to 28,400 km2) of the current sporadic occurrences are likely to become refuges and ecological traps, respectively. Factors affecting range expansion are human activities, which were negatively related to permanent occurrences of all three species. In light of our results, human-dominated European landscapes provide ample space for the future recolonization of large carnivores.

Decoupling residents and dispersers from detection data improve habitat selection modelling: the case study of the wolf in a natural corridor

Article

Jan 2022

Resource selection analyses based on detection data are widely used to parametrize resistance surfaces used to identify ecological corridors. To successfully parametrize resistance, it is crucial to decouple resident and disperser behaviours yet to date connectivity studies using detection data have not addressed this issue. Here, we decoupled data of resident and dispersing wolves by analysing detection data collected within a natural corridor crossing a human dominated plain in Italy. To decouple residents and dispersers, we ran a Kernel Density analysis to investigate whether clusters of wolf detection points characterized by sharply higher points’ density exist and checked whether the areas outlined by these clusters (core areas) hold specific characteristics. Habitat selection analysis was then performed to compare the intensity of habitat selection carried out by putative residents and dispersers. We identified a high-density cluster of 30 detection points outlining a small core area stably located in the central part of the park. The dramatic differences of the R² and the AUC of the habitat selection models performed inside (R² = 0.506; AUC = 0.952) and outside (R² = 0.037; AUC = 0.643) the core area corroborated the hypothesis that the core area effectively encloses detection points belonging to residents. Our results show that through simple space use analyses it is possible to roughly discriminate between detection points belonging to resident-behaving and disperser-behaving individuals and that habitat selection models separately performed on these data have extremely different results with strong possible effects on resistance surfaces parametrized from these models.

Source-sink dynamics promote wolf persistence in human-modified landscapes: Insights from long-term monitoring

Article

Apr 2021
BIOL CONSERV

Long-term monitoring studies assessing wolf population dynamics are scarce, particularly in human-dominated landscapes of southern Europe. In this work, we estimate wolf demographic parameters in northwest Portugal based on a multi-methodological approach over 20 years split into two periods (period A: 1996–2005; period B: 2007–2016). Period B takes advantage of methodological upgrades in wolf surveys, as GPS telemetry and the use of genetic noninvasive samples, to report dispersal events and identify core and sink packs. The average annual population size was 27.0 ± 2.1 (SE; range 13–43) individuals, with 2 to 6 annual packs and an average density of 1.7 ± 0.1 wolves/100km². The population showed a growth rate of 4.2 ± 7.6%, with a decreasing trend (period A, −8 ± 9%) followed by a recovery (period B, 16 ± 11%), mainly due to local extinction and reestablishment of sink packs. The average pack size was 6.2 ± 0.3 individuals, with a maximum of 16 individuals, the highest reported value for Iberian wolves. During period B, the percentage of dispersers detected in this population was 11% and the average dispersal distance was 24.8 ± 1.2 km. Core packs showed higher group persistence, breeding success, and average pack sizes compared with sink packs. Results suggest a source-sink dynamics in this population, with few core packs promoting the maintenance and recovery of sink packs through a stepping-stone process. Our findings provide a comprehensive overview of wolf population dynamics in human-dominated landscapes and reinforce that wolf management and conservation planning should take into consideration population trends based on long-term studies, and spatial dynamics of demographic traits across packs.

Landscape Connectivity and Suitable Habitat Analysis for Wolves (Canis lupus L.) in the Eastern Pyrenees

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2020

Over the last few decades, much of the mountain area in European countries has turned into potential habitat for species of medium-and large-sized mammals. Some of the occurrences that explain this trend are biodiversity protection, the creation of natural protected areas, and the abandonment of traditional agricultural activities. In recent years, wolves have once again been seen in forests in the eastern sector of the Pyrenees and the Pre-Pyrenees. The success or failure of their permanent settlement will depend on several factors, including conservation measures for the species, habitat availability, and the state of landscape connectivity. The aim of this study is to analyze the state of landscape connectivity for fragments of potential wolf habitat in Catalonia, Andorra, and on the French side of the Eastern Pyrenees. The results show that a third of the area studied constitutes potential wolf habitat and almost 90% of these spaces are of sufficient size to host stable packs. The set of potential wolf habitat fragments was also assessed using the probability of connectivity index (dPC), which analyses landscape connectivity based on graph structures. According to the graph theory, the results confirm that all the nodes or habitat fragments are directly or indirectly interconnected, thus forming a single component. Given the large availability of suitable habitat and the current state of landscape connectivity for the species, the dispersal of the wolf would be favorable if stable packs are formed. A new established population in the Pyrenees could lead to more genetic exchange between the Iberian wolf population and the rest of Europe's wolf populations.

What does the wolf eat? Assessing the diet of the endangered Iberian wolf (Canis lupus signatus) in northeast Portugal

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2020
PLOS ONE

The Iberian wolf (Canis lupus signatus) is a top predator that inhabits the Iberian Peninsula. In Portugal, its numbers and distribution declined throughout the 20th century, due to human persecution, habitat degradation and prey decline, which have led to higher predation rates of livestock in the remaining packs. In Montesinho Natural Park (northeast Portugal), wild ungulate populations have been increasing in the last years, which may have led wolf to predate upon them. In order to assess Iberian wolf diet in this area, 85 wolf scats were collected from transects distributed throughout the study area in two periods between November 2017 and August 2019. Scat analysis indicated a high predation on wild ungulates, where the frequency of occurrence showed that roe deer was the most consumed prey (44%), followed by red deer (26%) and wild boar (24%). Domestic/wild cat (6%), domestic goat and stone marten (5%) were consumed in lower quantities. It was found a higher selection towards roe deer (D = 0.71) and this was the only prey item which was significantly dependent of the season of the year (χ² = 16.95, df = 3, p < 0.001). This is the first study in Portugal where was recorded that wolves feed mainly on wild ungulates. We conclude that lower livestock predation may be correlated with higher wild ungulates densities in our study area, as well as suitable husbandry practices, leading to a shift on Iberian wolf diet from mainly livestock on previous studies to wild ungulates.

Refuge as major habitat driver for wolf presence in human-modified landscapes

Article

Aug 2018

Despite severe population declines and an overall range contraction, some populations of large carnivores have managed to survive in human‐modified landscapes. From a conservation perspective, it is important to identify the factors allowing for this coexistence, including the relevant habitat characteristics associated with the presence of large carnivores. We evaluated the role of several environmental factors describing habitat quality for wolves Canis lupus in the humanised Iberian Peninsula, which currently holds an important wolf population at European level. We used maximum entropy and generalized linear model approaches in a nested‐scale design to identify the environmental factors that are related to wolf presence at three spatial scales and resolutions: (1) distribution range: wolf presence on a 10 × 10 km grid resolution, (2) wolf habitat use: wolf occurrence on a 2 × 2 km grid and (3) dens/rendezvous sites: breeding locations on a 1 × 1 km grid. Refuge availability, as defined by topography, seemed to be the key factor determining wolf presence at the multiple scales analysed. As a result, wolf populations may coexist with humans in modified landscapes when the topography is complex. We found that a significant amount of favourable habitat is not currently occupied, suggesting that the availability of suitable habitat is not the limiting factor for wolves in the Iberian Peninsula. Habitat suitability outside the current range indicates that other factors, such as direct persecution and other sources of anthropogenic mortality, may be hampering its expansion. We suggest that priorities for conservation should follow two general lines: (1) protect good quality habitat within the current range; and (2) allow dispersal to unoccupied areas of good quality habitat by reducing human‐induced mortality rates. Finally, we still need to improve our understanding of how wolves coexist with humans in modified landscapes at fine spatiotemporal scales, including its relationship with infrastructures, land uses and direct human presence. Wolf populations may coexist with humans in modified landscapes when the topography is complex. A significant amount of favourable habitat is not currently occupied. Habitat suitability outside the current range indicates that other factors, such as direct persecution and other sources of anthropogenic mortality, may be hampering its expansion. Photo Credit : Joaquim Pedro Ferreira

Konflikt hodowca-drapieżca. Studium przypadku ataków wilków na jeleniowate fermowe

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2023

Since the gray wolf (Canis lupus) was removed from the list of game animals and placed under strict protection, the number of these predators in Poland has increased significantly. As far as the preservation of biodiversity is concerned, this is a desirable phenomenon, but one should not lose sight of the increasingly frequent attacks of this large predator on livestock, companion animals, and even humans. The natural predation pressure by wolves on populations of various animal species often occurs on breeding farms. Therefore, the aim of the study was to analyze wolf attacks on farmed deer on the basis of data from the Research Station of the Institute of Parasitology of the Polish Academy of Sciences in Kosewo Górne. The documentation included corpse inspection reports prepared by a veterinarian and photographs showing wolf attacks. On that deer farm, wolves made eight attacks on fallow deer (Dama dama) between July and November 2018 and seven attacks on sika deer (Cervus nippon) between April and July 2019. In two years, a total of 51 animals (18 sika deer and 33 fallow deer) were killed. Wolves selected mostly hinds and fawns, which were most numerous, while stags accounted for a small percentage of victims, and most of them were young individuals up to 2 years of age. Wolves consumed their prey only partially, i.e. no more than 1 to 10 kg of the carcass. Excessive killing, although not very common, also occurs on other deer farms. Predators attack mainly juveniles. Methods used to protect the deer on the farm from wolf attacks were ineffective.

