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A Critical Analysis of the Agronomic and Economic Sustainability of Organic Coffee Production
Abstract
Organic coffee is one of several types of speciality coffees selling at a premium over mainstream coffees because of distinct origin and flavour, environment-friendly production or socio-economic concerns for the smallholder coffee growers. The demand for organic coffee in Western Europe, North America and Japan exceeds the present supply, which is still small (<1% of annual world production). More than 85% of organic coffees come from Latin America and practically all is (washed) arabica coffee. The production of certified organic coffee follows the principles of organic farming developed in Europe and the United States out of concern for the perceived negative effects of conventional high-input agriculture on health and environment. It claims superior ecological sustainability in combination with sound economic viability. A rather complex and expensive system of certification has to be passed before such coffees can be sold as truly organic. Growers adhering to the strict rules of organic coffee production may to some extent share the concern of the health- and environment-conscious consumers, but they are motivated primarily by the economic benefits from the premium received for certified organic coffee. Nevertheless, there appears to be considerable injustice between the extreme preconditions demanded for ‘organics’ by the largely urban consumer of the industrialized world and the modest rewards received by the organic coffee growers for their strenuous efforts. From an agronomic point of view, there is also considerable ground for criticism on the principles of organic farming when applied to coffee. For instance, to sustain economically viable yield levels (1 t green coffee ha−1 year−1) large additional amounts of composted organic matter will have to come from external sources to meet nutrient requirements (especially N and K). Most smallholders will be unable to acquire such quantities and have to face declining yields. Organic farming does not necessarily reduce incidence of diseases and pests below economically harmful thresholds, while the humid conditions of heavily shaded coffee may actually stimulate the outbreak of others. These and other aspects peculiar to the preconditions of organic coffee production are addressed in this review. It is concluded that the concept of organic farming in its strict sense, when applied to coffee, is not sustainable and also not serving the interests of the producer and consumer as much as the proponents would like us to believe. On the other hand, agronomically and economically sustainable coffee production is feasible by applying best practices of crop production and post-harvest processing.
... In 1970, the disease spread to Brazil, and later to both Central America and the Caribbean (Vandermeer et al., 2010). Between 1865 and 1985, the rust disease spread globally to all the coffee growing regions with varied degrees of biological and economic impact (van der Vossen, 2005). Rust primarily attacks the leaves of coffee plants, leaving yellow-orange spots usually 2-4 millimeters in diameter. ...
... ppm) compared to sun farm A (143.16 ppm) and sun farm B (142.38 ppm), respectively. Higher potassium levels of the shade farm were unexpected when compared to previous studies, which found that many organic systems need to add significant quantities of additional composted organic matter from external sources to meet nutrient demand, and that many organic farmers face lower yields because they are unable to acquire the additional compost (van der Vossen, 2005). ...
... Contrary to this pattern of lower nitrogen levels on shade farms, there is a statistically insignificant difference found between nitrogen levels on the organic and conventional farms in this study. Nitrogen is a key factor impacting vegetative growth and coffee yields, which is usually 20-40% lower on organic farms when compared to conventional farms (van der Vossen, 2005). Previous studies indicated that organic farming systems usually fail to achieve optimal levels of available nitrogen exclusively through organic compost and manure (van der Vossen, 2005); however, the shaded system in this study did manage to supply the same amount of nitrogen as both sun farms that utilized chemical fertilizer despite the fact that Senna siamea trees are not nitrogenfixing trees. ...
Coffee is highly vulnerable to climate change, thus impacting coffee-dependent livelihoods and economies. As rising temperatures continue to reduce the suitability of many historical coffee-growing regions, some farmers are practicing regenerative, organic coffee farming as a means of climate change mitigation. In the Central Highlands, the primary coffee growing region of Vietnam, conventional sun-grown, monocrop coffee requires intensive inputs, including fertilizers, pesticides and water. However, some farmers are converting their conventional sun farms to organic shade farms utilizing regenerative farming techniques for both environmental and economic reasons. This study examined regenerative farming practices and sustainable coffee in a small ethnic minority village in Lâm Ðồng province. The comparative analysis between soil samples taken from a regenerative shade-grown coffee farm and two conventional sun-grown coffee farms revealed that the soil of the regenerative farm, enriched with organic manure, is comparable to, or healthier than, the soil on the conventional farms enriched with chemical fertilizers. The results indicate that regenerative farming practices promote biodiversity; however, they also maintain microclimates that promote the growth of Roya fungus, which can decrease coffee yields. The economic analysis of farm costs and net returns found that regenerative farming practices decrease external inputs through a system of crop diversification and integrated livestock production that improves productivity and economic performance while preserving the ecological and environmental integrity of the landscape. Regenerative agriculture is an important step toward climate change adaptation and mitigation; however, in order for the farm communities in the Central Highlands to make the transition to regenerative agriculture, the success factors and benefits of this method must be demonstrated to the coffee farmers.
... While fresh litter layers with high C:N may immobilize soil N, lower, more decomposed litter layers typically have reduced C:N and release more N [150]. Understory tree crops such as cacao and coffee are typically grown under shade trees that provide substantial organic matter and nutrient inputs from leaf litter [67,151]. In coffee agroecosystems, nutrient losses can occur due to crop removal and long-term monocropping, while leaf fall, pruning, organic matter application, and intercropping can enhance soil nutrients [151,152]. ...
... Understory tree crops such as cacao and coffee are typically grown under shade trees that provide substantial organic matter and nutrient inputs from leaf litter [67,151]. In coffee agroecosystems, nutrient losses can occur due to crop removal and long-term monocropping, while leaf fall, pruning, organic matter application, and intercropping can enhance soil nutrients [151,152]. These studies indicate that tree crop systems can be managed to optimize the inherent litter layer and integrate recycled nutrients into nutrient management strategies. ...
... However, the implementation of sustainable practices in coffee varies widely across regions depending on factors such as farm size, external input use, mechanization, economic stability [165,166]. Regular access to substantial amounts of organic matter as nutrient inputs in organic coffee production can be challenging for smallholders [151]. Typically, coffee is often processed offsite and residues might not be easily transported back to coffee farms, which are often located on steep slopes at high altitudes [151]. ...
