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Interpersonal Expectancy Effects
Abstract
The research area of interpersonal expectancy effects originally derived from a general consideration of the effects of experimenters on the results of their research. One of these is the expectancy effect, the tendency for experimenters to obtain results they expect, not simply because they have correctly anticipated nature's response but rather because they have helped to shape that response through their expectations. When behavioral researchers expect certain results from their human (or animal) subjects they appear unwittingly to treat them in such a way as to increase the probability that they will respond as expected.
In the first few years of research on this problem of the interpersonal (or interorganism) self-fulfilling prophecy, the “prophet” was always an experimenter and the affected phenomenon was always the behavior of an experimental subject. In more recent years, however, the research has been extended from experimenters to teachers, employers, and therapists whose expectations for their pupils, employees, and patients might also come to serve as interpersonal self-fulfilling prophecies.
Our general purpose is to summarize the results of 345 experiments investigating interpersonal expectancy effects. These studies fall into eight broad categories of research: reaction time, inkblot tests, animal learning, laboratory interviews, psychophysical judgments, learning and ability, person perception, and everyday life situations. For the entire sample of studies, as well as for each specific research area, we (1) determine the overall probability that interpersonal expectancy effects do in fact occur, (2) estimate their average magnitude so as to evaluate their substantive and methodological importance, and (3) illustrate some methods that may be useful to others wishing to summarize quantitatively entire bodies of research (a practice that is, happily, on the increase).
... One can envision a variety of ways that this awareness could lead to additional conscious or unconscious changes in the clinicians' behaviors (e.g., preferential treatment) or verbal/nonverbal communication (e.g., more friendly and reassuring manner) that go beyond the expectancy intervention alone. This lack of blinding may, and probably does, result in experimenter bias (7,38,39), which can then contribute to spurious effects or overestimation of effect sizes. Although one might try to blind experimenters or study clinicians by not telling them about study hypotheses, their beliefs and assumptions about the intervention they are delivering can still bias outcomes. ...
... By delivering expectancy interventions within the app, expectations can be studied in isolation, disentangled from the effects of the patient-provider interaction. As such, expectancy interventions can be delivered at home, after seeing the clinician, thereby eliminating experimenter biases (7,39), or even fully remotely if the app is uploaded to an app store. ...
There is growing interest in interventions that enhance placebo responses in clinical practice, given the possibility that this would lead to better patient health and more effective therapy outcomes. Previous studies suggest that placebo effects can be maximized by optimizing patients' outcome expectations. However, expectancy interventions are difficult to validate because of methodological challenges, such as reliable blinding of the clinician providing the intervention. Here we propose a novel approach using mobile apps that can provide highly standardized expectancy interventions in a blinded manner, while at the same time assessing data in everyday life using experience sampling methodology (e.g., symptom severity, expectations) and data from smartphone sensors. Methodological advantages include: 1) full standardization; 2) reliable blinding and randomization; 3) disentangling expectation effects from other factors associated with face-to-face interventions; 4) assessing short-term (days), long-term (months), and cumulative effects of expectancy interventions; and 5) investigating possible mechanisms of change. Randomization and expectancy interventions can be realized by the app (e.g., after the clinic/lab visit). As a result, studies can be blinded without the possibility for the clinician to influence study outcomes. Possible app-based expectancy interventions include, for example, verbal suggestions and imagery exercises, although a large number of possible interventions (e.g., hypnosis) could be evaluated using this innovative approach.
... First, experimental manipulations of FTP might lack selfrelevance or emotional salience for some individuals, as moving across the country or receiving a lifetime bonus of 20 years means different things to different people. In addition, the presence of the test administrator might add a bias resulting from the tendency to be consistent with social expectations when being confronted, for instance, with a vignette (Rosenthal & Rubin, 1978). ...
Objectives:
Socio-emotional selectivity theory implies that an individual's motives change over their lifespan, starting with a focus on information seeking and shifting toward the motivation of maintaining emotionally meaningful social relationships in old age. The concept of future time perspective serves as an underlying mechanism for this phenomenon.
Methods:
This study aimed to capture how social motivation changes as a result of the manipulation of one's own visual appearance. Thus, the explicit age stereotypes of N = 74 participants were assessed, among other covariates. The following intervention consisted of a virtual reality (VR) scenario in which the experimental group embodied an old age avatar and the control group a young age avatar.
Results:
Changes in social motivation were assessed using the concept of socio-emotional selectivity based on imagined situational preferences. Results with strong effect sizes indicate that changes in social motivation commonly connected with old age might be caused by visual cues when actively embodying a virtual avatar.
... In his writing on the role of the experimenter in behavioral research, Robert Rosenthal explained as follows: "[W]hatever we can learn about the experimenter and his interaction with his subject becomes uniquely important to the behavioral scientist" (Rosenthal, 1976). 1 Indeed, the role of the experimenter was of high importance and received great interest in the 1960s and 1970s, which was in conjunction with the boom of experimental and cognitive psychology (Higbee & Wells, 1972). Research on experimenters' roles focused thus far on how (1) the characteristics of the experimenter, such as gender or race and his or her congruence with the participants' characteristics, impacted both participant performance and experimenter rating (Rumenik, Capasso, & Hendrick, 1977;Sattler, 1970) and (2) studies examined the role of the experimenter's expectations and how the performance of different study groups changes accordingly (Rosenthal & Rubin, 1978). These findings were the basis of experimental practices used today, such as blind and double-blind experimenting, aimed to eliminate the role of the experimenters' expectancies on study results. ...
There is a growing interest in the effects of social engagement on cognition, yet, research on the effects of social engagement with the experimenter in empirical contexts has been sparse. During an experiment, the experimenter and participant form a dyad, establishing a certain level of rapport-a sense of a positive and congruent relationship. This rapport is thought to promote performance by providing a comfortable testing environment, thereby reducing resource demand, and enhancing participant engagement and willingness to exert effort to perform. The current study sought to better understand the role of rapport by examining the effects of perceived rapport on effortful control, that is, inhibition and shifting, in an experimental setting among children with and without attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Forty-nine children (9 to 12 years old) were divided into two groups based on ADHD classification (i.e., typically developing children, n = 27; children with ADHD, n = 22). Participants completed the day/night Stroop task and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task following a short rapport-building conversation with the experimenter. Later, both participant and experimenter filled the CHARM questionnaire reporting the rapport constructed during the experiment. Results show moderating effects of ADHD on the relationship between perceived rapport quality and congruency, and participant's executive functions performance. Specifically, children with ADHD showed higher susceptibility to rapport quality and were impervious to the effects of rapport congruency. Results highlight the importance of rapport with the experimenter in experimental research and suggest incorporating considerations concerning rapport, both in designing the experimental paradigm as well as an independent factor affecting task performance and outcome. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).
... Interpersonal biases in SBF procedure 109 When an experimenter has expectations about what should be observed, data 110 collection is likely to be biased by these expectations (Gilder & Heerey, 2018;Klein et 111 al., 2012;Orne, 1962;Rosenthal, 1963Rosenthal, , 1964Rosenthal & Rubin, 1978;Zoble & 112 Lehman, 1969). ...