A report of short-term aversive conditioning on a wolf documented through telemetry

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2023
EUR J WILDLIFE RES

Predation by large predators on livestock is one of the main concerns in species conservation as it elicits prompt and effective retaliations. Therefore, conflict mitigation is essential to ensure long-term coexistence of predators with humans. We performed aversive conditioning (AC) with rubber bullets on one collared wolf that had become particularly bold toward a transhumant shepherd and had preyed on livestock. By exploiting the unique fine-resolution location data available before and after the AC event, alongside careful retrospective field investigations, we were able to analyse the effects of AC on wolf behaviour. Our study revealed that after just a single AC event, the wolf modified its spatial and predatory behaviour: the wolf changed its use of space by increasing distance from humans and ceased to attack farms in the following 2 months; actually, the only livestock preyed after AC was represented by a sheep and two goats lost by shepherds that had left alpine pastures. This study represents a first step to increase knowledge on AC effect on the wolf. Additional researchers are encouraged to conduct and publish findings on this topic in order to provide a useful and widely tested array of tools to promote wolf conservation in human-dominated landscapes.

Science-based solutions to foster connectivity of wolf populations are limited by available data

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2022
HYSTRIX

European wolf populations are currently exposed to distinct sources of anthropogenic disturbance and mortality that can cause dispersal limitations and lead to isolation. The identification of factors that act as complete or partial barriers to movement, dispersal, or gene flow contribute to foster connectivity between populations. We reviewed the existing literature (N = 32) on wolf population barriers to 1) identify main barriers to connectivity; 2) outline different methodologies; and 3) highlight knowledge gaps. Based on the reviewed studies that empirically tested barrier occurrence (N=14), we compiled data on wolf population structure, anthropogenic disturbance, land cover, ecological factors, geographical features, and prey availability, and tested them as predictors to explain barrier occurrence at continental scale. We report few studies directly addressing this subject for one of the most emblematic and thoroughly studied species, inhabiting one of the most modified landscapes in the world. Albeit our analysis suggested that anthropogenic features are the main drivers of barrier occurrence, we highlight that the absence of standardised data limits our understanding of this subject. Long-term, intensive monitoring programs, explicit hypothesis-driven research using empirical methodologies, and the integration of information on databases for collaborative science are needed to increase the conservation and management relevance of future scientific outcomes on this topic.

A Model for Iberian Wolf (Canis lupus signatus, Cabrera 1907) Predation Risk Assessment on Cattle in the Central System (Spain)

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2022

As a consequence of the exponential increase of the demographic and technological development of the human being, conflicts with the natural environment are accentuated. Pollution or the loss of biodiversity represent examples of problems that we must face to maintain the balance between the evolution of human beings and the conservation of nature. However, there are conflicts whose origin is not as modern as those mentioned, and we return to the Neolithic to find the origin of the conflict of man with the great predators. This condition has existed since then and at this point in history, is reaching very high levels of tension in developed countries, as a result of the depredation of livestock. Wolf is one of the species that generates more conflict and is currently suffering a slight demographic expansion. Although current laws mostly seek their recovery and conservation, the wolf is experiencing great difficulties due to the poor social perception it has. Faced with this situation, a model has been developed using geographic information systems which categorizes the areas according to their probability that the cattle could suffer a wolf attack. Based on natural and anthropogenic variables of the environment, the areas with a greater or lesser probability of attack were evaluated, with the objective of designing a prevention plan to reduce or eliminate the attacks. Since different authors demonstrate that population control measures on the species are not effective in reducing attacks on livestock, the solution to the conflict should be based on preventive measures. The use of the designed model will enable the competent authorities to apply these measures optimally, reducing expenses and allowing to anticipate future areas of conflict.

Rewilding by Wolf Recolonisation, Consequences for Ungulate Populations and Game Hunting

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2022

The ongoing recolonisations of human-transformed environments in Europe by large carnivores like the wolf Canis lupus means that conservation conflicts could re-surface, among other reasons, due to predation on ungulate game species. We estimated the effect of wolves on ungulate species using data on wolf prey selection, kill rates and territory size to build a hypothetical case of future expansion. We extrapolated results on predation from the current wolf distribution in central Sweden and eastern Poland to the eventual wolf recolonisation of southern Sweden. We then calculated the proportion of five ungulate game species killed annually by wolves, and the ratio between the predicted annual predation by wolves given future colonization and the number of ungulates currently harvested by hunters. Results showed that wolf recolonization in southern Sweden would have a minor impact on the estimated population densities of red deer Cervus elaphus, fallow deer Dama dama and wild boar Sus scrofa, but is likely to lead to a significant reduction in human captures of moose Alces alces and roe deer Capreolus capreolus. The current five-ungulate species system in southern Sweden suggests a potential for two to four times higher wolf density than the two-ungulate species system in the northern part of their current distribution. Management and conservation of recolonizing large carnivores require a better understanding of the observed impact on game populations under similar ecological conditions to ameliorate conservation conflicts and achieve a paradigm of coexistence. Integrating these predictions into management is paramount to the current rewilding trend occurring in many areas of Europe or North America.

Time-activity budget of urban-adapted free-ranging dogs

Article

Sep 2021

The domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris) is known to have evolved from gray wolves, about 15,000 years ago. They frequently exist as free-ranging populations across the world. They are typically scavengers and well adapted to living among humans. Most canids living in and around urban habitats tend to avoid humans and show crepuscular activity peaks. In this study, we carried out a detailed population-level survey on free-ranging dogs in West Bengal, India, to understand the activity patterns of free-ranging dogs in relation to human activity. Using 5669 sightings of dogs, over a period of 1 year, covering the 24 h of the day, we carried out an analysis of the time activity budget of free-ranging dogs to conclude that they are generalists in their habit. They remain active when humans are active. Their activity levels are affected significantly by age class and time of the day. In addition, we provide a detailed ethogram of free-ranging dogs. This, to our knowledge, is the first study of this kind, which might be used to further study the eco-ethology of these dogs.

Predation pressure of the grey wolf (Canis lupus L. 1758) on wild, domestic and companion animals in Poland

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2021

The aim of this study was to determine the predation pressure of the grey wolf (Canis lupus) on wild ungulate populations and the relationship between the size of the grey wolf population and the number of confirmed kills of livestock and companion animals in Poland over eight hunting seasons from 2011/2012 to 2018/2019. There is a positive and complete relationship between the increasing wolf population and the number of confirmed deer kills. The size of the wolf population in Poland was compared to the size of domestic and companion animal population and the number of specimens that fell prey to the grey wolf. It was demonstrated that as the wolf population in Poland increases, the number of confirmed kills of farm and companion animals rises. It seems rational to take steps aimed at mitigating this problem as soon as possible. It is necessary to consider implementation of an integrated protection system that involves culling and employing available methods to deter wolves from attacking grazing herds.

Anthropogenic and Environmental Factors Determining Local Favourable Conditions for Wolves during the Cold Season

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2021

Winter resources are crucial for wildlife, and, at a local scale, some anthropogenic and environmental factors could affect their availability. In the case of wolves, it is known that vocalisations in response to unfamiliar howls are issued to defend their territory and the important resources within it. Then, we studied the characteristics of winter response sites (WRS) during the cold season, aiming to assess their eventual ability to provide insights into the distribution of valuable resources within their territories. Within this scope, we planned a wolf-howling survey following a standardised approach. The study covered an Apennine (Central Italy) area of 500 km2. A hexagonal mesh was imposed on the area, in order to determine the values of different variables at the local scale. A logistic LASSO regression was performed. WRS were positively related to the presence of thermal refuges (odds = 114.485), to patch richness (odds = 1.153), wild boar drive hunting areas (odds = 1.015), and time elapsed since the last hunt (odds = 1.019). Among negative factors, stray dogs reply considerably affects wolves’ responsiveness (odds = 0.207), where odds are the exponentiated coefficients estimated by the logistic lasso regression. These results suggest that WRS are related to anthropogenic and environmental factors favouring the predation process.

EVALUACIÓN DE LA IDONEIDAD DE HÁBITAT, COMPOSICIÓN DE LA DIETA Y ESTRUCTURA DEL PAISAJE EN UNA POBLACIÓN AISLADA DE LINCE IBÉRICO (LYNX PARDINUS TEMMINCK, 1827) EN EL CENTRO PENINSULAR

Thesis

Full-text available

Jun 2020

Роля на горския сектор в политиките за климата на ЕС. Прогнозни нива на емисии и поглътители от биомасата в горите на България за периода 2021-2025

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2019

Парижкото споразумение от 2015 г., прието от страните, подписали Рамкова Конвенция на ООН за изменението на климата, поставя целта повишението на температурата в световен мащаб да се оgраничи до 2°C над равнището от прединдустриалната епоха. В изпълнение на своите ангажименти във връзка с Парижкото споразумение, Европейският съюз се ангажира да намали емисиите си с 40% до 2030 г. спрямо нивото им през 1990 г. През 2018 г. бе приет Регламент 841/2018 на ЕС, за включването на емисиите и поглъщанията на парникови газове от земеползването, промените в земеползването и горското стопанство (ЗПЗГС) в рамката в областта на климата и енергетиката до 2030 г. Регламентът също така определя правилата за отчитане на емисиите и поглъщанията и реда на проверка за спазването на задълженията. Съгласно изискванията на Регламента, референтното ниво за горите на България е определено като средна стойност на емисиите и поглъщането на парникови газове от управлявани горски площи за периода 2021-2025 г. За целта е направена прогноза на развитието на въглеродните депа - главно стоящата маса и ползването, като се прие запазване на интензитета на ползването, документиран през референтния период 2000-2009 г. За определяне на запаса на въглерод в биомасата (вкл. подземна и надземна), са използвани емисионните фактори, публикувани в Националния доклад за инвентаризация на парникови газове за 2018 г. (НДИПГ, 2018 г.).