Ecosystem-based approaches to nutrient management are needed to satisfy crop nutrient requirements while minimizing environmental impacts of fertilizer use. Applying crop residues as soil amendments can provide essential crop nutrient inputs from organic sources while improving nutrient retention, soil health, water conservation, and crop performance. Tree crop hulls, husks, and shells have been found to contain high concentrations of potassium across species including almond, cacao, coffee, pecan, and hazelnut. The objective of this review is to characterize organic sources of potassium focusing on lignocellulosic pericarps and discuss reported effects of surface application on potassium cycling, water dynamics, soil functionality, and crop yield. Research indicates potassium ions solubilize readily from plant material into soil solution due to potassium’s high mobility as a predominately unbound monatomic cation in plant tissues. Studies evaluating tree crop nutshells, field crop residues, and forest ecosystem litter layers indicate this process of potassium release is driven primarily by water and is not strongly limited by decomposition. Research suggests orchard floor management practices can be tailored to maximize the soil and plant benefits provided by this practice. Contextual factors influencing practice adoption and areas for future study are discussed.
... Shade trees are, therefore, essential components in organic systems. Although, this is true, some authors have criticised the inclusion of shade trees in coffee systems (Sondahl et al., 2005;van der Vossen, 2005;Tejeda-Cruz et al., 2010). Therefore some of the benefits and criticisms associated with the use of shade trees in coffee systems are hereby presented. ...
... Another augment is that regular pruning is essential in shade coffee to avoid excessive shading and as a result, Biodiversity it increases labour costs. Therefore, production costs are usually 5-7% higher in organic systems than in conventional systems (van der Vossen, 2005). Finally, shade increases the potential for the occurrence of certain diseases and pests due to increased humidity. ...
... The organic certification works to eliminate the application of agrochemicals and to promote management practices that maintain soil fertility such as little or zero tillage (Vandermeer, 1995). Organic coffee enjoys a premium price in the international market compared to conventionally produced coffee because it is perceived to be environmentally friendly (van der Vossen, 2005;Castro-Tazi et al., 2012). Conventional systems are characterised by high inorganic inputs such as fertilizer, pesticides and herbicides, and may or may not include shade trees (Castro-Tazi et al., 2012). ...
There are many environmental issues that threaten the existence of humans and natural systems. Although most of these issues are prevalent in specific geographical areas only, climate change and biodiversity loss are two major environmental issues that impacts on all human and natural systems. Efforts to curtail these issues include carbon sequestration by forest-based systems and promotion of sustainable agriculture. Agroforestry systems, such as shade-grown coffee agroecosystems, have the potential to capture and store atmospheric carbon in the form of biomass, and to conserve biodiversity by providing habitat for associated biodiversity and reduce pressure on existing forests. The present study explored the carbon stocks and tree biodiversity of shade trees in, and the biophysical characteristics of, coffee agroecosystems with conventional and organic management practices in Costa Rica, Nicaragua and Guatemala. A total of 55 farms were sampled using a sample plot size of 500 m2. Tree biodiversity were estimated using species richness, Shannon and Margalef indices, and Shannon Evenness Index. Carbon stocks were estimated using existing allometric equations. The results indicate that, the organic systems represent richer and more diverse systems, with higher shade levels compared to the conventional systems. The organic coffee systems displayed shade levels that ranged from 28-70%, a mean species richness of 4.8 per plot and a mean tree species diversity (Shannon Index) of 1.12 whilst the conventional farms displayed shade levels that ranged from 31-44%, a mean species richness of 2.9 per plot and a mean tree species diversity (Shannon Index) of 0.73. Four species clusters were observed in Nicaragua, and only organic farms comprised one of these clusters. The mean above ground carbon stocks of the shade trees in the organic and the conventional farms were 13.46 t C ha-1 and 12.47 t C ha-1, respectively. Similar canopy strata, tree density and species evenness were displayed in both systems. For the study areas, Guatemala displayed the highest mean values for tree species richness (4.70) and diversity (1.13) and Costa Rica displayed the least species richness and diversity values (species richness = 2.63 and Shannon Index = 0.61). The mean carbon stocks in trees employed as shade for coffee in the farms examined were 21.18 t C ha-1, 9.97 t C ha-1 and 7.75 t C ha-1, respectively, in Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Guatemala. The present study recommends organic farms as suitable targets for biodiversity projects in the study area, and that, for optimum benefits, proportions of the less represented tree species should be increased. The Nicaraguan systems are also recommended for projects that aim at increasing carbon stocks in shade trees.
... El café de sombra también genera otra serie de impactos como la disminución en la temperatura del suelo, el rompimiento en la fuerza del viento y de las precipitaciones, el control en la erosión en pendientes pronunciadas, supresión de malas hierbas, reciclaje y lixiviación de nutrientes, entre otros. Sin embargo, en las regiones donde la lluvia es limitada y las estaciones secas son prolongadas como es el caso de Kenia, Camerún o Tanzania, los árboles de sombra pueden afectar negativamente a la productividad debido a una fuerte competencia con el café por la humedad disponible en el suelo ( Van der Vossen, 2005). ...
... Los residuos de los frutos del café compostado devueltos al campo sólo pueden suministrar 25 a 30% de estos requerimientos adicionales de nutrientes, por lo que se debe disponer de los medios para adquirir materiales ricos en nutrientes, materia orgánica y abono, para compensar la diferencia y así lograr nutrientes suficientes (Sanchez y Jama, 2002;Van der Vossen, 2005). No obstante, la mayoría de los pequeños productores no cuentan con los recursos para tener acceso regular a cantidades considerables de materia orgánica o de estiércol, lo que los limita o excluye de la posibilidad de certificar sus plantaciones. ...
... También faculta la diversificación en la producción, así como los ingresos, mejorando la calidad de la copa de la planta de café, particularmente en zonas de café ecológicamente sub-óptimas por sus altas temperaturas. Por otro lado, también genera algunos efectos adversos como el daño a los cafetos por la caída de ramas de los árboles de sombra, costos adicionales de mano de obra para la poda regular de árboles cuando hay sombreado excesivo y competencia por el recurso hídrico en regiones con períodos de baja precipitación, entre otras ( Van der Vossen, 2005). ...
Se realizó una revisión de diversos estudios enfocados para establecer el impacto ambiental generado en las fincas productoras de café certificadas con diferentes sellos de buenas prácticas agrícolas y socioeconómicas en las diversas regiones productoras del grano. De esta revisión se establecieron los impactos de mayor persistencia, así como los de mayor singularidad en todo el mundo.