In this article we discuss the use of the Sequential Bayes Factor (SBF) procedure as introduced by Schönbrodt et al. (2017) when confronted with real world data, which contrary to simulated data can be complicated to handle. For example, when fitting a model to real world data several choices must be made to ensure that subsequent model comparisons are sensible. The SBF procedure itself is expected to inform us about the adequate sample size to reach a conclusion based on sequential accumulating data. Accordingly, we suggest that one should also prepare the data in a sequential way before computing a Bayes Factor. We propose a full automation procedure, in line with the preregistration philosophy and allowing analyses blinding. We provide recommendations on how to implement this without additional costs, while taking into account the specificity of the sequential testing situation.
... It is a well-established principle that one person's expectations can be conveyed to another in such a manner that it will influence their response, leading them to behave as expected (Rosenthal & Rubin, 1978). The social influence exerted by expectancy effects can occur quite inadvertently, without intent, and without the person exerting the influence even being aware it is happening (see Rosenthal, 2002 for a review). ...
Two experiments were conducted to see if asking witnesses to take another look at the lineup after they voiced their identification decisions would alter their choices, and if confirming feedback could then be used to solidify the selections they shifted to. Participants watched a simulated crime and were asked to identify the culprit from a photographic lineup. After voicing their identification decisions, participants were prompted to reexamine the lineup. Half of the participants then received confirming feedback for their decisions, regardless of whether they shifted to a new picture or not. Later on, a different experimenter escorted participants to a second room and administered the same lineup again. In Experiment 1 (N = 432), biased instructions were used to encourage choosing, and when participants were prompted to reexamine the lineup, 70% changed their identification decisions and selected a different picture. When that new selection was reinforced with feedback and participants were given a second opportunity to identify the culprit at a later time, 72% selected the picture they shifted to as the culprit. Participants who made their decisions more quickly were less likely to shift, but accuracy did not predict shifting. This general pattern of findings was replicated using unbiased instructions in Experiment 2 (N = 237). Results suggest that prompting witnesses to reexamine the lineup can often lead witnesses to change their identification decisions, and when the altered choice is reinforced, they will often stay with that influenced decision over time, asserting it with a high degree of confidence.
... Finally, considering extensive work on expectancy effects within the psychology literature (e.g., Rosenthal & Rubin, 1978), coaching practitioners and researchers must be cognisant of the potential for an interpersonal expectancy effect that may have enhanced TFA putting performance. While all these explanations seem reasonable, we favour the idea that improved internal intention may best explain why a novel putting approach did not contribute to a decrement in golfers' putting performance in this study. ...
This study addressed several inconsistencies and omissions in golf putting research by testing the performance impact of target focused aiming. Participants were 22 high-level and experienced golfers, currently using ball focused aiming. Participants were allocated in a quasi-random fashion to ball or target focused aiming conditions and each performed 32 putts under competitive conditions on a natural putting green from a distance of 8 ft. Data were recorded as putts holed or missed and further categorised into putts missed long, short, left, right, short left, short right, long left and long right. There was no significant difference between conditions (p > 0.05) for any of the categories tested, despite participants’ prior extreme familiarity and expressed preference for the ball focused technique. These results notwithstanding, we discuss possible explanations for target focused benefits, including the role of vision during putting, the impact of intention during execution and possible expectancy effects. While these findings hold potential implications for golf coaching, more research is clearly required to further understand causative mechanisms and to clarify the existence and nature of advantage for one technique over the other. Based on this study, we recommend that high-level and experienced golfers might try target focused aiming as a ‘cost-free’ experiment.
... In the further context of psychologically recognized occurrences in the laboratory situation, effects of compliance (Asch, 1951), social desirability ( Crowne and Marlowe, 1960), experimenter expectancies ( Rosenthal and Rubin, 1978), the Hawthorne effect (Landsberger, 1958) or framing (Tversky and Kahneman, 1981) all become relevant. Together they illuminate the remarkable impact of the laboratory as an arena or situation on the experimental subjects. ...
Problem-solving research in the field of psychology has been closely linked to laboratory investigations throughout its development. However, there is a questionable conceptual assumption underlying this commitment to the laboratory, namely the assumption that one can reduce all problem-solving behavior to a cognitive mechanism. Upon validating this assumption from a phenomenological standpoint, doubts about its foundations emerge. For when we consider the experiential conditions that characterize a problematic situation, we come to determine several phenomenal aspects that are not taken into account in this approach. A phenomenologically revised notion of the problem therefore demands a modification of the scope of the empirical research. First, this paper investigates the configuration of the laboratory as an arena of experience based on Lewin’s field theory. This investigation indicates instructions as a key component of the laboratory. Second, a phenomenological description proposes a novel understanding of the problem. In this part it is shown that it is wrong to presume that problematic situations can be evoked arbitrarily by instructions. Finally, further contemplations help outlining the empirical requirements for exhaustive research. They call for novel paradigms in empirical psychology, such as live streaming, which are more faithful to the phenomenology of problems.
... Previous studies have shown that clients can perceive the expectations of their providers [e.g., Refs. (36,86)]. As interpersonal expectations are mostly communicated through NBs [e.g., Ref. (38)], positive NBs of experimenters/clinicians can be interpreted as a sign of satisfactory functioning or results and lead to decrease in negative emotions and subsequently lower pain reports, whereas negative NBs can be assumed as a sign of negative forthcoming results and lead to higher pain reports. ...
Previous research has indicated that the sex, status, and non-verbal behaviors of experimenters or clinicians can contribute to reported pain, and placebo and nocebo effects in patients or research participants. However, no systematic review has been published.
Objective: To investigate the effects of experimenter/clinician characteristics and non-verbal behavior on pain, placebo, and nocebo effects.
Methods: Using EmBase, Web of Knowledge, and PubMed databases, several literature searches were conducted to find studies that investigated the effects of the experimenter’s/clinician’s sex, status and non-verbal behaviors on pain, placebo, and nocebo effects.
Results: Thirty-four studies were included, twenty on the effects of characteristics of the experimenter/clinician, eleven on the role of non-verbal behaviors, and three on the effects of both non-verbal behaviors and characteristics of experimenters/clinicians on pain and placebo/nocebo effects. Experimenters/clinicians induced lower pain report in participants of the opposite sex. Furthermore, higher confidence, competence, and professionalism of experimenters/clinicians resulted in lower pain report and higher placebo effects, whereas lower status of experimenters/clinicians such as lower confidence, competence, and professionalism generated higher reported pain and lower placebo effects. Positive non-verbal behaviors (e.g. smiling, strong tone of voice, more eye contact, more leaning toward the patient/participant, and more body gestures) contributed to lower reported pain and higher placebo effects, whereas negative non-verbal behaviors (i.e. no smile, monotonous tone of voice, no eye contact, leaning backward from the participant/patient, and no body gestures) contributed to higher reported pain and nocebo effects.
Conclusion: Characteristics and non-verbal behaviors of experimenters/clinicians contribute to the elicitation and modulation of pain, placebo and nocebo effects.