Wolf habitat selection in relation to recreational structures in a national park

Article

Oct 2020

Although most predators usually avoid human activity, some individuals instead will habituate to it. Habituation to human presence and infrastructure by predator species such as wolves may lead to conflicts implicating serious risks for public safety and for the survival of the animals involved. Accordingly, this research project aims to shed light on the relationship between wolves and recreational structures using telemetry data from 10 wolves located in the Parc National du Mont-Tremblant (Québec, Canada) and its surrounding area. Using resource selection functions (RSFs), we observed wolf habitat selection in relation to these structures during three biological periods (denning: May–June; rendezvous: June–October; and nomadic: October–April). Our results revealed that wolves selected proximity to linear structures (roads and trails) during the denning and rendezvous periods, but this selection depended on the density of such structures in the surroundings (i.e., functional response in habitat selection): wolves selected proximity to linear structures when these structures were present at greater densities. Wolves avoided housing structures (campsites, cabins, park facilities), especially when these structures were present at greater densities, suggesting that wolves perceived them as a risk. These results suggest that conflicts between visitors and wolves were unlikely to occur in campgrounds during the time of our study. This could indicate that the management measures implemented by the park following the past episodes of conflict were effective. However, wolves’ use of linear structures could lead to increased tolerance to human proximity if left unmanaged.

MahmoodSoofi SUB

Thesis

Full-text available

Sep 2020

Mahmood Soofi

Anthropogenic activities, such as overexploitation (poaching, logging) and farming (livestock grazing), are the most serious threats to biodiversity and ecosystem services. The effects of these drivers may be synergistic and variable across different species. Many terrestrial large bodied mammals experience range shrinkage and face extinction risks and population declines across the world. By these activities, humans either directly (prey poaching) or indirectly (logging and livestock grazing) affect the survival rates of large mammal species. Protected areas (PAs) have been the most effective tool to preserve native species. However, the effectiveness of PAs in relation to large mammal distribution or conservation in temperate forests has rarely been assessed, particularly at a large landscape scale. In this study, I assessed the effects of threats to seven native mammal species in the Hyrcanian forest of Iran, namely the Persian Leopard (Panthera pardus saxicolor), grey wolf (Canis lupus), brown bear (Ursus acrtos), bezoar goat (Capra aegagrus), Caspian red deer (Cervus elaphus maral), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), and wild boar (Sus scrofa). In addition, I assessed whether there are direct effects of poaching on livestock depredation by large carnivores. I used a novel approach to survey mammal species occupancy over a large landscape (18 protected and non-protected areas) and walked 1204 km distributed randomly over 93 16-km2 cells. Field surveys resulted in 2876 animal signs of the above-mentioned species over three discrete surveys. I used single-season Bayesian occupancy modeling and estimated the occupancy and detection probability rates for each target species across the study sites. The results explicitly showed that grazing had negative and significant impact on the occupancy of the very patchily distributed Persian leopard (β = -1.65, Credibility Interval CI - 2.85 to -0.65), Caspian red deer (β = -1.36, CI -2.34 to -0.45) and roe deer (β = -1.61, CI -2.96 to -0.58) while logging negatively affected red deer (β = -0.82, CI -1.69 to -0.03). The intensities of grazing and logging were correlated (r = 0.59), followed by logging and poaching (r = 0.39), grazing and poaching (r = 0.37) (Chapter2). I estimated the population density of the main wild ungulate species hunted by poachers and Persian leopards using random encounter modelling from camera traps (2777 camera days), fecal standing crop sampling (38 km), direct line transect sampling (186 km) and double-observer point-counts (64 scans) (Chapters 3 and 4). The results suggest that, due to poaching, population densities of the Caspian red deer, bezoar goat and urial have decline by 66-89% compared to the 1970ies. However, wild boar abundance estimates have increased by 58% during the same period. Using wild prey encounter rates (1204 km) and interview data (n = 201), I estimated the effects of forest cover, IUCN category of reserves, distance to villages and livestock encounter rates on livestock depredation rates by Persian leopard and grey wolf. Prey poaching was the most influential predictor of livestock depredation, as an increase in poaching occurrence by one sign/km significantly increased depredation up to three times depending on the combination of livestock and carnivore species. The results also showed that the level of poaching was significantly lower in national parks (cat. II) than in other reserves and non-protected areas, though poaching signs were frequently found in the majority of surveyed cells (58%). The occurrences of Caspian red deer and roe deer were significantly inversely associated with poaching and these species seem to be locally extinct in some of the surveyed sites. Furthermore, using household interview data (n = 162) in 45 villages and wild prey richness, I assessed the species-specific patterns of human-wildlife conflicts in the Hyrcanian forest. Based on multivariate analyses, grey wolf and wild boar were the major conflict species. Crop loss due to wild boars was reported by the majority of the households and was mainly triggered by crop variety. Wolf conflicts were mainly related to depredation on sheep (81%) compared to goats (11%) and cattle (8%). These attacks were positively associated with highlands, villages located in vicinity or inside PAs and lower prey richness. In conclusion, conservation authorities should consider upgrading parts of protected areas and wildlife refuges retaining natural habitats to the category II. PAs require priority actions in assessment of grazing capacities, allocation and enforcement of grazing quotas. Moreover, better cross-sectoral coordination is needed among conservation authorities to avoid further depletion of the mammal community in the Hyrcanian forest and to address sustainable livelihoods near PAs. The poachers' incentives need to be clearly understood and be subject to focused follow-up studies. Mitigating livestock depredation requires a combination of strict law enforcement of anti-poaching measures, upgrading the status of reserves and wild prey recovery plans. The persistence of protection-reliant species depends on their existence outside and inside PAs, ecological requirements and law enforcement measures. Thus, for sustainable wildlife conservation a holistic participatory approach is essential that involves local communities.

Assessing the influence of ecological interaction patterns among habitat types on species distribution: studying the Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus Temminck 1827) in central Spain

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2020
LANDSCAPE ECOL

ContextSpecies distribution models (SDMs) usually describe the landscape through single landcover types as explicative and independent variables. However, species distribution responds to ecological processes that are represented in spatial patterns of landcovers, which are not usually considered in SDMs.Objectives From the hypothesis that Iberian lynx occurrence will depend on landscape functioning and that spatial organisation of landcovers is a reliable indicator of landscape functionality, we built a SDM based on landscape structure, to: (i) assess the relevance that spatial organisation of landcovers has for SDMs; (ii) describe the suitable landscape for the presence/conservation of the Iberian lynx.Methods Spatial organisation of landscape is identified by recognising landscape mosaics, which are sets of patches with a similar pattern of boundaries. We identified landscape mosaics within western area of the province of Madrid. Then, we used field-collected lynx scats to test if species’ preferences are related to landscape mosaics.ResultsThe species shows its preference for two out of eight identified mosaics. It shows preference for mosaics with low human-modified holm oak forests, but it does not show rejection of traditional land-uses such as pasture or non-intensive agriculture. The relevance of watercourses was also shown, since two of four mosaics with characteristic riparian vegetation prove to be relevant in the model.Conclusions As landscape includes spatial interactions (boundaries) among landcovers it is a more holistic descriptor than single landcovers. This contributes to increase SDMs performance and usefulness for designing more accurate conservation actions, compared to those based on single landcover composition.

Combining ensemble models and connectivity analyses to predict wolf expected dispersal routes through a lowland corridor

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2020
PLOS ONE

The Italian wolf (Canis lupus italicus) population has remained isolated South of the Alps for the last few thousand years. After a strong decline, the species has recolonized the Apennines and the Western Alps, while it is currently struggling to colonize the Eastern Alps. Recently, the species was detected in a lowland park connecting the Northern Apennines to the Central Alps. If the park was able to sustain a net wolf dispersal flow, this could significantly boost the connection with the Eastern Alps and the Dinaric-Balkan population. We investigated the suitability of the park as a functional ecological corridor for the wolf through the unhospitable lowland of Northern Italy. We collected wolf occurrence data in two study areas. We modeled species distribution running a separate ensemble model for each study area and then merging the output of the models to obtain an integrated suitability map. We used this map to identify corridors for the wolf adopting a factorial least-cost path and a cumulative resistant kernel approach. The connectivity models showed that only two corridors exist in the lowland areas between the Northern Apennines and the Central Alps. The Western corridor is a blind route, while the eastern corridor passes through the park and has a continuous course. However, the models also revealed a scarce resilience of corridor connectivity in the passageways between the park and the Apennines and the Prealps, which suggests that urgent management actions are necessary to ensure the future functionality of this important corridor.

Time-activity budget of urban-adapted free-ranging dogs

Preprint

Full-text available

Nov 2019

The domestic dog is known to have evolved from gray wolves, about 15,000 years ago. They majorly exist as free-ranging populations across the world. They are typically scavengers and well adapted to living among humans. Most canids living in and around urban habitats tend to avoid humans and show crepuscular activity peaks. In this study, we carried out a detailed population-level survey on free-ranging dogs in West Bengal, India, to understand the activity patterns of free-ranging dogs in relation to human activity. Using 5669 sightings of dogs, over a period of 1 year, covering the 24 hours of the day, we carried out an analysis of the time-activity budget of free-ranging dogs to conclude that they are generalists in their habit. They remain active when humans are active. Their activity levels are affected significantly by age class and time of the day. Multivariate analysis revealed the presence of certain behavioural clusters on the basis of time of the day and energy expenditure in the behaviours. In addition, we provide a detailed ethogram of free-ranging dogs. This, to our knowledge, is the first study of this kind, which might be used to further study the eco-ethology of these dogs.