... The highest yield of solely and staggeringly planted coffee may be associated to having more coffee trees per unit area, and is therefore attributed to effective use of the growing resources, viz., light, moisture, nutrients, and spaces. [34,47]. On the contrary, the high competition of bananas with coffee trees for available soil nutrients and other environmental resources might have contributed to the low clean coffee yield of Arabica coffee planted in a 1:1 ratio of intercropping with bananas. ...
... According to [48], the lower population density of coffee trees is a major factor causing a low yield per unit area. Several authors reported the strong correlation of coffee yield with the population density of coffee trees per unit area [12,34,47,[49][50][51][52]. ...
A field experiment aimed to determine the optimum ratio of intercropping Arabica coffee with banana was conducted at Teppi, Southwest Ethiopia, from 2012 to 2016. The experiment consisted of four cropping arrangements (1:1, 1:2, 1:3 ratios of coffee with banana, and staggered planting) with sole stands of each crop, arranged in a Randomized Complete Block Design with three replicates. The yield and yield-related attributes of the component crops were collected, and the efficiency of the cropping arrangement was estimated using a land equivalent ratio. The analysis of variance showed that the clean coffee yield was significantly (p < 0.05) affected by intercropping with bananas. Intercropping of the component crops also significantly (p < 0.05) influenced the fruit yield of bananas. Thus, the highest clean coffee yield was obtained from the sole coffee plot (2007.4 kg ha-1) followed by the plot in which coffee and banana were arranged staggeringly (1782.6 kg ha-1). Similarly, the highest values of land equivalent ratio (1.25) and yield advantage of coffee (0.88) were recorded from staggeringly arranged coffee with banana compared with other intercrops. The result also indicates the enhanced productivity and compatibility of the component crops when they are inter-planted staggeringly. Accordingly, the aforementioned planting arrangement can be recommended for farmers and growers in the study area for increased yield productivity of the component crops. Further study needs to be repeated one more season in different agro-ecologies with different varieties of component crops.
... New types of coffee and coffee products with functional properties are appearing on the market. The sustainability of coffee consumption habits and culture has been proven by numerous studies [5]. In recent years, special value-added coffee, functional coffee beverages and food products have been increasingly used [6]. ...
... The modification included the insertion of two additional factors, also with the role of predictor in the extended TPB model [61]: habits-HB (containing a total of four questions: frequency of using instant coffee; part of the day of using instant coffee; place where instant coffee is most often drunk; and drinking coffee along with other activities) and sensory preferences (containing a total of eight questions: the influence of visual appearance; using instant coffee with aromas; the influence of flavors on choice; using some sweets with instant coffee; the influence of sensory quality on selection; the influence of coffee fragrance on choice; the taste of coffee influences the choice; and coffee color affects the choice). The theory of planned behavior (TPB) is derived from the theory of reasoning action put forward by Fishbein [5] together with Ajzen [37]. Ajzen's model of planned behavior represents an upgrade of the theory of reasoning action, and its further elaboration. ...
Soluble or instant espresso coffee in capsules with added values is a product that is increasingly recognized as a healthy lifestyle habit, which often goes together with the expansion of spa centers and spa hotels. In addition to the theoretical and empirical examination of sustainable drinking habits regarding different types of instant espresso coffee in Serbia, the aim was to define, by applying the theory of planned behavior, the relationship between certain factors that influence instant espresso coffee beverage reselection. The research model was developed using a sample of 1385 soluble/instant espresso coffee consumers. Structural equation modeling was applied to test the conceptual model and research hypotheses. The results indicate a statistically significant influence of certain predictors on the intention of consumers to rechoose soluble/instant coffee. One exception is perceived behavioral control, where statistical significance exceeds the allowed values, which indicate that the offer of functional soluble/instant espresso solutions should be extended outside high-quality service hotels and spa centers to be available to all consumers with healthy lifestyle habits. Defining the factors that influence instant espresso coffee reselection can help to understand influences on certain consumer behaviors and improve sustainability on the market.
... Biologically produced organic foods started to gain popularity amongurban consumers in Northwest Europe, North America, and Japan over the past 30 years without concern for the harmful effects of conventional crop production on the [72] environment and human health. Organic agriculture combines ecological sustainability with lower health risks and sound economic viability based on the principles to use: (1) Composted organic matter to improve soil quality, (2) Soil conservation (contour planting, terracing, cover crops, mulch, and shade trees), (3) Natural methods of disease, insect and weed control, (4) Minimum fossil fuels in the production system and (5) Post-harvest handling with low environmental pollution (IFOAM, 2000 andvan der Vossen, 2005). ...
... Their already low coffee yields further decline, especially during the very low world coffee price. Due to a lack of financial resources, these most smallholder coffee producers in Ethiopia are effectively produced without inorganic fertilizers and synthetic pesticides and, therefore, organic by default, but do not automatically qualify as organic coffees since some of the assumptions made in organic farming such as soil quality improvement and plant nutrient management are missing scientific proofs (van der Vossen, 2005). Therefore, the objective of the present study was to compare conventional and organic coffee soil management in terms of chemical and microbiological soil quality parameters and find scientific proof for the differences between the two comparative soil management in Ethiopia. ...
ECSS (2022). Sirawdink Fikreyesus Forsido, Getachew WeldeMichael, Esayas Mendesil, Gezahegn Berecha, Taye Kufa, and Kifle Belachew (Eds.). Proceedings of Ethiopian Coffee Science Society (ECSS): Coffee Science and Innovation for Climate Resilience and Sustainable Coffee Value Chain in Ethiopia. Second Biennial Conference of Ethiopian Coffee Science Society (ECSS) Held on 24– 25 May 2019, Bonga, Ethiopia, pp. 181
ISBN 978-99944-3-585-2
... Coffea arabica cultivated in small and large scale plantations under a variety of shade trees in North Eastern Ghats, Visakhapatnam the use of mineral fertilizers is considered the quickest and surest way of boosting crop production, their cost and other environmental hazards. The current crisis in coffee prices in the world market due to over production (Albertin and Nair, 2004) and the progressive revival of interest in organically grown coffee, which is closely coupled with fears about environmental health and biodiversity (Van der Vossen, 2005), are additional problems to millions of coffee farmers in developing countries. These problems make it essential to look for alternative strategies that can ensure competitive coffee yields while protecting the health of soils. ...