... The reasons behind this recommendation are numerous and compelling. From a basic theoretical standpoint, a long history of psychological research into expectancy effects has shown that one's beliefs towards a target can subtly influence one's behavior in a manner that elicits the expected effects from the target (Rosenthal & Rubin, 1978). With respect to lineups in particular, non-blind lineup administration has been shown to produce numerous deleterious outcomes, including (a) increasing the likelihood of false identifications (Charman & Quiroz, 2016;Greathouse & Kovera, 2009;Phillips, McAuliff, Kovera, & Cutler, 1999); (b) increasing the confidence with which false identifications are made (Charman & Quiroz;Garrioch & Brimacombe, 2001); (c) biasing lineup administrators' recording of witness behaviors by making them less likely to record a filler identification as a positive identification (Rodriguez & Berry, 2014); (d) leading to less complete note-taking among real-world lineup administrators (Steblay, 2011); and (e) providing an opportunity for lineup administrators to give post-identification feedback to witnesses, which can distort witnesses' confidence reports (Dysart, Lawson, & Rainey, 2012). ...
Administering lineups ‘blind'—whereby the administrator does not know the identity of the suspect—is considered part of best practices for lineups. The current study tests whether non‐blind lineup administrators would evaluate ambiguous eyewitness statements, and the witness him/herself, in a manner consistent with their beliefs. College students (n = 219) were told the identity of the suspect or not before administering a lineup to a confederate‐witness who made an ambiguous response (e.g., “it could be #3 but I'm not sure”). When ambiguous witness statements matched administrators' beliefs regarding the suspect (compared to when they mismatched administrators' beliefs, or administrators had no belief), administrators (a) were significantly more likely to record the statement as an identification (as opposed to a ‘not sure' response); (b) were significantly less likely to make statements that might lead the witness away from the suspect; and (c) evaluated the witness's viewing conditions significantly more positively.
... This also means that the well-established phenomenon of expectancy effects (Rosenthal & Rubin, 1978), where investigator bias inadvertently influences outcomes, is likely to often be operating. It is the importance of such effects that justifies the additional cost and complexity involved in organising double-blind studies (as used in drug trials) when these are feasible. ...
... A great many other studies have since replicated effects of this kind (Rosenthal & Rubin, 1978). It is unlikely that such an experiment would be considered ethically acceptable today (British Educational Research Association, 2018). ...
Experimental studies are often employed to test the effectiveness of teaching innovations such as new pedagogy, curriculum, or learning resources. This article offers guidance on good practice in developing research designs, and in drawing conclusions from published reports. Random control trials potentially support the use of statistical inference, but face a number of potential threats to validity. Research in educational contexts often employs quasi-experiments or natural experiments rather than true experiments, and these types of designs raise additional questions about the equivalence between experimental and control groups and the potential influence of confounding variables. Where it is impractical for experimental studies to employ samples that fully reflect diverse populations, generalisation is limited. Series of small-scale replication studies may be useful here, especially if these are conceptualised as being akin to multiple case studies, and complemented by qualitative studies. Control conditions for experimental studies need to be carefully selected to provide the most appropriate test for a particular intervention, and considering the interests of all participants. Control groups in studies that replicate innovations that have been widely shown to be effective in other settings should experience teaching conditions that reflect good practice and meet expected teaching standards in the research context.
... Further, study participants were not aware of different study groups. Thus, the study results are not biased by problems in randomization, allocation concealment or experimenter bias (Clark, Fairhurst, & Torgerson, 2016;Rosenthal & Rubin, 1978). Some limitations need to be considered. ...
Background:
Focusing on pain while completing a pain diary might have detrimental effects on pain intensity. Inverted comfort ratings might be used instead.
Methods:
A fully remote app-based registered experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of a pain vs. comfort diary on 7-day recall ratings of pain intensity during a three-week period. The diary included questions about past, current and expected pain or comfort. Randomization took place by the study app, thereby controlling for effects of experimenter bias.
Results:
Contrary to the study hypothesis, multilevel regression showed a more pronounced decrease in 7-day recall ratings of pain in the group who rated pain intensity daily (N = 184) than in the group who rated comfort daily (N = 205, B = -0.17, p = 0.034). There were no between-group differences in secondary outcomes (comfort, depressive symptoms, pain interference, and happiness). Exploratory analyses revealed more pronounced decreases in pain intensity in participants who experienced less frequent pain in the previous six months. Correlations between pain and comfort ratings decreased from -0.39 at baseline to -0.06 after three weeks.
Conclusions:
The findings do not support the potential beneficial effects of replacing diary ratings of pain intensity with diary ratings of comfort. The unexpected decreases among those who completed daily pain diaries might have been due to the inclusion of questions about expected pain. Decreasing correlations between pain and comfort ratings suggest that comfort ratings are not merely inverted pain ratings; rather, they appear to assess a domain distinct from pain intensity. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
... These effects have been called the Pygmalion and Golem effects when expectations are, respectively, overly positive and overly negative. Relevant studies in a wide range of fields date to the 1970s; see, for example, Rosenthal and Rubin (1978) for an early review. ...
In this Research Commentary, the author explores what is meant by “teaching for understanding” and delves into these questions: How does teaching for understanding interact with the backgrounds of the students who experience it or the attributes of the contexts in which they learn? Which empirical findings are context dependent, and which are mere statistical artifacts?
... When an experimenter has expectations about what should be observed, data collection is likely to be biased by these expectations (Gilder & Heerey, 2018;Klein et al., 2012;Orne, 1962;Rosenthal, 1963;Rosenthal, 1964;Rosenthal & Rubin, 1978;Zoble & Lehman, 1969). One solution to prevent this bias is to make sure that experimenters are blind to the experimental conditions. ...
Despite many cultural, methodological, and technical improvements, one of the major obstacle to results reproducibility remains the pervasive low statistical power. In response to this problem, a lot of attention has recently been drawn to sequential analyses. This type of procedure has been shown to be more efficient (to require less observations and therefore less resources) than classical fixed-N procedures. However, these procedures are submitted to both intrapersonal and interpersonal biases during data collection and data analysis. In this tutorial, we explain how automation can be used to prevent these biases. We show how to synchronise open and free experiment software programs with the Open Science Framework and how to automate sequential data analyses in R. This tutorial is intended to researchers with beginner experience with R but no previous experience with sequential analyses is required.
In self-determination theory, Ryan and Deci (2017) propose that psychological well-being is based on three innate psychological needs: relatedness, competence, and autonomy. The perception of autonomy in particular has positive effects on students’ well-being and the quality of experience in educational settings. A positive effect of perceived autonomy on students’ interest has already been empirically documented. Still, there is a lack of studies that investigate the positive effects of autonomy-supportive teaching behaviour in the areas they are especially needed such as learning environments with uninteresting topics. In our study, 159 secondary school students (MAge = 11.49 ± 0.63 years) participated in four biology lessons on the topic nutrition and digestion. Three of the six investigated classes were taught by an autonomy-supportive teacher while the others were taught in a controlling manner. A comparison of both treatments revealed significant differences in students’ perceived autonomy and their psychological state of interest. Furthermore, the students’ individual interest in biological topics had an impact on their psychological state of interest. Most interestingly, we found that the autonomy-supportive teaching behaviour was particularly beneficial for the students with low individual interest in biological topics.