Social, behavioural and temporal components of wolf ( Canis lupus ) responses to anthropogenic landscape features in the central Apennines, Italy

Article

Jun 2019

Understanding large carnivores’ behavioural adaptations to habitat modifications is critical for their persistence in human‐modified environments. Based on 10 Global Positioning System‐collared wolves in a protected area of central Italy, we investigated wolf responses to anthropogenic features such as roads and settlements by using Step and Resource Selection Functions. We revealed that responses by wolves to anthropogenic features varied according to behavioural state (travelling vs. resting) and social affiliation (pack members vs. floaters), while accounting for seasonal and circadian effects. During summer, pack members strongly avoided roads and settlements throughout all day, both when travelling and resting, and complemented this response by selecting forested areas and shrublands. Conversely, during fall and winter, pack members relaxed the avoidance towards anthropogenic features by travelling closer to main roads and settlements, but they still selected resting sites farther from anthropogenic features and located them in denser cover and along steeper slopes. Compared to pack members, floaters, when travelling, showed a weaker avoidance of main roads and settlements and did not show any selection pattern towards environmental variables. When resting, contrary to pack members, floaters selected sites closer to main roads and settlements, even though these were still located along denser cover and steeper slopes. Our findings suggest that wolves living in human‐modified landscapes adapt behaviourally to the spatial and temporal distribution of perceived interference by humans and that their response is complementary to the expected seasonal and circadian variation in human activity. These adaptations appear to be aided by the selection of habitat features that enhance security and allow segregation from humans. Maintenance of such habitat characteristics appears of critical importance to ensure the functionality of behavioural adaptations by wolves living in human‐modified landscapes. Understanding large carnivores’ behavioural adaptations to habitat modifications is critical for their persistence in human‐modified environments. Based on 10 GPS‐collared wolves in central Italy, we investigated wolf responses to roads and settlements by using Step and Resource Selection Functions. We revealed that responses by wolves to anthropogenic features varied according to behavioural state (travelling vs. resting) and social affiliation (pack members vs. floaters), while accounting for seasonal, circadian and habitat‐mediated effects. Our findings suggest that wolves living in human‐modified landscapes adapt to the spatial and temporal distribution of perceived interference by humans and that their response is complementary to the expected seasonal and circadian variation in human activity. These adaptations appear to be aided by the selection of habitat features that allow segregation from humans. Maintenance of such habitat characteristics appears of critical importance to ensure the functionality of behavioural adaptations by wolves living in human‐modified landscapes.

Behind enemy lines: investigating suppression & coexistence between sympatric carnivores in Plitvice Lakes, Croatia

Thesis

Full-text available

Apr 2019

Peter Haswell

This thesis fills knowledge gaps regarding spatio-temporal interactions between sympatric carnivores, mesopredator risk mitigation behaviour, and thus, the mechanisms that enable coexistence. In the Anthropocene biodiversity crisis, discerning how and when diversity is maintained is critical. Employing a robust multi-method approach, a model study system was used to examine the top-down effects of wolves, Canis lupus and Eurasian lynx, Lynx lynx, upon red fox, Vulpes vulpes in Plitvice Lakes National Park, Croatia. Chapter Two utilises novel foraging experiments, combining camera traps with the giving-up density (GUD) framework. Foxes responded to wolf urine by taking less food, spending less time at patches, leaving at higher quitting harvest rates, and adjusting their behaviour when at patches, spending less time foraging and more time being vigilant and sniffing the ground. Chapter Three examines spatial relationships using occupancy modelling. Foxes were not spatially excluded by large carnivores, but were in fact attracted to them (or at least the same conditions) and more detectable in their presence. The positive association was most strongly related to lynx, however, conversely, foxes responded elusively towards human activity. Chapter Four examines temporal relationships using kernel density estimates, circular statistics and nocturnality risk ratios. Fox activity overlapped with other carnivores but avoided peak activity periods, having significantly different record distributions. Foxes were more nocturnal in higher intensity large carnivore presence, seemingly using the cover of darkness to remain safe. High human activity however mediated this interaction, decreasing its strength. Subtle temporal avoidance and fine-scale spatio-temporal risk mitigation strategies can enable mesopredator access to resources and predator coexistence in the presence of intraguild aggression. Where food subsidies are absent, humans may increase mesopredator elusiveness but may also offer some level of temporal shielding from large carnivores. Protected area management should consider ecological baselines and the effects of human disturbance.

Combining Bayesian genetic clustering and ecological niche modeling: Insights into wolf intraspecific genetic structure

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2018

The distribution of intraspecific genetic variation and how it relates to environmental factors is of increasing interest to researchers in macroecology and biogeography. Recent studies investigated the relationships between the environment and patterns of intraspecific genetic variation across species ranges but only few rigorously tested the relation between genetic groups and their ecological niches. We quantified the relationship of genetic differentiation (FST) and the overlap of ecological niches (as measured by n‐dimensional hypervolumes) among genetic groups resulting from spatial Bayesian genetic clustering in the wolf (Canis lupus) in the Italian peninsula. Within the Italian wolf population, four genetic clusters were detected, and these clusters showed different ecological niches. Moreover, different wolf clusters were significantly related to differences in land cover and human disturbance features. Such differences in the ecological niches of genetic clusters should be interpreted in light of neutral processes that hinder movement, dispersal, and gene flow among the genetic clusters, in order to not prematurely assume any selective or adaptive processes. In the present study, we found that both the plasticity of wolves—a habitat generalist—to cope with different environmental conditions and the occurrence of barriers that limit gene flow lead to the formation of genetic intraspecific genetic clusters and their distinct ecological niches. The distribution of intraspecific genetic variation and how it relates to environmental factors is of increasing interest to researchers in macroecology. Thus, we related genetic differentiation to ecological niche overlap among genetic groups resulting from spatial Bayesian clustering in the wolf population inhabiting part of the Italian peninsula. We found a significant relationship between genetic differentiation and ecological niche overlap and quantified differences in environmental factors among clusters.

Cryptic population structure reveals low dispersal in Iberian wolves

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2018

Highly mobile mammalian carnivores are expected to have the capability to maintain high levels of gene flow across large geographic scales. Nonetheless, surprising levels of genetic structure have been found in many such populations. We combined genetic and spatial behavioural information from wolves (Canis lupus) in the Iberian Peninsula (Western Europe) during the last two decades to present a particular case of low dispersal levels in a large carnivore population persisting in human-dominated landscapes. We found an exceptionally reticulated pattern of cryptic population structure emerging at two hierarchical levels, in which four or eleven meaningful genetic clusters can be recognized, respectively. These clusters were characterized by moderate-high levels of differentiation (average pairwise FST = 0.09-0.19), low levels of admixture and varying degrees of genetic diversity. The number of dispersers identified among the 11 clusters was very low (<4% out of 218 wolves). Spatial information of tracked wolves further confirmed the geographical genetic patterns (only 2 out of 85 collared wolves overlapped with more than one genetic cluster). The high levels of genetic structure in this population may be determined by the recent demographic history of this population, among other factors. The identification of meaningful genetic clusters has implications for the delineation of conservation units and, consequently, on the conservation and management actions for Iberian wolves.

Crop variety and prey richness affect spatial patterns of human-wildlife conflicts in Iran’s Hyrcanian forests

Article

Apr 2018
J NAT CONSERV

Human-wildlife conflicts are a growing problem in Iran and pose a notable challenge to conservation efforts in its Hyrcanian forest region. We surveyed 162 households in 45 villages at six study sites to understand species-specific patterns of human-wildlife conflicts and people’s reactions to these conflicts, and to suggest appropriate conflict mitigation measures. By using generalized linear and generalized linear mixed models, we analysed socio-economic and ecological variables to find key determinants of the main conflict types around seven species of mammals. We also incorporated prey richness data (i.e. red deer, roe deer and wild boar) in our models. Wild boar (Sus scrofa) and grey wolf (Canis lupus) were found to be the primary conflict species in regard to reported levels of severity and crop loss by wild boars was reported by 97% of households. Logistic regression showed that these conflicts were positively influenced by the variety of cultivated crop species and the size of land under cultivation. Generalized linear mixed models showed that human-wild boar conflicts increased in areas with lower human density, vegetation cover and distance to protected areas. Wolf conflicts were most frequent in the form of sheep attacks (81%) compared to goat (11%) and cattle (8%) attacks. Our analysis showed that the attacks were positively influenced by village and elevation and increased in areas with lower prey richness and those located closer to, or inside, protected areas. Several cost-effective mitigation measures should be used complementarily according to their effectiveness. These include avoiding planting of palatable seasonal crops near protected areas and establishing physical barriers around crop fields to lower large-scale crop damage by wild boars. To reduce livestock predation by wolf, it will be essential to address the restoration of the wild prey community and efficiency of animal husbandry practices.

Reliability of human estimates of the presence of pups and the number of wolves vocalizing in chorus howls: implications for decision-making processes

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2017
EUR J WILDLIFE RES

Management decision-making processes require reliable tools providing information on the distribution, abundance, and trend of populations. Wolves vocalize in response to human imitations of howls. Traditionally, this phenomenon has been the basis of a widespread monitoring tool to assess the reproductive status in a wolf pack, as well as to estimate the minimum number of individuals in the pack: the elicited vocalization technique. However, despite its broad use, only a few attempts to quantify its accuracy have been made so far. Here, we carried out a test to evaluate the accuracy of estimates obtained from the elicited-vocalization technique. We administered "chorus tests" to 205 human subjects, 182 rangers —with different level of experience with wolves— and 23 subjects with no previous experience with the species. We found that the estimates of the number of wolves participating in a chorus were not accurate, regardless of the experience of the listener (the correct number of wolves was only determined in 32% of tests). Listeners, however, identified pups vocalizing 98% of the times when there were pups in the chorus. They also reported the presence of pups when they were not present with a high frequency (71%). Estimating the number of individuals by the unaided human ear is flawed because of the bias inherent in the elicited-vocalization technique. Howling surveys have a low degree of selectivity to confirm the presence of pups. Thus, we make recommendations to improve the elicited-vocalization technique as a tool to monitor the presence of pups.