... While the use of mineral fertilizers is considered the quickest and y of boosting crop production, their cost and other environmental hazards. The current crisis in coffee prices in the world market due to over production (Albertin and Nair, 2004) and the progressive revival of interest in organically s closely coupled with fears about environmental health and biodiversity (Van der Vossen, 2005), are additional problems to millions of coffee farmers in developing countries. These problems make it essential to look ure competitive coffee The current need for economically and ecologically acceptable fertilizer sources has prompted the search for a new approach to sustainable agriculture. ...
Phosphate solubilising rhizobacteria associated with Coffea arabica L. in coffee plantations of North Eastern Ghats, Visakhapatnam district, Andhra Pradesh, India, were investigated. the main purpose os to screen for potential microbial biofertilizers by assessing the isolated strains for phosphate solubilization efficiency and initial screening was performed on Pikovskaya's agar(PA). The present study could therefore be important with respect to screening of Coffea arabica associated rhizobacteria that possess direct plant growth promoting traits for extending the use of indigenous microbe as microbial biofertilizers.
... Pretty et al. (2010) examined strategies to establish a consensus in developing and testing metrics of sustainability in different agricultural systems that are appropriate and acceptable to several agroecological, social, economic, and political contexts. To perform agricultural sustainability assessments, tools (metrics) have focus on evaluating the sustainability of traditional production systems already established (e.g., Afshar and Dekamin, 2022;Akinnifesi et al., 2006;Astier et al., 2011;Moore et al., 2014;Starkl et al., 2022;Uphoff, 2003;Van Asselt et al., 2014;van der Vossen, 2005). However, to date, there are no tools to assess the sustainability of the treatments (cropping systems) evaluated through experimentation. ...
A variety of established tools are available for agricultural sustainability assessment at global, regional, and farm geographical scales. However, no assessment has been reported in research literature to indicate their ability to provide insights about the most sustainable cropping system at plot level or experimental unit. Despite the environmental and social importance of soil in agricultural systems, many of the sustainability assessments use few or no indicators related to soil properties or processes. Hence, we propose a sustainability assessment methodology oriented to soil-associated agricultural experiments (SMAES) by defining its parameters through simulations and testing the methodology with real data from a fertilization tomato experiment with five treatments: chemical control (CR); organic control (OR); and organic: chemical ratios (OR) of 25:75, 50:50, and 75:25. The distance from the maximum, principal component analysis, and product of weighted indicator techniques were chosen for normalization, weighting, and aggregation in a single index process, respectively. Applying the SMAES methodology, the sustainability level of the treatments followed this sequence: CR (0.95) > O25:C75 (0.73) > O50:C50 (0.60) > O75:C25 (0.55) > OR (0.45). The proposed SMAES methodology allows soil researchers to define the best treatment through the interaction of the environmental, social, and economic dimensions of agricultural systems.
... The average amount of manure applied is 513 kg ha -1 . According to Van der Vossen (2005) nutrient content of NPK (%) is 2-0.8-1.8, respectively. ...
p> Background. In the high mountains in the state of Veracruz Mexico, agriculture is characterized by smallholding coffee cropping systems. VIDA A.C., a rural organization, promotes the management of coffee cropping systems through agroecological practices aimed to enhance biodiversity, build soil fertility, conserve resources, food security, social equity. Objective. To Characterize the agroecological management of coffee cropping systems carried out by smallholder families of rural organization VIDA A.C., and determine their importance to support their livelihoods. Methodology. Research integrated both qualitative and quantitative methods. Tools such as participant observation, interviews, workshops, and transect walks contributed qualitative data. For quantitative data, a structured survey was applied to 50 families to characterize their coffee cropping systems. Results. Coffee cropping systems are distinguished by their high diversity. This diversity is found in the varieties of coffee, shade trees and crops. Coffee management considers at least eleven practices, ranging from seed selection to marketing. All family member participates in the management of coffee systems. Implications. The study shows that rural families have incorporated diverse knowledge and strategies to carry out agroeocological management of coffee cropping systems. Research contributed to the baseline of these systems, and there is a room of opportunities to deep in agroecological principles. Conclusions. Coffee cropping systems are distinguished by having high diversity and implementing agroecological practices that confer a distinctive quality to coffee. Families contribute to the reproduction of coffee cropping systems, as a mean of subsistence, identity and territorial conservation.</p
... Kelebihan kalsium serta kalium dalam tanah akan mengakibatkan rasa pahit yang tinggi pada kopi (Van der Vossen, 2009). Menurut Van der Vossen (2005) ketinggian daerah mempengaruhi pertumbuhan, produksi, kualitas serta citarasa kopi. Ketinggian tempat cenderung mempunyai dampak positif di keasaman sekaligus merendahkan kepahitan, kopi yang paling asam asal tanah vulkanik yang kaya bahan organik (Bertrand et al., 2006). ...
Abstrak. Kopi arabika Gayo telah dikenal dunia karena memiliki citarasa khas dengan ciri utama antara lain aroma dan perisa yang kompleks dan kekentalan yang kuat. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui hubungan antara sifat-sifat kimia tanah dan kualitas kopi arabika Gayo. Metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah metode survei dengan cara observasi lapangan yang disertai pengambilan sampel tanah dan biji kopi untuk dilakukan analisis di Laboratorium. Sifat - sifat kimia tanah yang diamati adalah pH H2O, C-Organik, N-Total, P-Tersedia, Ca-dd, Mg-dd, K-dd, Na-dd, KTK, dan KB dan parameter kualitas citarasa yang diamati adalah Aroma, Flavor, After Taste, Acidity, Body, Balance, Uniformity, Clean Up, Sweetness dan Overall. Data yang diperoleh dianalisis dengan metode regresi dan korelasi berganda Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa sifat – sifat kimia tanah tidak berkorelasi positif terhadap citarasa kopi arabika.Analysis of the Relationship between Soil Chemical Properties and the Quality of Gayo Arabica CoffeeAbstract. Gayo Arabica coffee is known to the world because it has a distinctive taste with the main characteristics, including complex aromas and flavors and strong viscosity. This study aims to determine the relationship between soil chemical properties and the quality of Gayo Arabica coffee. The method used in this study is a survey method by means of field observations accompanied by soil and coffee bean sampling for analysis in the laboratory. The chemical properties of the soil observed were pH H2O, C-Organic, N-Total, P-Available, Ca-dd, Mg-dd, K-dd, Na-dd, CEC, and KB and the parameters of the taste quality observed were Aroma, Flavor, After Taste, Acidity, Body, Balance, Uniformity, Clean Up, Sweetness and Overall. The data obtained were analyzed by regression and multiple correlation methods The results showed that the chemical properties of the soil were not positively correlated with the taste of Arabica coffee.