This special issue marks the 50th anniversary of the landmark Pygmalion experiment (Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1968). It offers contributions from across the globe, attesting to universal features of teacher expectancy effects. Reviews of this history underscore controversy, advances, and few intervention studies. Empirical studies emphasise teacher expectancy effects at group, classroom, and school levels, contrast expectation measures, and explore longitudinal and developmental perspectives, advancing the field. Despite headway, I argue that the field’s contested history has stifled its fullest investigation. Conclusions drawn – not replicable, small and dissipating effects, and largely accurate teacher expectations – have underestimated Pygmalion’s power and limited investment in intervention research to promote positive educational prophecies, especially for students placed at the margins. It is time for a greater articulation of the conditions under which expectancy effects are most powerful. It is also time to apply our tremendous knowledge towards the design and evaluation of positive expectancy interventions.
We recently presented evidence indicating limited efficacy of custom-molded headcases in reducing head motion in two naturalistic experimental contexts - passive movie watching, and speaking in the scanner (Jolly et al., 2020). In a commentary on this work, Lynch et al (2020) present additional data that support the original findings of (Power et al., 2019) and raise several potential issues with our recent work. We appreciate the opportunity to address these criticisms and raise additional points that should be considered when interpreting these conflicting findings. We do not believe that their criticisms diminish the value of our work, but instead, along with this reply, help better elucidate the key factors researchers should consider to make the most informed choice about their own research protocols.
False memories of autobiographical events can create enormous problems in forensic settings (e.g., false accusations). While multiple studies succeeded in inducing false memories in interview settings, we present research trying to reverse this effect (and thereby reduce the potential damage) by means of two ecologically valid strategies. We first successfully implanted false memories for two plausible autobiographical events (suggested by the students’ parents, alongside two true events). Over three repeated interviews, participants developed false memories (measured by state-of-the-art coding) of the suggested events under minimally suggestive conditions (27%) and even more so using massive suggestion (56%). We then used two techniques to reduce false memory endorsement, source sensitization (alerting interviewees to possible external sources of the memories, e.g., family narratives) and false memory sensitization (raising the possibility of false memories being inadvertently created in memory interviews, delivered by a new interviewer). This reversed the false memory build-up over the first three interviews, returning false memory rates in both suggestion conditions to the baseline levels of the first interview (i.e., to ∼15% and ∼25%, respectively). By comparison, true event memories were endorsed at a higher level overall and less affected by either the repeated interviews or the sensitization techniques. In a 1-y follow-up (after the original interviews and debriefing), false memory rates further dropped to 5%, and participants overwhelmingly rejected the false events. One strong practical implication is that false memories can be substantially reduced by easy-to-implement techniques without causing collateral damage to true memories.
Pygmalion and charisma are mutually compatible leadership constructs that beg integration. They share some basic assumptions about human nature, about how leaders lead, and about how they could lead more effectively. Nevertheless, for the most part these constructs are discussed in disparate academic literatures. The present treatise integrates these somewhat divergent yet partially overlapping approaches to leadership and management. The differences between Pygmalion and charismatic leadership, and the commonalities that they share, are explicated. The aim is to understand better how leaders affect followers and how they can exert their influence with greater effectiveness. Some ideas for further research and for more effective management practice based on integration of Pygmalion and charisma constructs are presented. The result is a description of “charismatic Pygmalion,” an integrated management style that embodies both leadership constructs.
In meta‐analysis, the choice between different models is recognized as important and as requiring empirical and theoretical justification. However, researchers are often unclear on how to make this choice. Each kind of model makes assumptions and brings implications regarding the generalizations that can be made from the data. The present article summarizes standard understandings of fixed versus random model concepts with special focus on a choice not often discussed: that between a weighted random effects model and an unweighted random effects model. The weighted effects approach is currently predominant as a random effects model, while the unweighted model, although once prevalent, is rarely used anymore. The present article revives the unweighted model as a legitimate, practical, and sometimes preferable alternative. The unweighted effects model allows the fullest generalization to future and unretrieved studies and is easiest to implement, although it is generally the most conservative and therefore typically has the least statistical power.
Short description: This article summarizes the meaning and usage of fixed versus random effects models in meta‐analysis and brings attention to a type of random effects model (unweighted effects) that is less often used but that offers full generalization to future studies and is also easier to implement.
In an internet-based, forced-choice, test of the ‘face race lightness illusion’, the majority of respondents, regardless of their ethnicity, reported perceiving the African face as darker in skin tone than the European face, despite the mean luminance, contrast and numbers of pixels of the images were identical. In the laboratory, using eye tracking, it was found that eye fixations were distributed differently on the African face and European face, so that gaze dwelled relatively longer onto the locally brighter regions of the African face and, in turn, mean pupil diameters were smaller than for the European face. There was no relationship between pupils’ size and implicit social attitude (IAT) scores. In another experiment, the faces were presented either tachistoscopically (140 ms) or longer (2500 ms) so that, when gaze was prevented from looking directly at the faces in the former condition, the tendency to report the African face as “dark” disappeared, but it was present when gaze was free to move for just a few seconds. We conclude that the presence of the illusion depends on oculomotor behavior and we also propose a novel account based on a predictive strategy of sensory acquisition. Specifically, by differentially directing gaze towards to facial regions that are locally different in luminance, the resulting changes in retinal illuminance yield respectively darker or brighter percepts while attending to each face, hence minimizing the mismatch between visual input and the learned perceptual prototypes of ethnic categories.
Despite many cultural, methodological and technical improvements, one of the major obstacle to results reproducibility remains the pervasive low statistical power. In response to this problem, a lot of attention has recently been drawn to sequential analyses. This type of procedure has been shown to be more efficient (to require less observations and therefore less resources) than classical fixed-N procedures. However, these procedures are submitted to both intrapersonal and interpersonal biases during data collection and data analysis. In this tutorial, we explain how automation can be used to prevent these biases. We show how to synchronise open and free experiment software programs with the Open Science Framework and how to automate sequential data analyses in R. This tutorial is intended to researchers with beginner experience with R but no previous experience with sequential analyses is required.
This chapter examines the related literatures and theories for technology-enhanced language instruction. Blended learning, as computer-assisted instruction, has a positive effect on students' learning performances. The research on long-term applications of blended learning in language instruction in middle schools and its effects is hard to find. Nevertheless, some defects exist in the few studies. In China there are much fewer empirical studies on the effects of blended learning on language learning represented by examination scores. Vocabulary learning is essential to English learning and requires the mastery of the pronunciation, spelling, and meaning. Computer-assisted vocabulary learning can provide choice and cloze questions regarding the pronunciation, spelling, and meaning, and give the students instant feedback and grading. The literature review suggests that a quasi-experiment for at least one school term or even longer time in different schools located in various areas is valuable to assure the results' reliability.
A widely held stereotype associates old age with social isolation and loneliness. However, only 5% to 15% percent of older adults report frequent loneliness. In this study, we report a meta-analysis of the correlates of loneliness in late adulthood. A U-shaped association between age and loneliness is identified. Quality of social network is correlated more strongly with loneliness, compared to quantity; contacts with friends and neighbors show stronger associations with loneliness, compared to contacts with family members. Being a woman, having low socioeconomic status and low competence, and living in nursing homes were also associated with higher loneliness. Age differences in the association of social contacts and competence with loneliness are investigated as well.