Viral gut metagenomics of sympatric wild and domestic canids, and monitoring of viruses: Insights from an endangered wolf population

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2017

Animal host–microbe interactions are a relevant concern for wildlife conservation, particularly regarding generalist pathogens, where domestic host species can play a role in the transmission of infectious agents, such as viruses, to wild animals. Knowledge on viral circulation in wild host species is still scarce and can be improved by the recent advent of modern molecular approaches. We aimed to characterize the fecal virome and identify viruses of potential conservation relevance of diarrheic free-ranging wolves and sympatric domestic dogs from Central Portugal, where a small and threatened wolf population persists in a highly anthropogenically modified landscape. Using viral metagenomics, we screened diarrheic stools collected from wolves (n = 8), feral dogs (n = 4), and pet dogs (n = 6), all collected within wolf range. We detected novel highly divergent viruses as well as known viral pathogens with established effects on population dynamics, including canine distemper virus, a novel bocavirus, and canine minute virus. Furthermore, we performed a 4-year survey for the six wolf packs comprising this endangered wolf population, screening 93 fecal samples from 36 genetically identified wolves for canine distemper virus and the novel bocavirus, previously identified using our metagenomics approach. Our novel approach using metagenomics for viral screening in noninvasive samples of wolves and dogs has profound implications on the knowledge of both virology and wildlife diseases, establishing a complementary tool to traditional screening methods for the conservation of threatened species.

Effects of land cover on coyote abundance

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2017

Context. Throughout the world, declines in large mammalian carnivores have led to the release of smaller mesomammalian predators. Coyotes (Canis latrans) have increased in abundance, distribution and ecological influence following the extirpation of apex predators in North America. Coyotes have had substantial influence on many ecosystems in recently colonised portions of their range, but those influences can vary across land cover types. Thus, understanding the relationship between coyote abundance and land cover may enhance our ability to predict spatial variation in the ecological effects of coyotes. Aims. Our objective was to examine the influence of landscape attributes on eastern coyote abundance to ultimately facilitate predictions of spatial variation in the effects of coyotes on prey populations, ecological communities and human interests. Methods. We collected count data from repeated visits to 24 sites by eliciting howl responses from coyotes. We fit abundance models to howl-response data to examine the effects of landscape composition and configuration on coyote abundance in a mixed forest/agricultural ecosystem in south-western Georgia, USA. Key results. Our investigation revealed that coyote abundance was positively associated with grasslands that were predominantly used for livestock production, and negatively associated with patch diversity. Conclusions. Our results supported the prediction that coyotes would be positively associated with open habitats and that they are well adapted for areas structurally similar to the plains of central North America, where the species originated. In addition, these results suggest that aspects of fragmentation, such as patch diversity, can negatively affect coyote abundance. Our results highlight the importance of patch type and landscape juxtaposition on the abundance of coyotes in complex heterogeneous landscapes. Implications. Our results further our understanding of the spatial variation in coyote abundances across a recently colonised portion of the species range. Combining howl-response surveys with abundance modelling is a promising approach for studying the associations between population dynamics of vocal canids and landscape structure over large spatial scales.

Decoding Group Vocalizations: The Acoustic Energy Distribution of Chorus Howls Is Useful to Determine Wolf Reproduction

Article

Full-text available

May 2016
PLOS ONE

Population monitoring is crucial for wildlife management and conservation. In the last few decades, wildlife researchers have increasingly applied bioacoustics tools to obtain information on several essential ecological parameters, such as distribution and abundance. One such application involves wolves (Canis lupus). These canids respond to simulated howls by emitting group vocalizations known as chorus howls. These responses to simulated howls reveal the presence of wolf litters during the breeding period and are therefore often used to determine the status of wolf populations. However, the acoustic structure of chorus howls is complex and discriminating the presence of pups in a chorus is sometimes difficult, even for experienced observers. In this study, we evaluate the usefulness of analyses of the acoustic energy distribution in chorus howls to identify the presence of pups in a chorus. We analysed 110 Iberian wolf chorus howls with known pack composition and found that the acoustic energy distribution is concentrated at higher frequencies when there are pups vocalizing. We built predictive models using acoustic energy distribution features to determine the presence of pups in a chorus, concluding that the acoustic energy distribution in chorus howls can be used to determine the presence of wolf pups in a pack. The method we outline here is objective, accurate, easily implemented, and independent of the observer's experience. These advantages are especially relevant in the case of broad scale surveys or when many observers are involved. Furthermore, the analysis of the acoustic energy distribution can be implemented for monitoring other social canids that emit chorus howls such as jackals or coyotes, provides an easy way to obtain information on ecological parameters such as reproductive success, and could be useful to study other group vocalizations.

Rehabilitation and Post-Release Monitoring of Two Wolves With Severe Injuries

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2016

Injured free-ranging wolves (Canis lupus) are often rehabilitated and released into the wild, but there is limited data on their post-release survival and behavior.We used global positioning system telemetry to document movements and spatial overlap with resident packs of 2 wolves in northern Portugal that were released following rehabilitation from severe traumatic injuries and were kept in captivity for 10–12 weeks in 2012. A yearling female, with a complex fracture on the thoracic limb, traveled 2,709 km over about 643 km2, during the 12 months post-release before being illegally shot. During the first 8 months, it was located frequently around 3 different pack territories, but afterwards its movements were restricted to a single pack territory. We tracked a yearling male with an amputated hind limb for 5 months and it traveled 922 km over about 574 km2 before dying in a road casualty. It visited 4 different pack territories in succession but also spent time outside known territory boundaries. Our findings suggest that rehabilitated wolves can recover their locomotor activity and survive in the wild for several months, even after suffering severe injuries and spending 3 months in captivity.

Perspectives on the Iberian wolf in Portugal: population trends and conservation threats

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2016
BIODIVERS CONSERV

The Iberian wolf (Canis lupus signatus), an endemic subspecies of the Iberian Peninsula, is endangered in Portugal. Contrary to the rest of Europe, the distribution of this subspecies has been declining in Portugal throughout the twentieth century to the present day. Knowledge of the Iberian wolf in Portugal is limited and this lack of detailed scientific knowledge makes it difficult to evaluate conservation priorities. To fill this gap, we summarize existing knowledge regarding trends and potential threats and provide a perspective on Iberian wolf population trends in Portugal, identifying potential factors modulating such trends. Priorities for research and existing monitoring gaps are presented. Declines are primarily associated with a scarcity of wild prey with consequent livestock predation, and illegal persecution primarily in retaliation for predation on livestock. If these limiting causal factors continue operating, Iberian wolf survival in Portugal is jeopardized. Wolf conservation will benefit from a long-term project including public awareness, scientific research and conservation and management solutions to protect this endangered subspecies. Future research should focus on the mechanisms regulating population size, territory occupancy and interactions with prey species, both domestic and wild.

Multimethod, multistate Bayesian hierarchical modeling approach for use in regional monitoring of wolves

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2016
CONSERV BIOL

In many cases, the first step in large carnivore management is to obtain objective, reliable and cost-effective population parameters estimates that are reproducible over time. However, monitoring predators over large regional scales is a difficult task with high uncertainty. Moreover, in wildlife monitoring, combining multiple survey methods to generate information about different population states is particularly challenging. We present a practical multi-method and multi-state modelling approach based on Bayesian hierarchical site occupancy models to monitor large predators at the regional scale. We used as model species wolves (Canis lupus) and generated reliable estimates of the number of sites with wolf reproduction. We show the performance of this proposed approach using two wolf datasets from Spain (Western Galicia in 2013 and Asturias in 2004). Using howling surveys, the naïve estimation of the number of sites with reproduction was 9 and 25 sites in Western Galicia and Asturias, respectively. However, by applying our proposed approach we estimated 33.4±9.6 and 34.4±3.9 sites with wolf reproduction, respectively. The rate of occupied sites (±SD) with wolf reproduction was 0.67±0.19 and 0.76±0.11, respectively. This approach can be used to design more cost-effective monitoring programs and will inspire well-coordinated surveys across multiple administrative borders and populations, translating into improved landscape-level large carnivore management decision-making. In addition, the use of this Bayesian framework allows a simple way to visualise the degree of uncertainty around population parameter estimates; thus, it constitutes an intuitive approach to present monitoring results to managers and different stakeholders. Our approach can be widely applied to broader spatial scales in wildlife monitoring where detection probabilities differ between states and where several methods are being used in combination to estimate different states in a population.

Why do wolves eat livestock?