... Didorong oleh pertumbuhan pasar kopi bersertifikat, harga rendah di pasar utama, dan bantuan dari proyek pembangunan. Dampak produksi kopi organik pada kesejahteraan petani merupakan masalah penting karena produksi kopi organik telah menurunkan hasil dan pendapatan petani dibandingkan dengan apa yang dapat dicapai dengan menggunakan metode konvensional (Valkila, 2009;Van Der Vossen, 2005). ...
Abstrak. Banyak petani kopi mulai bertransisi ke produk organik selama penurunan harga kopi yang terjadi di pasar internasional pada tahun 2000-2004. Didorong oleh pertumbuhan permintaan pasar kopi bersertifikat, harga rendah di pasar utama, dan bantuan dari proyek pembangunan. Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui implementasi fairtrade minimum price dan fairtrade premium sertifikasi kopi Fairtrade dalam mensejahterakan hidup petani kopi gayo. Penelitian ini dilaksanakan di Kabupaten Aceh Tengah yaitu Kecamatan Jagong Jeged. Lokasi dipilih secara sengaja (purposive). Objek dari penelitian ini adalah petani sertifikasi Fairtrade di Kabupaten Aceh Tengah. Analisis yang digunakan adalah analisis deskriptif kuantitatif. Analisis ini bertujuan untuk menjabarkan penerapan dan pengaplikasian prinsip sertifikasi kopi Fairtrade. Berdasarkan hasil penelitian diperoleh kesimpulan bahwa koperasi belum memiliki peran yang signifikan dalam memperbaiki harga kopi akan tetapi petani kopi mengakui bahwa mereka telah mendapatkan Fairtrade premium fee. Implementation Of Fairtrade Minimum Price And Fairtrade Premium of Fairtrade Coffee Certification on the Welfare of Gayo Coffee FarmersAbstract. Many coffee farmers began to transition to organic products during the fall in coffee prices on the international market in 2000-2004. Driven by growing demand for the certified coffee market, low prices in key markets, and assistance from development projects. This study aimed to determine the implementation of fairtrade minimum price and fairtrade premium Fairtrade coffee certification for the welfare of gayo coffee farmers. This research was conducted in Central Aceh District, namely Jagong Jeged District. The location was chosen intentionally (purposively). The object of this research is Fairtrade-certified farmers in Central Aceh District. The analysis used is descriptive quantitative analysis. This analysis aims to describe the application and application of Fairtrade coffee certification principles. Based on the study results, it was concluded that cooperatives had no significant role in improving coffee prices. However, coffee farmers admit that they have received a Fairtrade premium fee.
... The wet technique is used to process around 40% of the world's coffee, including the majority of organically grown coffees. Although particular Ethiopian or Brazilian dry-processed Arabicas are highly sought after for their distinct taste and flavor, washed coffees are typical of higher quality [16]. ...
Coffee quality is critical to the industry and is influenced by a variety of factors both before and after harvest that ensure the final expression of the product's qualification, which is based upon a number of factors including genetics, climate, agronomic practices, harvesting (mature stages), and post-harvest handling from farm to cup. This review aims to stress the importance of coffee processing and how it affects coffee quality attributes as well as fermentation techniques. Fermentation is critical in the coffee processing process, not just for removing mucilage, but also for generating essential sensory quality attributes. If fermentation takes longer than expected, bacteria can degrade the product's quality by producing off-flavors and unappealing qualities. New coffee processing procedures, such as anaerobic and carbonic maceration, have become popular recently. Only a handful of the microorganisms present in natural coffee fermentation can be used as a starting culture. Most microbes recovered from spontaneous coffee fermentation lack sensory quality-enhancing properties. Green coffee beans from farms that employ any of the following processing processes are currently fermented with chosen microbes to improve the coffee's flavor and fragrance. Other molecular sciences can help us understand the chemical components produced during fermentation and their impact on coffee quality, resulting in more reliable and complex data.
... In the 1930s and 1940s, a movement in favor of organic agriculture was set in motion, aiming to reduce dependence on synthetic fertilizers and prioritize a sustainable production system with food security [2]. Organic food production started to gain popularity in the countries of Europe and North America, as well as Japan, approximately 30 years ago [25]. At that time, the organic food production system was recognized by some governments due to its economic growth, raising consumer awareness and preference [26]. ...
Coffee is a crop of great economic importance in many countries. The organic coffee crop stands out from other production systems by aiming to eliminate the use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides. One of the most important limitations in the organic system is the management of diseases, especially coffee rust, which is considered the main disease of this crop. Coffee rust causes a production slump of up to 50%, significantly affecting the profitability of coffee growers. This work aims to review the integrated rust management in organic coffee crop in different producing countries. Regarding the disease management strategies, this review addresses the use of rust-resistant cultivars, cultural management, biological control, use of plant extracts, and chemical rust control by cupric fungicides. Considering the importance of the organic system, the increase in world coffee consumption, and the potential market for this kind of coffee, this review may help researchers and producers looking for alternative strategies to control rust in an organic coffee cultivation system.
... Coffee growing area in Andhra Pradesh and Orissa (non-traditional area-NTA) under two tire shade trees [1], with high rainfall across the elevation 900 to 1100 m above MSL [2] are characterized by undulating topography with terraced slopes having narrow valleys with scattered coffee farms are cultivated by the local trebles under natural habitat of Eastern Ghats of Vishakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh -AP) and Koraput (Orissa) districts. The coffee grown in higher elevation under extreme high and low annual temperature along with high rainfall may affect the available nutrients status in soils and these essential plant nutrients will become non available [3]. Under this situation nutrients present in soil are stored in several pools as organic and inorganic forms in soil exchange complex and are very much essential for coffee plants for their growth and development. ...