This paper proposes a new approach to the analysis of accidents at hazardous road locations, one that is designed to make these analyses more effective in discriminating between true and false positives, that is, sites whose true expected number of accidents is high and sites where a high recorded number of accidents is predominantly the result of chance variation. The following elements of the proposed approach have not traditionally been part of the analysis of accidents at hazardous road locations: (a) the use of a binomial probability model to estimate the probability that the observed pattern of accidents at a hazardous road location differs from the normal pattern for comparable sites; (b) a two-stage procedure for analysis, in which the first stage consists of an analysis of accidents designed to develop hypotheses about risk factors contributing to the accidents and the second stage is designed to test these hypotheses; (c) the use of a matched-pair, single-blind method for evaluating risk factors that contribute to accidents at hazardous road locations; and (d) the development of clear criteria for concluding whether an apparently hazardous road location actually is. These elements are designed to guard against some pitfalls of the traditional approach to accident analysis for hazardous road locations, including confirmation of analyst expectancies, data mining, and nonspecific criteria for determining whether a hazardous road location is a true or false positive. The approach is illustrated through simulated data.
It is an important but complicated issue to investigate the long-term effect of the intelligent Web-based English instruction system CSIEC on students' learning performance with satisfying reliability and validity. This chapter introduces three years' process of the design and implementation of English instruction in four diverse high schools with the CSIEC system (i.e. the integration of CSIEC system into English instruction in four high schools: the project team organization, the survey and user needs analysis before the project implementation, system design, programming and test, the process of CSIEC's integration into English classes, and phase meetings). The management issues of the project were thought to guarantee its successful implementation in four different high schools located in distant provinces in China.
Previous studies indicate that individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) do not experience optical illusions in the same manner as individuals with typical development. This study uses pupillary responses as an objective measure of perception of visual illusions, with the hypothesis that adults with ASD will show weaker pupillary constrictions to the illusions than adults without ASD. An eye-tracker was used to investigate the spontaneous pupillary changes to brightness illusions in adults diagnosed with ASD (N = 11) and in a control group (N = 24). Contrary to the hypothesis, the ASD group showed similar pupillary constrictions to the illusory bright stimuli as the control group. Therefore, this study does not support the idea that individuals with ASD have a veridical perception of these types of illusions and instead suggest that atypical perception of illusions does not constitute a universal characteristic of aspect of high-functioning individuals with ASD.
Although a significant body of research supports the psychological benefits of religion and spirituality, more investigations are needed to understand the mechanisms by which they impact mental health. While some studies suggest a causal direct influence, the findings may still be subject to unmeasured factors and confounders. Despite compelling empirical support for the dangers of response bias, this has been a widely neglected topic in mental health research. The aim of this essay is to critically examine the literature addressing the role of response bias in the relationship between religion, spirituality and mental health. A survey of the diverse types of bias in this research area is presented, and methodological and theoretical issues are outlined. The validity and generalizability of the evidence are discussed, as well as the implications for mental health practice. A list of methodological remedies to reduce bias is suggested. The article is then concluded with a summary of the studies reviewed and directions for future research.
Aims and objectives:
To evaluate the effectiveness of a Family Nurse Practitioner (FNP)-led programme on the degree of adherence of current recommendations on home blood pressure self-measurement (HBPM) as compared to routine care and management.
Background:
HBPM plays an important role for monitoring hypertensive patients; however, patients' adherence to current guidelines is unsatisfactory. A nurse-led training programme in the community setting could be an effective strategy to achieve high level of patients' adherence to recommendations.
Design:
A multicentre randomised controlled trial was carried out from September 2016 to September 2017.
Methods:
In total, 170 patients were randomly allocated into the intervention group (n = 83) and the usual care (n = 87). All participants received usual care (written and verbal information on HBPM recommendations); subjects in the intervention group also received 1-hour training session on how to correctly self-measure BP. Clinical trial registration was done (ClinicalTrials.gov.: NCT04681703). The CONSORT checklist for randomised controlled trials was used in this study.
Results:
At baseline, the level of adherence to the recommendation was similar in the two groups (p < .05). After 1 month, the adherence significantly increased in the intervention group, where patients were more likely to measure BP at the same hour and from the same arm, in a quiet environment, with the back and uncovered arm supported and the legs uncrossed; recording BP more than once in each measurement session; keeping a diary of blood pressure measurements; use of the appropriate cuff and proper placement of the cuff; and resting for >5 min before performing the measurement (all p < .05).
Conclusions:
The FNP-led programme is effective in improving patients' adherence to guidelines on the correct technique to self-measure BP at home.
Relevance to clinical practice:
This programme may be added to the existing interventions in the community setting or considered into specifically nurse-led hypertension management models.
Whereas psychophysicists may formulate hypotheses about appearance, they can only measure performance. Bias and imprecision in psychophysical data need not necessarily reflect bias and imprecision in perception. Sensory systems may exaggerate the differences between each item and its neighbors in an ensemble. Alternatively, sensory systems may homogenize the ensemble, thereby removing any apparent differences between neighboring items. Ensemble perception may be involuntary when observers attempt to report the identities of individual items. Conversely, when asked to make a (voluntary) decision about the ensemble as a whole, observers may find it very difficult to compute statistics that are based on more than a very small number of individual items. Modeling decisions about prothetic continua, such as size and contrast, can be tricky because sensory signals may be distorted before and/or after voluntarily computing ensemble statistics. With metathetic continua, such as spatial orientation, distortion is less problematic; physically vertical things necessarily appear close to vertical and physically horizontal things necessarily appear close to horizontal. Decision processes are corrupted by noise that, like distortion, may be added to sensory signals prior to and/or after voluntarily computing ensemble statistics.
Resumo A literatura a respeito de expectativas docentes sobre a aprendizagem dos alunos situa-se numa interface entre psicologia e educação e remonta aos trabalhos de Rosenthal e Jacobson (1968), Palardy (1969), Alvidrez e Weinstein (1999) e outros. Uma das constatações é que as chances de sucesso na aprendizagem estão diretamente relacionadas com as expectativas docentes sobre os alunos, o que permite a construção da ideia de profecia autorrealizadora. O artigo aprofunda essa reflexão mediante análise de um conjunto de itens presentes no Questionário do professor do Saeb 2015, que foram organizados em variáveis extraescolares, intraescolares e dependentes do aluno. São utilizados os microdados relativos aos 2.274 professores de 5º ano do ensino fundamental das redes públicas de três capitais: o melhor Ideb em 2015 (Curitiba, PR – 6,3), o pior (Maceió, AL – 4,3) e a maior variação do Ideb no período 2005 – 2015 (Fortaleza, CE – 63,6%). Os dados mostram que das três categorias em que foram organizados os itens, os menores coeficientes de variação estão nas variáveis extraescolares, enquanto os maiores encontram-se nas variáveis intraescolares. Quando se observam os coeficientes de variação das variáveis dependentes dos alunos, constata-se que seus valores são muito superiores aos das variáveis extraescolares e pelo menos 50% inferiores aos das variáveis intraescolares. Esses resultados mostram que as expectativas docentes sobre os problemas de aprendizagem dos alunos estão associadas, de forma mais intensa, com o meio social, o nível cultural e a falta de assistência dos pais na vida escolar do aluno.