Article

Mar 2016
BIOL CONSERV

Patterns of Exposure of Iberian Wolves (Canis lupus) to Canine Viruses in Human-Dominated Landscapes

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2015

Wildlife inhabiting human-dominated landscapes is at risk of pathogen spill-over from domestic species. With the aim of gaining knowledge in the dynamics of viral infections in Iberian wolves (Canis lupus) living in anthropized landscapes of northern Spain, we analysed between 2010 and 2013 samples of 54 wolves by serology and PCR for exposure to four pathogenic canine viruses: Canine Distemper Virus (CDV), Canine Parvovirus-2 (CPV), Canine Adenovirus 1 and 2 (CAV-1 and CAV-2), and Canine Herpesvirus (CPH). Overall, 76% of the studied wolves presented evidence of exposure to CPV (96% by HI, 66% by PCR), and 75% to CAV (75% by SN, 76% by PCR, of which 70% CAV-1, 6% CAV-2). This represents the first detection of CAV-2 infection in a wild carnivore. CPV/CAV-1 co-infection occurred in 51% of the wolves. The probability of wolf exposure to CPV was positively and significantly correlated with farm density in a buffer zone around the place where the wolf was found, indicating that rural dogs might be the origin of CPV infecting wolves. CPV and CAV-1 appear to be enzootic in the Iberian wolf population, which is supported by the absence of seasonal and inter-annual variations in the proportion of positive samples detected. However, while CPV may depend on periodical introductions by dogs, CAV-1 may be maintained within the wolf population. All wolves were negative for exposure to CDV (by SN and PCR) and CHV (by PCR). The absence of acquired immunity against CDV in this population may predispose it to an elevated rate of mortality in the event of a distemper spill-over via dogs.

Möglichkeiten und Grenzen des Herdenschutzes für Pferde in Zusammenhang mit der wachsenden Wolfspopulation in Deutschland: Literaturrecherche und Befragung von Pferdehaltern zur Gefährdungsbeurteilung

Article

Oct 2021

Zusammenfassung Gegenstand und Ziel Seit 2000 siedelt sich der Wolf in Deutschland wieder an. Mit steigenden Wolfszahlen nehmen die durch Wölfe verursachten Nutztierschäden zu, wobei auch Pferde betroffen sind. Ziel der Studie war es, einen Überblick zu dieser Problematik sowie Lösungsansätze zu geben. Material und Methoden Anhand einer Literaturrecherche wurden Daten zur Wolfspopulation in Deutschland, wolfsbedingten Schäden sowie Möglichkeiten und Grenzen des Herdenschutzes beim Pferd eruiert. Eine Online-Befragung von Pferdehaltern/-besitzern diente dazu, die tatsächliche und/oder gefühlte Bedrohung durch Wölfe und die daraus resultierenden Auswirkungen auf die Pferdehaltung zu ermitteln. Ergebnisse Die Literaturrecherche zeigte ein kontinuierliches Anwachsen der Wolfspopulation in den letzten Jahren und insbesondere seit 2016 einen deutlichen Anstieg wolfsverursachter Nutztierschäden, wobei Pferde selten betroffen waren. Bei der Online-Befragung stammte die Hälfte der 574 ausgewerteten Fragebögen aus Brandenburg und Niedersachsen. Den größten Einfluss auf die Gefährdungsbeurteilung eigener Pferde durch die wachsende Wolfspopulation hatte das Wissen der Pferdehalter über Wolfsangriffe im eigenen Landkreis, wobei insbesondere die Aspekte einer Haltung von Jungpferden und Weidegang für die Pferde eine Rolle spielten. 64 % der Befragten gaben an, ihre Pferdehaltung trotz der zunehmenden Wolfspopulation nicht geändert zu haben. Nur 8 von 576 Pferdehaltern gaben amtlich bestätigte Wolfsübergriffe an und 30 hatten einen vermuteten Wolfsschaden amtlichen Stellen nicht gemeldet. Mehr als die Hälfte der Befragten, die Kontakt zu einem Wolfsberater hatten, bezeichneten die Zusammenarbeit als nicht bis wenig zielführend. Schlussfolgerung und klinische Relevanz Die Zahl amtlich bestätigter Wolfsangriffe auf Pferde ist gering. Durch einen grundsätzlich durchgeführten Gentest bei entsprechendem Verdacht ließen sich diese Zahlen objektivieren. Trotz des Bewusstseins einer zunehmenden Gefährdung von Pferden durch Wölfe unternehmen Pferdehalter überwiegend keine prophylaktischen Schutzmaßnahmen. Die Kommunikation zwischen den für das Wolfsmonitoring zuständigen Behörden und den Pferdehaltern erscheint verbesserungswürdig.

Understanding drivers of human tolerance to gray wolves and brown bears as a strategy to improve landholder–carnivore coexistence

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2020

Despite recent recovery of large carnivores throughout Europe such as the brown bear (Ursus arctos) and the gray wolf (Canis lupus), some of their populations are still threatened and their viability depends on human tolerance to share mixed landscapes. We investigated the drivers of landholders' tolerance in Abruzzo (Italy), a region with a long history of cohabitation, by applying the Wildlife Tolerance Model (WTM) (Kansky et al., 2016, Biological Conservation, 201, 137–145). Using structural equation modeling we assessed relationships between WTM variables. This framework hypothesizes that exposure to a species and experiences with a species drive perceptions of benefits and costs, and ultimately tolerance. We then sought to understand similarities and differences in tolerance drivers between the two species and across two areas that differed in the duration of human–carnivore cohabitation. Results showed both similarities and differences in drivers between species and areas, resulting in seven management proposals to foster tolerance. Increasing intangible benefits and positive experiences were two strategies that were similar for both species and areas, while five strategies differed across species and areas. Our methodological approach can be applied in other landscapes with other species to determine the extent to which multispecies management across landscapes is possible.

PLANO DE AÇÃO PARA A CONSERVAÇÃO DO LOBO-IBÉRICO EM PORTUGAL. Situação de Referência.

Technical Report

Full-text available

Oct 2015

Documento que compila a informação mais atual sobre o lobo-ibérico em Portugal, relevante para o Plano de Ação para a Conservação do Lobo-Ibérico em Portugal (PACLobo).

Foraging theory provides a useful framework for livestock predation management

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2019
J NAT CONSERV

A societal shift toward plant dominant diets and a reduction in livestock rearing could have broad social, environmental and conservation benefits. Livestock husbandry, however, has a wealthy cultural history, strong support and high consumer demand. It is therefore likely to continue as a major land use and conservation issue for predators. From a producer’s perspective, the primary goals of livestock protection are maximising, or at least maintaining, production by minimising losses and mitigating detriment to stock welfare. Lethal removal of predators remains a commonplace solution. Such management measures are questionable as they raise animal welfare and conservation concerns, risk inhibiting ecological processes, are often expensive, and in some circumstances, exacerbate livestock predation problems. Non-lethal alternatives can facilitate co-existence between livestock farmers and predators, ideally reducing the ecological impact of pastoralism and achieving conservation goals. The need for rigorous study of non-lethal approaches has however been recently highlighted. Tools and methods involved in livestock protection, as well as the theoretical basis of how we perceive and manage the problem, require deeper consideration. Non-lethal approaches require knowledgeable implementation and an effective decision making system is a prerequisite for successful practice. Livestock predation and its prevention are fundamentally influenced by the underlying principles of foraging ecology and risk theory. We propose that manipulating elements of Brown’s (1988) quitting harvest rate model provides a useful conceptual framework for reducing livestock predation and encouraging coexistence.

Impacts of On-shore Wind Farms in Wildlife Communities: Direct Fatalities and Indirect Impacts (Behavioural and Habitat Effects)

Chapter

Sep 2018

In addition to its immense environmental benefits, the great expansion of wind energy generates simultaneous concerns about its adverse impacts. The impacts have been identified for human populations, landscape and wildlife, but, due to direct fatality, birds and bats are the groups for which scientists are most concerned. Due to renewable energy goals, Portugal has witnessed a great development of wind energy in recent years, with a substantial part of its mountainous areas occupied by on-shore wind turbines. In this chapter we present a literature review on the major impacts that wind energy has on birds and bats, but also in terrestrial mammals, because of the evidence of disturbance and/or displacement of more sensitive species, mostly during the operation phase. Despite there are few published data, we focus the research on Portuguese examples. Some considerations of evaluation of the impacts and cumulative impacts are also made.

Pferd und Wolf - Wege zur Koexistenz

Technical Report

Full-text available

Sep 2015

Since the year 2000, people and wolves have again been sharing the same habitat in Germany. The return of the wolves poses new challenges especially for animal keepers. In Lower Saxony, the “Land of the Horse”, horse keepers in particular are finding themselves in a new situation. While there are clear-cut regulations for the protection of sheep, information on the interaction between horses and wolves has not been available. To fill this gap, experts from the Nature and Biodiversity Conservation Union (NABU), Pferdeland Niedersachsen GmbH and the Trakehner Association have joined hands with mammalian biologists and scientists from the University of Hildes-heim to offer a contribution towards a low-conflict coexistence of horses and wolves. The goal has been to create a manual that both summarizes the current state of re-search and offers horse keepers practical recommendations on how to deal with the presence of wolves in their specific region.

Guidelines for gray wolf management in the northern Great Lakes Regiont

Article

Full-text available

Jan 1997

Todd Fuller

Three important factors affecting gray wolf (Canis lupus) distribution and density, and thus the keys to understanding their ecology and management, are food, human-caused deaths, and adequate source populations. In these management guidelines, I summarize current knowledge of wolf population biology and emphasize the ways wolf numbers change. Specific actions required to manage wolves in the norther Great Lakes region, whether recovering or overpopulating, are identified. The ways to evaluate the results of management actions and to identify additional areas of research need to improve management efficiency are outlined. Clearer understanding of wolf biology allows more judicious consideration for the important political ramifications and human dimensions of wolf management.