Coffee growing areas in Andhra Pradesh and Orissa (non-traditional area - NTA) are characterized by undulating topography with terraced slopes having narrow valleys with scattered coffee farms across the elevation of the Eastern Ghats of Vishakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh) and Koraput (Orissa) districts. Under this situation plant available nutrients will become non-available and the nutrients are stored in several pools as inorganic and organic forms in soil exchange complex are very much essential for coffee plants for its growth and development. Hence, a study was conducted to know the soil nutrient status of coffee growing region of NTA. A total of 693 surface soil samples were collected at depth of 22cm randomly from each coffee growing mandals of NTA and assessed the nutrient status (soil pH, OC, available P and K) at Regional Coffee Research Station, Narsipatnam. Results of the soil test results indicated that most of the Arabica coffee soils of NTA are acidic in reaction (72 %) and soil pH > 6.0 in these soils was 28 % in the tested soils. Plant available phosphorous (P) in the soil is low with 33 % soils and 46 % of the soils are medium in range. However, only 21 % of the soils tested are high in available phosphorous content in these soils. The majority of the soils of this region are high in available potassium about 54 % and 31 % of the soils are medium in range but only 15 % of the soils are low in available K status. Coffee soils of NTA are rich in organic carbon status and almost 47 %. 33 % of the tested soils are medium in range but 19 % of soils were low in organic carbon status. Soils are slightly acidic in reaction and were rich in organic carbon and available potassium status.
... Lack of sustainable practice in the agriculture or coffee plantation could consist of (1) poor water management, leading to low yield productivity in farming and coffee cherries production [154]; (2) poor pest and disease management, causing economic loss in coffee farms, such as coffee leaf rust, black rot, and dieback [155]; (3) lack of cropping systems, affecting loss in the overall production of coffee or agriculture farming [156]; (4) scarcity of nutrient management, bringing about impaired quality of a product [157]; (5) lack of labor availability, high-cost investment, and lack of good management, leading to the poor competitiveness [158]; (6) inferior processing methods, affecting the quality of the product [159]; (7) poor drying and storage facilities that damage coffee beans [160]; (8) lack of waste and pollution management, causing severe environmental problems [33]. Additionally, poor farming management can lead to (1) land degradation from poor land and water management, endangering food security and increasing poverty [161]; (2) threatening food security and possibility of water scarcity [162]; (3) poverty due to drop in the GDP [163]; (4) adverse risk in human health from environmental pollution and high-risk pesticides [164]. ...
Modern agricultural technology management is nowadays crucial in terms of the economy and the global market, while food safety, quality control, and environmentally friendly practices should not be neglected. This review aims to give perspectives on applying big data analytic and modern technologies to increase the efficacy and effectiveness of the coffee supply chain throughout the process. It was revealed that several tools such as wireless sensor networks, cloud computing, Internet of Things (IoT), image processing, convolutional neural networks (CNN), and remote sensing could be implemented in and used to improve the coffee supply chain. Those tools could help in reducing cost as well as time for entrepreneurs and create a reliable service for the customer. It can be summarized that in the long term, these modern technologies will be able to assist coffee business management and ensure the sustainable growth for the coffee industry.
... In our study, full sun production under intensive management performed better in most of the years of evaluation. While cof-fee yields of organic systems are usually lower than conventional ones (Lyngbaek et al., 2001;Van Der Vossen, 2005), this study demonstrated that coffee yields under intensive organic management regimes were similar to those obtained under intensive conventional management yet some significant differences were evident overtime (figure 2, table II). ...
The suitability and profitability of coffee cultivation in Central America are at risk due to pest and disease outbreaks, price fluctuations and climate change. Proper shading is claimed to be one of the most promising practices to seek sustainability and better adapt coffee cultivation to climate change in marginal areas. This study recorded and compared coffee cherry yields over a ten-year period from shaded coffee (N-fixing-trees and timber trees) agroforestry systems under different management regimes (conventional vs. organic) in a suboptimal site. Significant differences in production were detected between conventional inputs vs. combination of organic inputs and shade types in some years of the evaluation period. Full-sun cultivation under intensive management was the most productive system for coffee yields, followed by shaded systems under timber trees. Interestingly, and regardless of management systems (intensive conventional or intensive organic) the worst combinations in terms of coffee yield were shaded systems under leguminous species (Inga laurina (Sw.) Willd. + Simarouba glauca DC.). Across all experimental plots, the timber species Simarouba glauca and Tabebuia rosea (Bertol.) DC. grew well, reaching a mean annual increment in diameter of 2.5-3.3 cm/year (age 12 years). Average gross revenues were higher in full-sun and timber-shaded agroforestry systems. Overall, intensive management regimes were the most expensive cultivation system to run but also the best in terms of coffee yield performance.
... The increased yield of clean coffee in the sole and staggered planting arrangement, it might be due to the increased population density of coffee trees, and the efficient utilization of the growth resources; viz., light, moisture, nutrients, etc. Similar result was observed in the previous works of [40], [41], [42], [43], [44], [45]. They reported that the efficient utilization of the growth resources by the individual coffee plant could be the possible reason for the yield increment. ...
Abstract
Intercropping is an excellent system of cropping which achieves a diversified and intensified crop production through better utilization of growth resources and inputs. An experiment was conducted at Teppi Agricultural Research Center from 2011 to 2015 cropping calendar to determine optimum intercropping ratios of coffee and enset that enhances yield productivity and land-use efficiency. The study consisted of six treatments viz., sole cropping of each crop, a staggered planting of both crops, 1:1, 2:1, 3:1 row ratios of coffee to enset, respectively. The experiment was laid out in a randomized complete block design with three replications. A lowland coffee variety (Catimor J-19) and local enset variety were used. The result revealed that the growth parameters of both coffee and enset were not significantly influenced by intercropping, except the internode length of coffee primary branches. However, the yields of the component crops were significantly (p<0.05) affected by different ratios of intercropping. The maximum clean coffee yield was obtained from the sole coffee plot (1127.68 kg ha-1) followed by the staggered plot (1082.04 kg ha-1). Similarly, the highest kocho (44167 kg ha-1) and bulla (1734.70 kg ha-1) yields were also found from the sole enset plot. On the other hand, the combined yields of the component crops in all intercropped plots were higher than the sole plots and the LER value was greater than 1. The maximum relative yield advantage of coffee and LER value was recorded from the staggered plot followed by the plot consists of a 3:1 row ratio of coffee to enset. In general, the result was disclosed the agronomic feasibilities of coffee and enset intercropping and the compatibility of the component crops as well. Therefore, it can be concluded that staggered planting of coffee and enset is a suitable cropping arrangement for enhancing the yield productivity of the component crops and ensuring food security for the resource-poor farmers. Thus, the aforementioned planting arrangement can be recommended for farmers and growers in the study area. Nevertheless, additional researches are required in different agro-ecologies of the country with economic feasibility studies to deliver a concrete recommendation.