The resource-based view (RBV) has long been adopted in strategic management research, but its use in operations management (OM) research is relatively new. Many empirical studies based upon RBV have investigated OM functions/capabilities and their impacts on business performance. Despite the considerable amount of research that has been conducted, there is no meta-analysis of application of RBV in the OM field. Hitt et al. (2016) reviewed the use and application of RBV in OM, based upon studies published in nine elite OM journals in the period 2007–2013. We take a meta-analytic approach to statistically combine and critically analyse application of RBV in OM over the period 2007–2020. We identify three primary operational functions/capabilities, namely flexibility, supply chain integration, and organizational capability, that have a positive impact on business performance in general, and on competitive performance, financial performance, and operational performance in particular. This study contributes to the literature on application RBV in OM and provides future research directions.
In methodological and practical debates about replications in science, it is (often implicitly) assumed that replications will affect public trust in science. In this preregistered experiment (N = 484), we varied (a) whether a replication attempt was successful or not and (b) whether the replication was authored by the same, or another lab. Results showed that ratings of study credibility (e.g. evidence strength, ηP2 = .15) and researcher trustworthiness (e.g. expertise, ηP2 = .15) were rated higher upon learning of replication success, and lower in case of replication failure. The replication’s author did not make a meaningful difference. Prior beliefs acted as covariate for ratings of credibility, but not trustworthiness, while epistemic beliefs regarding the certainty of knowledge were a covariate to both. Hence, laypeople seem to notice that successfully replicated results entail higher epistemic significance, while possibly not taking into account that replications should be conducted by other labs.
This paper reviews the nonverbal display of power, status, and dominance (PSDom). While PSDom are theoretically and often practically separate constructs, in the domain of nonverbal behaviors (NVBs) they are more often expressed similarly. Experimental research and field observations on adult humans were harvested for this review. The goals of this review were to: (1) summarize the list of reliable NVBs of PSDom (with associated references), (2) separately report those behaviors we think are associated with PSDom from those actually associated with PSDom, (3) describe the few existing distinctions between how power, status, and dominance each display NVBs and describe new reports on NVB associated with SES, social network size, and confidence, (4) address the quandary of whether the nonverbal expression of PSDom are universal across gender and culture and (5) provide a resource for researchers wishing to code nonverbal behaviors associated with PSDom.
Inspired from the movement of positive psychology, appreciative inquiry (AI) contributed immensely and continues to do so in organisational development (OD) from every aspect. As it is driven by the strength-based possibility-focused thinking approach, rather than the deficit thinking approach of problem solving inquiry method, appreciative inquiry helps in creating an overall positive environment in the organisation (practice of positive OD). The scope of appreciative inquiry, thus, is not only limited to organisational problem diagnosis and therapeutic realm, but has also spread out its wings in communication and relation building, change management, development programmes, and many more. This chapter, hence, has tried to emphasise and briefly discuss appreciative inquiry's vast scope, contribution, and positive approach in the sphere of organisational development.
The greatest fault of the field is the failure to develop and implement a credible science that monitors its effectiveness and guides its development. As a result, psychotherapy remains an alternative, even unorthodox medical practice in the manner of acupuncture, chiropractic, herbal cures, and others. While research has become more sophisticated and objective over the decades, the field of psychotherapy remains complacent, even smug, in assurance of clinical effectiveness. This confidence, carried into the community of scholars responsible for the field’s literature and research, overwhelms any systemic attempt at truly credible research. Nonetheless, as a black box of treatment, the ability of talk therapy to cure, prevent, or rehabilitate can be evaluated even when the precise therapeutic content of treatment can be neither specified nor tested.
The critical analysis of psychotherapy, the core intervention of the American social clinic, indicts each link in the chain of American social welfare policy making: the inability of the social clinic itself to achieve the remission or prevention of mental and emotional disorders; the community of scholars that fails to offer scientifically credible tests of its outcomes; and the American culture that endorses the affirming myths of the social clinic thus encouraging the distortions of its research community and the fecklessness of its interventions. Psychotherapy rather than care and the failure of critical psychology: Mental and emotional problems remain embedded in society and not amenable to isolation for clinical treatment.
There are a number of factors which may influence the validity of experimental studies, including the incentives offered and the instructions provided to participants. These have been little-studied in the driving domain. The aim of this study was to investigate how manipulating these factors influenced participants’ feelings of ‘presence’ (i.e. the extent to which they believed they were actually driving and not in a simulated environment). The findings showed that imposing a penalty system for poor driving performance and providing ‘good driving’ instructions did not significantly affect presence ratings. This has a number of plausible explanations, including research study participants’ inherent need to perform well under test conditions and the small range of performance variability expected in a normal driving scenario. The financial penalty resulted in slightly slower speeds, although none of the participants drove excessively quickly, supporting the argument that study participants tend to perform diligently under test conditions irrespective of incentives or instructions. Participants in the penalty and instructions conditions gave higher ratings for negative effects (related to physically feeling unwell), suggesting that these conditions made them more aware of the physical symptoms of being in a simulator (but not that participants were actually experiencing more sickness). The results can be viewed positively in terms of reliability and generalizability across different driving simulator studies, as variations in study design (i.e. how instructions are delivered to participants and whether participants are paid to participate) do not have a significant effect on performance.
Medical treatments typically occur in the context of a social interaction between healthcare providers and patients. Although decades of research have demonstrated that patients’ expectations can dramatically affect treatment outcomes, less is known about the influence of providers’ expectations. Here we systematically manipulated providers’ expectations in a simulated clinical interaction involving administration of thermal pain and found that patients’ subjective experiences of pain were directly modulated by providers’ expectations of treatment success, as reflected in the patients’ subjective ratings, skin conductance responses and facial expression behaviours. The belief manipulation also affected patients’ perceptions of providers’ empathy during the pain procedure and manifested as subtle changes in providers’ facial expression behaviours during the clinical interaction. Importantly, these findings were replicated in two more independent samples. Together, our results provide evidence of a socially transmitted placebo effect, highlighting how healthcare providers’ behaviour and cognitive mindsets can affect clinical interactions.
Recent research suggests that risk for chronic diseases of aging including cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and even cancer can be programmed early in the lifespan as a result of exposure to chronic stressors like low socioeconomic status (SES) that are hypothesized to promote a pro-inflammatory response in immune cells that results in chronic, systemic inflammation. The present paper conducted a meta-analysis to establish whether exposure to low (versus higher) SES in childhood and adolescence is associated with higher levels of inflammation (as measured by C-reactive protein, IL-6, and fibrinogen) concurrently and in adulthood. We conducted meta-analyses with both unadjusted bivariate associations between SES and inflammation and with adjusted associations that controlled for a range of covariates including demographic factors, body mass index, smoking, physical activity and current SES. A systematic review of Pubmed and PsycINFO identified a total 35 studies (26 with unadjusted and 31 adjusted effect sizes) to be included in the meta-analysis. Random-effects meta-analysis showed that individuals who were exposed to low SES in childhood and adolescence had significantly higher levels of inflammatory markers (r = −0.07, p <.001, 95% CI = −0.09, −0.05). This association remained significant in adjusted analyses (r = −0.06, p <.001, 95% CI = −0.09, −0.03). However, the relationship between childhood SES and inflammation was non-significant in a meta-analysis with longitudinal studies that all controlled for adulthood SES (r = −0.03, p =.356, 95% CI = −0.08, 0.03). Future longitudinal research should utilize measurement of inflammatory markers at multiple time points to further examine the complex relationships between SES and health both in childhood and adulthood.