Population dynamics of wolves in northcentral Minnesota

Article

Full-text available

Jan 1989

Todd Fuller

During September 1980-December 1986, 81 radio-collared wolves (Canis lupus) were monitored in and near the 839-km2 Bearville Study Area )BSA) in north-central Minnesota. Each year winter-territory size averaged 78-153 km2; no territories had road densities >0.72 km/km2. From zero to 30% of radiomarked pup, yearling, or adult wolves left their territories each month. Pups left natal packs during January-March and older wolves left frequently during September-April. Wolves temporarily leaving territories moved 5-105 km away and were absent 3-118 days; up to 6 exploratory moves were made prior to dispersal. Dispersing wolves traveled 5-100 km away during periods of 1-265 days. One disperser joined and established pack, but 16 others formed new packs. Annual dispersal rates were about 0.17 for adults, 0.49 for yearlings, and 0.10 for pups. Each year mean pack size ranged from 5-9 in November/December to 4-6 in March. Annual wolf density (including 16% lone wolves) ranged from 39-59 wolves/1,000 km2 in November-December and 29-40 wolves/1,000 km2 in March. Annual immigration was 7%. The observed mean annual finite rate of increase was 1.02, and annual rates of increase were correlated with mean number of pups per pack in November. Litters averaged 6.6 pups at birth and 3.2 pups by mid-November, at which time pups made up 46% of pack members. Annual survival of radio-marked wolves >5 months old was 0.64. Despite legal protection, 80% of identified wolf mortality was human caused (30% shot, 12% snared, 11% hit by vehicles, 6% killed by government trappers, and 21% kill by humans in some undetermined manner); 10% of wolves that died were killed by other wolves. During sample periods in 2 winters, wolves were located twice daily to estimate predation rates on white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). Estimated minimum kill rates during January-February (x = 21 days/kill/wolf) did not differ between winters with differing snow depths. Winter consumption averaged 2.0 kg deer/wolf/day (6% body wt/day). Scat analyses indicated deer were the primary prey in winter and spring, but beaver (Castor canadensis) were an important secondary prey (20-47% of items in scats) during April-May. Neonatal deer fawns occurred in 25-60% of scats during June-July whereas the occurrence of beaver declined markedly. Overall, deer provided 79-98% of biomass consumed each month. Adult wolves consumed an estimated 19/year, of which 11 were fawns. A review of North American studies indicates that wolf numbers are directly related to ungulate biomass. Where deer are primary prey, territory size is related to deer density. Per capita biomass availability likely affects pup survival, the major factor in wolf population growth. Annual rates of increase of exploited populations vary directly with mortality rates, and harvest exceeding 28% of the winter population often result in declines. Management decisions concerning wolf and ungulate density and ungulate harvest by humans can be made using equations that incorporate estimate of wolf density, annual ungulated kill per wolf, ungulate densities, potential rate of increase for ungulates, and harvest.

The Practices of Wolf Persecution, Protection, and Restoration in Canada and the United States

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2004
BIOSCIENCE

Wolf management can be controversial, reflecting a wide range of public attitudes. We analyzed wolf management case histories representing a spectrum of approaches in Canada and the United States. During the early 20th century, wolves were considered undesirable. They were subject to persecution and were extirpated from large areas of their original range. With increased environmental awareness in the 1970s, attitudes toward wolves began to change. Wolf conservation became a focus of public interest, providing conditions that favored regional wolf recovery. However, in regions where livestock production or big-game hunting is valued, wolves have continued to be controlled by management authorities or through the actions of individual citizens. With US wolf populations recovering in the conterminous states, a rule was approved to delist the species from endangered to threatened status under the Endangered Species Act. Notwithstanding the intent of legal instruments, history has demonstrated that societal values ultimately determine the survival of species such as the wolf.

Human impact on wolf activity in the Bieszczady Mountains, SE Poland

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2007

until recently. The radio tracked wolves of three packs moved throughout the day with one major peak around dawn. Wolves avoided the area around main public roads more at night (up to a distance of 1.5 km) than in the day (up to 0.5 km). Wolves avoided a 0.5-km area around secondary public roads and paved forest roads both at night and in the day but did not avoid the surroundings of settlements. As compared with other studies, wolves in this study were the least nocturnal although human density was the highest. We conclude that human activity is unlikely to be the reason for nocturnal activity in wolves.

Habitat evaluation for the Iberian wolf Canis lupus in Picos de Europa National Park, Spain

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2004
APPL GEOGR

Luis Cayuela

A GIS multivariate model based on the Mahalanobis distance statistic is proposed to evaluate habitat suitability for the wolf Canis lupus in northern Spain. Results derived from the model show that wolves can potentially thrive in some habitats on the southern and western side of the study area where conflicts with the human population are minimum. However, some other areas that have been recently occupied by wolves were determined as largely unsuitable. If appropriate management strategies are not implemented, negative human attitudes towards wolves could increase. The consequences of this might be a rise in unregulated killing of wolves in both suitable and unsuitable areas.

A history and current status of wolf distribution and numbers in Minnesota

Article

Full-text available

Jan 1992

Eastern timber wolf Canis lupus lycaon once ranged throughout Minnesota, but by the early 1900s, they were restricted to the forsted NE half of the state. By the early 1950s, 500-700 wolves lived in c31 000km2 of major range (occupied by reproducing packs), mostly within 100km of Canada. By 1965, when Minnesota terminated bounties, perhaps 350-700 wolves remained. About 750 wolves were present in 1970 when their harvest was protected throughout Minnesota in 1974. By 1979, an estimated 1235 wolves inhabited 36 500km2 of major range, an annual finite rate of increase (λ) of 1.06 since 1970. By winter 1982-1983, range occupied by reproducing packs had expanded farther W and S and covered 57 050km2. During winter 1988-1989, survey results, combined with GIS data, indicated wolf packs occupied a minimum of 53 100km2. Extrapolations of winter wolf territory and pack size, as well as ratios of wolf:ungulate biomass, indicate that Minnesota's wolf population had increased to 1500-1750 since 1979 (λ=1.03). Future increase depends on the extent to which wolf packs colonize an additional 11 500km2 of potential range with road densities <0.70km/km2 or human densities <4 people/km2, abundance of ungulate prey, and the level of human-caused mortality. -from Authors

Prey selection and predation by wolves in Białowieża Primeval Forest, Poland

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2000

Relationships of wolves (Canis lupus) and ungulates were studied in the Polish part of Biaowieza Primeval Forest with high densities of prey. The number of wolves ranged from 7 to 19, and the number of packs ranged from 2 to 4. Average densities were 2.3 wolves/ 100 km 2. Red deer (Cervus elaphus) was the main prey of wolves. Roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), wild boar (Sus scrofa), moose (Alces alces), and European bison (Bison bon- asus) were hunted less than expected based on their abundance. Mean mass of ungulates killed by wolves was 55 kg. Prey were consumed quickly, with 57% of kills completely eaten on the 1st day after killing. Average killing rate by wolves was 0.78 ungulate per wolf pack per day (0.14 prey item per wolf per day). Results of this study combined with the data obtained in the Belarussian part of Biaowieza Primeval Forest in 1946-1985 allowed for analysis of dietary response of wolves to changes in densities of ungulates. Wolves showed a response to abundance of red deer. The amount of other ungulates in their diet depended on the densities of red deer. From 1991 to 1996, wolves annually removed 57-105 red deer, 19-38 wild boar, 19-25 roe deer, and 0-2 moose per 100 km 2. Those amounts were equivalent to 9-13% of spring-summer densities of red deer, 4-8% of wild boar, 3-4% of roe deer, and 0-29% of moose. Additionally, hunters annually harvested 131-140 red deer, 44-114 roe deer, 1-7 moose, and 45-142 wild boar per 100 km 2. Effects of predation and harvest by hunters on ungulate mortality were likely additive and caused declines in ungulate populations during our study.

Lobo na região oeste de Trás-os-Montes (Portugal)

Article

Full-text available

Nov 1999

Kill Rates and Predation by Wolves on Ungulate Populations in Bialowieza Primeval Forest (Poland)

Article

Full-text available

May 2002

Wolf (Canis lupus) kill rates, factors affecting their variation, and predation impact on ungulates were studied in the Polish part of Białowieża Primeval Forest (580 km2). With the mean size of hunting groups being 4.4 individuals, wolves killed, on average, 0.513 ± 0.04 prey · (pack)-1· d-1 (mean ± 1 SE); 63% of prey were red deer (Cervus elaphus), 28% were wild boar (Sus scrofa), and 4% were roe deer (Capreolus capreolus). Per capita kill rate averaged 0.116 ungulates ·(wolf)-1· d-1, and daily food intake was 5.58 ± 0.32 kg·(wolf)-1· d-1 . Kill rate on red deer was affected by snow cover (P -1· d-1), when piglets were present, than in autumn-winter (0.106 ± 0.04 boar · (pack)-1· d^{-1). Annually, wolves killed on average 72 red deer, 16 roe deer, and 31 wild boar over a 100-km2 area. Compared to prey densities, wolves were an important agent of mortality for red deer only, taking annually 12% of spring-summer (seasonally highest) numbers of deer, which was equivalent to 40% of deer annual increase due to breeding and 40% of their annual mortality. Compared to winter densities (3-6 deer/km2), percentage predation by wolves was inversely density dependent; thus wolves limited deer numbers but did not regulate prey population. By eliminating a substantial proportion of the annual production of the deer population, wolves hamper its growth and prolong the time until it reaches carrying capacity of the habitat. However, wolf predation alone is a poor predictor of deer population dynamics, because deer are also subject to lynx (Lynx lynx) predation and hunting harvest.