... No obstante, para tener mejores rendimientos y hacer frente a problemáticas como la inci dencia de plagas y enfermedades y a la baja de producción del cultivo de café, los productores han intensificado y especializando el cafetal en los últimos años (Bacon, 2005;Van der Vossen, 2005;Eakin et al., 2006;Schroth et al., 2009). ...
... The increased yield of clean coffee in the sole and staggered planting arrangement, it might be due to the increased population density of coffee trees, and the efficient utilization of the growth resources; viz., light, moisture, nutrients, etc. Similar result was observed in the previous works of [40], [41], [42], [43], [44], [45]. They reported that the efficient utilization of the growth resources by the individual coffee plant could be the possible reason for the yield increment. ...
Intercropping is an excellent system of cropping which achieves a diversified and intensified crop
production through better utilization of growth resources and inputs. An experiment was conducted at Teppi
Agricultural Research Center from 2011 to 2015 cropping calendar to determine optimum intercropping ratios
of coffee and enset that enhances yield productivity and land-use efficiency. The study consisted of six treatments
viz., sole cropping of each crop, a staggered planting of both crops, 1:1, 2:1, 3:1 row ratios of coffee to enset,
respectively. The experiment was laid out in a randomized complete block design with three replications. A
lowland coffee variety (Catimor J-19) and local enset variety were used. The result revealed that the growth
parameters of both coffee and enset were not significantly influenced by intercropping, except the internode
length of coffee primary branches. However, the yields of the component crops were significantly (p<0.05)
affected by different ratios of intercropping. The maximum clean coffee yield was obtained from the sole coffee
plot (1127.68 kg ha-1) followed by the staggered plot (1082.04 kg ha-1). Similarly, the highest kocho (44167 kg
ha-1) and bulla (1734.70 kg ha-1) yields were also found from the sole enset plot. On the other hand, the combined
yields of the component crops in all intercropped plots were higher than the sole plots and the LER value was
greater than 1. The maximum relative yield advantage of coffee and LER value was recorded from the staggered
plot followed by the plot consists of a 3:1 row ratio of coffee to enset. In general, the result was disclosed the
agronomic feasibilities of coffee and enset intercropping and the compatibility of the component crops as well.
Therefore, it can be concluded that staggered planting of coffee and enset is a suitable cropping arrangement
for enhancing the yield productivity of the component crops and ensuring food security for the resource-poor
farmers. Thus, the aforementioned planting arrangement can be recommended for farmers and growers in the
study area. Nevertheless, additional researches are required in different agro-ecologies of the country with
economic feasibility studies to deliver a concrete recommendation.
... No obstante, para tener mejores rendimientos y hacer frente a problemáticas como la inci dencia de plagas y enfermedades y a la baja de producción del cultivo de café, los productores han intensificado y especializando el cafetal en los últimos años (Bacon, 2005;Van der Vossen, 2005;Eakin et al., 2006;. ...
Se presentan pronósticos de distribución de las áreas optimas, subóptimas y no óptimas para la producción de café arábiga, café robusta y otras especies con potencial de diversificación productiva como plátano, cacao, naranja, limón y aguacate, que fueron las especies más frecuentemente citadas con potencial de diversificación. Se presenta una lista larga de especies promisorias para diversificación productiva
... No obstante, para tener mejores rendimientos y hacer frente a problemáticas como la inci dencia de plagas y enfermedades y a la baja de producción del cultivo de café, los productores han intensificado y especializando el cafetal en los últimos años (Bacon, 2005;Van der Vossen, 2005;Eakin et al., 2006;. ...
... Ces demandes sont liées à l'accroissement quantitatif des demandes alimentaires (transitions démographiques, transitions alimentaires dans les pays émergents ou moins avancés) ou à des demandes industrielles de la bio-économie ou de la production agricole pour l'énergie (Pahun et al., 2018). En relation avec cette demande quantitative, la globalisation du mode de production en AB, en raison de ses faibles rendements (Van der Vossen, 2005 ;Reganold et Wachter, 2016 ;Lesur-Dumoulin et al., 2017 ;Seufert et al., 2019), pourrait conduire à étendre les superficies cultivées. Il en résulterait une destruction potentielle des réserves de biosphère ou, par la délocalisation des zones de production, des conséquences négatives sur le changement climatique (Searchinger et al., 2019). ...
L’agriculture biologique offre plusieurs options pour documenter les transitions technologiques vers de nouveaux modèles de production, même si elle présente des aspects controversés : faiblesse des rendements, accessibilité aux normes, valeurs des écobilans ou accroissement du travail. En mobilisant différentes situations en Afrique subsaharienne, ce numéro thématique des Cahiers Agricultures contribue à illustrer ces controverses. Les articles constitutifs montrent comment l’agriculture biologique définie par les normes des pays industriels ne peut rendre compte de la diversité des réalités agricoles africaines. Il s’ensuit l’émergence de nouvelles certifications et demandes des sociétés locales. Cette émergence reste contrainte par l’insuffisance des bases de connaissances comparatives des réalités productives entre l’agriculture biologique et conventionnelle. Des innovations méthodologiques pour réduire les asymétries de connaissances sur la comparaison des performances sont alors proposées. Les résultats interrogent la nécessité de nouveaux indicateurs intégrant les questions de sécurité nutritionnelle et sanitaire. Ils montrent que l’agriculture biologique peut aussi être un levier de l’accroissement des rendements quand la rente forestière a été consommée par l’agriculture d’exportation. Tout en éclairant les controverses, ce numéro thématique pose l’hypothèse, que sous certaines conditions, l’agriculture biologique est une opportunité de rupture de paradigme technologique qui répond aux enjeux de développement en Afrique. Il invite à ne pas confondre cette rupture avec les mécanismes de transition incrémentaux portés par l’agroécologie.
... In some cases high density and large canopy shade trees were found to harbor pests such as coffee berry borer. Similar finding was reported by Van Der Vossen (2005). Additionally, failure to manage the old coffee shrubs has resulted in the expansion of epiphytic plants and other parasitic epiphytes to grow on coffee shrub which result in reduced coffee productivity. ...