Survey interviewers can negatively affect survey data by introducing variance and bias into estimates. When investigating these interviewer effects, research typically focuses on interviewer sociodemographics with only a few studies examining the effects of characteristics that are not directly visible such as interviewer attitudes, opinions, and personality. For the study at hand, self-reports of 1,212 respondents and 116 interviewers, as well as their interpersonal perceptions of each other, were collected in a large-scale, face-to-face survey of households in Germany. Respondents and interviewers were presented with the same questions regarding their opinions and mutual perceptions toward social and political issues in Germany. Analyses show that interviewer effects can be largely explained by how an interviewer is seen by respondents. This indicates that some respondents adjust their answers toward anticipated interviewer opinions. Survey practitioners ought to acknowledge this in their survey design and training of interviewers.
Meta-analyses are well known and widely implemented in almost every domain of research in management as well as the social, medical, and behavioral sciences. While this technique is useful for determining validity coefficients (i.e., effect sizes), meta-analyses are predicated on the assumption of independence of primary effect sizes, which might be routinely violated in the organizational sciences. Here, we discuss the implications of violating the independence assumption and demonstrate how meta-analysis could be cast as a multilevel, variance known (Vknown) model to account for such dependency in primary studies’ effect sizes. We illustrate such techniques for meta-analytic data via the HLM 7.0 software as it remains the most widely used multilevel analyses software in management. In so doing, we draw on examples in educational psychology (where such techniques were first developed), organizational sciences, and a Monte Carlo simulation (Appendix). We conclude with a discussion of implications, caveats, and future extensions. Our Appendix details features of a newly developed application that is free (based on R), user-friendly, and provides an alternative to the HLM program.
The rapid development of artificial intelligence brings with it the increasing likelihood of ubiquitous interaction between humans and robots. A significant contribution to studying human–robot interactions (HRI) comes from experimental studies, whereby humans and robots interact in controlled conditions and researchers observe and measure the reactions of humans (and robots). The use of experiments to understand human interactions has long been a central source of information in the field of experimental social psychology. These studies have yielded numerous major insights into the causes and outcomes of interaction. The methodology of experiments, however, including the demands made upon human participants to behave in predictable ways and the impact of experimenters’ expectancies upon results, has been a focus of much critical analysis. We examined a sample of 100 high impact HRI studies for evidence of potentially contaminating experimental artefacts and/or authors’ awareness of such factors. In our conclusions we highlight several methodological issues that appeared frequently in our sample, which may impede generalisations from laboratory experiments to real-world settings. Ultimately, we suggest that researchers may need to reformulate the methodologies used to study the unique features of HRI, and offer a number of recommendations for researchers designing HRI experiments.
It is an important but complicated issue to investigate the long-term effect of the intelligent Web-based English instruction system CSIEC on students’ learning performance with satisfying reliability and validity. This chapter introduces three years’ process of the design and implementation of English instruction in four diverse high schools with the CSIEC system (i.e. the integration of CSIEC system into English instruction in four high schools: the project team organization, the survey and user needs analysis before the project implementation, system design, programming and test, the process of CSIEC’s integration into English classes, and phase meetings). The management issues of the project were thought to guarantee its successful implementation in four different high schools located in distant provinces in China.
This chapter examines the related literatures and theories for technology-enhanced language instruction. Blended learning, as computer-assisted instruction, has a positive effect on students’ learning performances. The research on long-term applications of blended learning in language instruction in middle schools and its effects is hard to find. Nevertheless, some defects exist in the few studies. In China there are much fewer empirical studies on the effects of blended learning on language learning represented by examination scores. Vocabulary learning is essential to English learning and requires the mastery of the pronunciation, spelling, and meaning. Computer-assisted vocabulary learning can provide choice and cloze questions regarding the pronunciation, spelling, and meaning, and give the students instant feedback and grading. The literature review suggests that a quasi-experiment for at least one school term or even longer time in different schools located in various areas is valuable to assure the results’ reliability.
L'objectif de cet article est de présenter et d'illustrer la démarche méthodologique qu'il convient de suivre lorsque l'on souhaite conduire une méta-analyse en marketing. La méta-analyse est une approche méthodologique consistant à faire la synthèse des résultats d'études empiriques individuelles au moyen de méthodes statistiques appropriées. La méta-analyse offre non seulement la possibilité d'intégrer et de combiner les résultats souvent contradictoires que les chercheurs obtiennent sur des questions de recherche identiques mais aussi d'analyser ces résultats de telle sorte que l'on puisse identifier les éventuelles sources de variation entre les résultats obtenus.
Après avoir décrit les principales étapes à suivre pour mener à bien une méta-analyse, deux applications de la méthodologie en marketing sont présentées et des recommandations formulées pour les chercheurs en marketing désirant utiliser cette méthode.
First impressions are commonly assumed to be particularly important: Information about a person that we obtain early on may shape our overall impression of that person more strongly than information obtained later. In contrast to previous research, the present series of preregistered analyses uses actual person judgment data to investigate this so-called primacy effect: Perceivers (N = 1,395) judged the videotaped behavior of target persons (N = 200) in 10 different situations. Separate subsamples of about 200 perceivers each were used in moving from exploratory to increasingly confirmatory analyses. Contrary to our expectations, no primacy effect was found. Instead, judgments of the targets in later situations were more strongly associated with overall impressions, indicating an acquaintance effect. Relying on early information seems unreasonable when more comprehensive information is readily available. Early information may, however, affect perceivers’ behavioral reactions to the targets and thus their future interactions, if such interactions are possible.
There is still an ongoing debate on the employment effect of minimum wage. Not only the magnitude of the effect, but also whether the effect is actually negative or positive is the matter of concern. Economic theory is unable to unanimously resolve the dispute as it can supply theoretical concepts arguing for both sides. In order to integrate the empirical findings, I deployed a meta-regression analysis (MRA) to systematically review 187 estimates from 18 empirical studies that estimated minimum wage elasticities of employment for countries of the EU. The results show that, overall, there is no practically significant employment effect of minimum wage. Also, no evidence of publication selection bias was found. A more sophisticated, multivariate MRA identified differential effects for specific industries, namely residential home care and retail sector for which the employment effects are significantly negative. The results also indicate that minimum wage negatively affects female employment. Finally, the multiple MRA also investigated whether the employment effects differ across three wider regions of the EU (the West, the South, and the East). The results provide robust evidence of significant differential effects, and show that minimum wage has moderately negative employment effects in the eastern countries of the EU.