Wolf response to two kind of barriers in an agricultural habitat in Spain

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2005

We examined the effect of two kinds of barriers on an expanding gray wolf, Canis lupus L., 1758, population in an agricultural habitat in north-central Spain. The barriers were (i) a four-lane fenced highway along a flat area without wildlife-crossing facilities, and (ii) the River Duero Artery (RDA), comprising the river itself (50-100 m wide) and several small infrastructures along it. From March 1997 to October 2001, all 4 radio-collared wolves living <15 km from the highway (1 adult territorial male, 1 territorial breeder female, 1 dispersing male, and 1 female in 3 periods of her life (territorial immature, disperser, and territorial breeder) crossed it on between 4% and 33% of 45-163 monitoring days via vehicle bridges. Moreover, 4 more highways that we monitored in areas without radio-collared wolves have not delayed expansion of the increasing wolf population, suggesting that these highways are not an important barrier for wolves in our study area. In contrast, only 3 of 8 wolves radio-collared <5 km from the RDA were detected crossing it, and 2 of those 3 started to cross it only after severe habitat disturbance; in addition, the RDA seems to have delayed wolf expansion for some 15 years, which suggests that it is a semipermeable barrier for wolves. We discuss the likely consequences of the RDA on the recovery of the Iberian wolf population.

O Lobo no Parque internacional Gerês-Xurés. Situação populacional, aspectos ecológicos e perspectivas de conservação

Article

Full-text available

Nov 1999

Influence of snow cover on wolf Canis lupus predation patterns in Bieszczady Mountains, Poland

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2004
WILDLIFE BIOL

Roman Gula

Sex, age, bone marrow fat (BMF) content, degree of carcass utilisation and terrain features were analysed for 118 ungulates killed by wolves Canis lupus in the Bieszczady Mountains, Poland, during the winters of 1992-1995 to assess the influence of snow depth on the wolves' predation patterns. In Bieszczady, the snow conditions during the study period were milder than average, with an average total annual snow depth of 1,372 cm and an average snow cover lasting for 94 days. Red deer Cervus elaphus were the primary wolf prey (81%), whereas wild boar Sus scrofa and roe deer Capreolus capreolus were killed less often (9% and 10%, respectively). The majority of prey (74%) was killed in creeks and ravines. The carcass exploitation by wolves was high; of the recovered prey, 55% was more than 60% consumed. The average condition of red deer, as based on BMF, was high (83.4%). BMF varied most among red deer stags and calves, and varied with annual snow depth (N = 29, P < 0.01; N = 28, P = 0.09) and monthly mean snow depth (τ = -0.37, P < 0.005; τ = -0.25, P = 0.06). Wolves killed adult red deer in creeks and ravines with the same frequency regardless of snow depth, whereas calves were killed less often in these places than should be expected from their overall proportion in the sample (N = 95, χ2 = 24.34, P < 0.001). During periods with thinner snow cover, consumption of red deer carcasses was slightly higher than during periods in which the snow cover was deep (τ = -0.42, P < 0.045).

Utilización espacio-temporal y hábitos alimentarios de un grupo reproductor de lobos en el Noroeste de Portugal

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2001

Spatio-temporal use and food habits of one wolfpack in the Northwest of Portugal With the objective of detecting diferences in the breeding period and in the pups independence period, one pack were studied, in 1998, in the Northwest of Portugal. The methodology consisted in radio tracking one adult male wolf, simulated wolf howling stations, realisation of Abundance Kilometric Indi- ces (IKA) of wolf signs and scat analysis. The reproduction of the studied pack was confirmed, presenting a minimum of 3 adults/subadults and 3 pups. The several facts that point out that the captured and radio- tracked wolf is the alpha male of the pack are discussed. This wolf presented a home range of 376,1 Km2, in which there were 3-4 activity centres, being the oak forests, the biotopos that had the individual's preference. The space utilisation presented by the radiomarked wolf was different between the two periods analysed- before and after the abandonment of the den site, with a larger amplitude in the movements during the first period. During the reproduction period the den site was very scent marked with excrements and its abandonment by the pups was slow and progressive from the mid-October on. The feeding habits analysis (n=105 scats) revealed the high importance of the domestic ungulates, with an occurrence frequency of 76,8%. The wild ungulates (roe deer and wild boar) represented 8,6% of the occurrences. The diet diversity of the studied pack was smaller after the abandonment of the den site by the pups.

Spatiotemporal Segregation of Wolves from Humans in the Bialowieza Forest (Poland)

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2003

Knowledge about the impact of human activity on the behavior of wolves (Canis lupus) is important to pre- dict habitats suitable for wolf recolonization and for planning management zones. We tested the hypothesis that wolves live spatiotemporally segregated from humans. From 1994 to 1999, we radiotracked 11 wolves in 4 packs and monitored human activity in the Bial /owiez . a Forest, Poland. Wolves avoided permanent human-made structures (settlements, forest edge to arable land, roads, tourist trails) more in the day than at night. Wolf avoidance increased with increasing human use. Particularly large settlements and intensively used public roads reduced the area used by wolves. Wolves avoided human presence in the forest (traffic, forestry operations) by temporarily selecting areas where people were absent. One of the wolf packs selected a national park zone with restriced access (50 km2) as the core area of its home range in both day and night. Conversely, wolf packs living in a commercial forest with small nature reserves (≤4 km2) did not select reserves in the day or night. We concluded that spa- tiotemporal segregation is an adaptation of wolves to coexist with humans while keeping their activity pattern opti- mized toward food acquisition. The distribution of areas with restricted human access, forest, settlements, and intensively used public roads are important factors determining the suitability of an area for wolves.

CHALLENGES FOR THE RECOVERY OF THE IBERIAN WOLF IN THE DOURO RIVER SOUTH REGION

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2002

Finnish wolves avoid roads and settlements

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2005

Kaartinen, S., Kojola, I. & Colpaert, C. 2005: Finnish wolves avoid roads and settlements. — Ann. Zool. Fennici 42: In press. The avoidance of roads and human settlements by wolves (Canis lupus) in a harvested population was studied in boreal woodland landscapes in east-central Finland with a low density of humans (2 km –2) and roads (0.4 km/km –2). The abundance of the pri-mary prey, i.e. moose, is moderate with approximately 50 moose per wolf within wolf pack territories. Twelve alpha wolves in six territories were captured, fitted with radio-collars, and ground-tracked during 1998–2002. The number of wolves has recently been increasing in Finland and they have also expanded their range. This in turn has raised a certain degree of concern among people living in the area, and the wolves are often perceived as a safety threat both to people and domestic animals. We found that wolves tended to avoid human constructions. The avoidance distances were highest for buildings (1000 m) and for roads (250 m). Extrapolating from the avoidance distances to give an estimate for the entire study area revealed that 48% of the study area would potentially be subject to reduced use by the wolf.

Dispersal patterns, social structure and mortality of wolves living in agricultural habitats in Spain

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Full-text available

Jun 2007
J ZOOL

Wolf Canis lupus dispersal, social structure and mortality have been extensively studied in natural and semi-natural areas of North America and northern Europe but have never been assessed in agricultural areas. From 1997 to 2004, 14 wolves (11 in a wolf-saturated area and three in a low-density area) were radio-collared with long-lasting transmitters in a Spanish agricultural area containing a high-human-population density, a dense network of roads and a shortage of wild ungulates. The wolves mainly feed on an overabundance of livestock carrion. Nine wolves (one of them, three times) dispersed during the study period. The mean age and distance of natal dispersal were 24.8 months and 32 km. The natal dispersal period was much longer in wolves radio-collared in the saturated area (mean >14.6 months) than in the low-density area (<1 month). All three of the dispersers living in the low-density area, and two of the six dispersers in the saturated area settled and bred during the study. The average tenure of six breeders was 4.5 years. The radio-collared wolves spent 72% of the monitoring time living in packs and the rest living in pairs, as dispersers or as peripheral wolves, but the percentage of loners was much higher in the saturated (33.5%) than in the low density (1.6%) areas. The overall annual mortality was 18% (lower than in most populations studied in less modified habitats), but lone wolves had a significantly higher mortality than members of packs and pairs. Nine wolves died during the study, none of them due to natural causes. In general, our results are very similar to those obtained in less modified habitats, except for the dispersal distance, which was much shorter than in other studies. We suggest that barriers and habitat constraints may reduce dispersal distances in our study area.

Predicting Human-Carnivore Conflict: A Spatial Model Derived from 25 Years of Data on Wolf Predation on Livestock

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Feb 2004

Many carnivore populations escaped extinction during the twentieth century as a result of legal protections, habitat restoration, and changes in public attitudes. However, encounters between carnivores, livestock, and humans are increasing in some areas, raising concerns about the costs of carnivore conservation. We present a method to predict sites of human-carnivore conflicts regionally, using as an example the mixed forest-agriculture landscapes of Wisconsin and Minnesota (U.S.A.). We used a matched-pair analysis of 17 landscape variables in a geographic information system to discriminate affected areas from unaffected areas at two spatial scales (townships and farms). Wolves (Canis lupus) selectively preyed on livestock in townships with high proportions of pasture and high densities of deer (Odocoileus virginianus) combined with low proportions of crop lands, coniferous forest, herbaceous wetlands, and open water. These variables plus road density and farm size also appeared to predict risk for individual farms when we considered Minnesota alone. In Wisconsin only, farm size, crop lands, and road density were associated with the risk of wolf attack on livestock. At the level of townships, we generated two state-wide maps to predict the extent and location of future predation on livestock. Our approach can be applied wherever spatial data are available on sites of conflict between wildlife and humans.

Presence of Iberian wolf (Canis lupus signatus) in relation to land cover, livestock and human influence in Portugal

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