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Bias effect was mainly accounted for by male experimenters testing subjects under conditions of nonautomated stimulus presentation and by female experimenters testing subjects under automated conditions. (Authors)
Describes an experiment in which 18 undergraduate Es tested 216 undergraduate Ss on a simple motor performance task under 3 conditions of induced expectancy in which (a) the hypothesis was simply told to the Es, (b) the principal investigator role-played great concern about the outcome, or (c) Es were asked to manipulate actively Ss' responses. Ss were assigned to 3 conditions of evaluation apprehension. The method of randomization allowed for a check on the effects of early-testing vs. late-testing of Ss. When the Es were simply told about the hypothesis of changes in response rates across time, no expectancy effects were noted. When the principal investigator showed concern about the outcome, a significant Expectancy * Evaluation Apprehension interaction effect was obtained across the 6 trials of the task. When the Es attempted actively to manipulate results, effects opposite to their expectancies were observed. An analysis of tape-recordings of the experimental sessions revealed that intentional-inducement Es spoke more than other Es. Results indicate that a minimum of both E outcome concern and S performance concern must be present for the mediation of an expectancy. It is postulated that the reversed expectancy effects for Ss tested by intentional-inducement Es might have been due to Ss reacting against strong cues transmitted by the Es. (French summary) (21 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Investigated the extent to which the concepts of e effect and e bias could be predicted, in a verbal conditioning situation, from a knowledge of several behaviors observed in the actions of psychological es. Ss were 80 female undergraduates, and es were 25 male undergraduates. Analyses of videotapes of verbal conditioning experiments indicate the importance of interactional behaviors, E.g., e smiling, and e-s eye contact. Also, it appeared that es behaved somewhat differently for positively biased than negatively biased ss. Various interpretations of such results are presented, with implications for the social psychology of verbal conditioning experiments. (french summary) (19 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Typescript. Department of Education. Thesis (Ph. D.)--Case Western Reserve University, 1970.
By employing some form of a null hypothesis decision procedure, 12 of the studies summarized by T. X. Barber and M. J. Silver (see 43:5) were judged to demonstrate expectancy effects. The combined p of the results of these studies was less than 1/1,000,0002. When the results of the studies judged by Barber and Silver not demonstrate clearly the effects of E expectancy were considered separately, the combined p was 6/1,000,000. For all studies combined, p was less than 1/1,000,000(2+x) with a median 2 tailed p < .1. Such results provide little reassurance that the effects of Es' expectancies are not general, robust, nor serious enough to warrant the use of procedures designed to permit their control and/or assessment. Methods for the analysis of data selected by Barber and Silver are discussed in terms of their differential value for the analysis of single experiments and runs of experiments. An appendix is attached to add information omitted from the presentation by Barber and Silver. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Describes methods for combining the probabilities obtained from 2 or more independent studies. The reporting of an overall estimated effect size to accompany the overall estimated probability is recommended. (49 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Summarizes results of 75 studies that reported accuracy for males and females at decoding nonverbal communication. The following attributes of the studies were coded: year, sample size, age of judges, sex of stimulus person, age of stimulus person, and the medium and channel of communication (e.g., photos of facial expressions, filtered speech). These attributes were examined in relation to 3 outcome indices: direction of effect, effect size (in standard deviation units), and significance level. Results show that more studies found a female advantage than would occur by chance, the average effect was of moderate magnitude and was significantly larger than zero, and more studies reached a conventional level of significance than would be expected by chance. The gender effect for visual-plus-auditory studies was significantly larger than for visual-only and auditory-only studies. The magnitude of the effect did not vary reliably with sample size, age of judges, sex of stimulus person, or age of stimulus person. (60 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Located 21 studies that permitted an estimate of the frequency of recording errors and/or the degree to which errors were nonrandom. The studies, summarizing data from over 300 observers making about 140,000 observations, suggest that about 1% of all observations may be in error and that about two thirds of all errors favor the hypothesis of the observer. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Critically analyzes 31 studies which attempted to demonstrate that Es' expectancies and desires significantly affect the experimental outcome (E bias effect). The majority of studies do not clearly demonstrate the effect. Many of these studies are criticized for inadequacies in the analysis of results, e.g., failure to perform an overall statistical analysis to exclude the null hypothesis and failure to avoid probability pyramiding when postmortem tests are performed. 2 conclusions are drawn: (1) The E bias effect appears to be more difficult to demonstrate and less pervasive than was implied in previous reviews in this journal. (2) In those instances in which the effect was obtained, it was apparently due to one or more of the following: the student Es misjudged, misrecorded or misreported the results; they verbally reinforced their Ss for expected responses; or they intentionally or unintentionally transmitted their expectancies and desires by paralinguistic or kinesic cues. (2 p. ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In 1965 the authors conducted an experiment in a public elementary school, telling teachers that certain children could be expected to be “growth spurters,” based on the students' results on the Harvard Test of Inflected Acquisition. In point of fact, the test was nonexistent and those children designated as “spurters” were chosen at random. What Rosenthal and Jacobson hoped to determine by this experiment was the degree (if any) to which changes in teacher expectation produce changes in student achievement.
Thesis (Ph. D.)--Harvard University, 1971.
Thesis (Ed. D.)--Indiana University, 1969. Vita.
Thesis (Ph. D.)--Bowling Green State University, 1970. Includes bibliographical references.
Thesis (Ph. D.)--State University of New York at Buffalo, 1968. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 81-85). Photocopy of typescript.
Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Houston, 1972. Degree granted by Dept. of Psychology. Bibliography: leaves [65]-69.
Thesis (Ph. D.)--Case Western Reserve University. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 68-72). Microfilm (Positive). Ann Arbor, Mich. : University Microflms, [1970]. 1 reel. 35 mm.
IT NOW appears to be a well-established finding that under a number of differing conditions, psychological experimenters tend to obtain from their human subjects the data experimenters expect or want to obtain. (1337495) In addition, one study has been carried out which showed that the experimenter bias phenomenon may also occur when the subjects (Ss) are laboratory rats. (6) In that study, twelve experimenters (Es) each ran five albino rats on a simple discrimination problem, daily for a five day period. Half of the Es were told that the rats they were running had been bred for maze-brightness while the remaining Es were told that their Ss had been bred for maze-dullness. The animals actually assigned to each E were standard laboratory animals randomly assigned to E. Results of this study clearly indicated that those Es believing their Ss to be maze-bright obtained significantly better performance from their Ss than did the Es believing their Ss to be maze-dull. The purpose of the present experiment was to test the generality of these findings by studying the effects of Es’ biases on the performances of rats in an extended series of Skinner box problems.
Experimenter bias and lesion labeling
- J R Burnham
Temporal localization and communication of experimenter expectancy effect with 10-11 year old children. Unpublished doctoral dissertation
- N Yarom
Social evaluation orientation, task orientation, and deliberate cuing in experimenter bias effect. Unpublished doctoral dissertation
- J L Todd
Examiner expectancy effects in psychological assessment: The Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test. Unpublished doctoral dissertation
- H L Gravitz
The expectancy component in mental retardation
- K W Wellons
The influence of the set and dependence of the data collector on the experimenter bias effect. Unpublished doctoral dissertation
- J W Hawthorne
Empirical vs. decreed validation of clocks and tests
- Rosenthal
Review of Pygmalion in the classroom
- Thorndike
The file drawer problem and tolerance for null results
- R Rosenthal