... On the other hand, the study finds that it decreased total household income as farmers converted land from non-coffee crops, thus depriving them of these other sources of income. Moreover, Van Der Vossen (2005) argues that the land use changes associated with organic coffee certification require large additional amounts of composted organic matter to sustain economically viable yield levels. According to the author, most smallholders will be unable to acquire such quantities and therefore face declining yields and lower incomes. ...
What is the impact of sustainability certification on food security in developing countries? This article explores the issue through a systematic review of the extant scholarship, complemented by a selective review of key studies examining the wider socio-economic effects of certification that may affect food security indirectly. To guide the analysis, we identify three main causal mechanisms – economic, land use and land rights, and gender effects – that link certification to local food security. Our review finds that food security remains a blind spot in the literature on certification impacts. Existing research points to a positive, albeit weak and highly context-dependent, relationship between certification, farmers’ income, and food security. However, there is only indicative evidence about the relationships that link certification to food security via its influence on land use, land rights, and gender equality.
... About 40% of the world coffee is processed according to the wet method, including most of the organically produced coffees. Washed coffees are generally of superior quality, although certain Ethiopian or Brazilian dry-processed Arabicas are much sought after for their specific taste and flavour [17]. Quality is the most important parameter in the world coffee trade, and it is determined by 40% in the field, 40% at the post-harvest (Fig. below) primary processing, and 20% at secondary processing. ...
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Quality is the most important parameter in the world coffee trade, and it is determined by about 40% in the field and the rest 60%
at the post-harvest (40% at primary, and 20% at secondary processing methods). Generally, among several factors which can affect
coffee quality includes water status of the soil, climatic conditions, berries maturity at harvest and bean processing methods, agricultural (field) management and genetic properties of different cultivars. Comparing to dry processing, wet processing method can
greatly improve coffee quality (both cup and physical quality) though its current status is very low. In relation to coffee processing,
waste utilization (for instance, as a fertilizer, as a fuel) as well as treatment of coffee effluents before discharging to the surroundings
(more specifically to the nearby rivers) can tackle the risk of environmental pollution. Because different investigators approved that
the releasing of un-treated effluents and other solid by-product significantly affects the quality of river water. Particularly, effluents
released to the river causes severe illnesses (overexcitement, skin irritation, stomach pain, nausea and breathing problem); can kill
the micro-organisms and plants that eliminate and absorb the contamination in the water generated by the wet mill (wet processing).
Thus, it needs a critical set up of west management strategies which include the way of effluent treatment before unwisely discharging to the environment and alternative west utilization opportunities
Keywords: Coffee; Quality; West Management; Wet Processing
... It has been established also that application of B. subtilis, Pochonia chlamydosporia, and P. fluorescens can effectively control the diseases caused by nematodes [231]. The high cost of pesticides, the emergence of fungicide-resistant pathogens and other health-related impacts of conventional agriculture on the environment have increased interest in agricultural sustainability and biodiversity conservation via phytobeneficial soil bacteria [232]. ...
Faba bean is the most vital legume crop in Ethiopia, but abiotic stresses primarily soil acidity are an obstacle for its production. Soil acidity disturbs and potentially limits nitrogen-fixing symbiosis. The interruption of nitrogen fixation and faba bean rhizobia interaction as a result of soil acidity leads to decreasing crop production. Sole dependence on chemical fertilizers for agricultural growth would mean further loss in soil quality and increased environmental damage. Rhizobial species show off sizable metabolic abilities to mitigate abiotic and biotic stresses, and mechanisms in stress tolerance are advancing fast, offering a strong foundation for the choice and engineering of rhizobia and legume hosts with better tolerance to soil acidity accordingly. The vast efforts to pick bioinoculants that can restore nitrogen under acid-affected soils are producing competitive crop yields. The main challenge of using single-type bioinoculant in field application can lead to variable and inconsistent outcomes. Co-inoculation of compatible microbes with organic farming which does not involve use of synthetic pesticides and chemical fertilizers is an imperative element in sustainable agriculture. Therefore, the present chapter focuses on the field application of faba bean rhizobial inoculants in acidic soils as a promising potential input in organic farming system. Moreover, the mechanism of N2 fixation and plant growth promotion systems under severe salt, drought, acidity, temperature, and heavy metal stresses is also highlighted.
... Proper maintenance and sustainability of agricultural land is prerequisite and addition of organic sources like poultry manure, and kitchen compost can play a vigorous part in the sustainability of fertility status of soil and crop production (Shahariar et al., 2013). Proper use of organic amendments is an environment-friendly, economical and ergonomically sound practice which has already been established by many researchers (Van der Vossen, 2005). Therefore, to increase the production of Okra and to meet the demand for food the use of organic amendments as a fertilizer source is getting prime importance day by day. ...
Vegetables produce a great contribution in maintaining the proper diet of human beings. Especially Okara has been gained more importance due to its nutritional value. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) 100 grams of okra contains about 1.93g, 0.19 g, 7.45 g 3.2 g and 1.48 g of protein, fat, carbohydrates, fiber and sugar, respectively. As well as one gram of okra contain 31.3 mg and 299mg of vitamin K and potassium, respectively. Therefore, to examine the effect of different forms of fertilizers (organic and inorganic) on the yield and physiochemical attributes of okra Abelmoschus esculentus a field trial was conducted. For this purpose, organic form of fertilizers like kitchen waste, poultry manure and compost were used while the inorganic sources were NPK fertilizer. This experiment was laid out in the field area of soil and water testing laboratory for research, Bahawalpur in growing seasons from July to October of 2017. Treatments were arranged in Two factorial Completely Randomized Design CRBD fashion with three replications and six treatments. Treatments are arranged as control T1 (Without fertilizer + No Poultry Manure + No compost), T2 (NPK full dose @ 150 kg ha-1N, 75 kg ha-1P and 60 kg ha-1K), T3 (full dose of poultry manure (PM) @ 30 ton ha-1), T4 (50% NPK+50% Poultry Manure i.e. 75 kg ha-1N, 37.5 kg ha-1P and 30 kg ha-1K +15 ton ha-1 PM), T5 (full dose compost @ 30 ton ha-1), T6 (50% NPK+ 50% compost i.e. 75 kg ha-1N, 37.5 kg ha-1P and 30 kg ha-1K + 15 ton ha-1 compost). Plants growth and yield parameters were determined like the total number of leaves per plant, plant height, fruit length, root and shoot dry weight, fresh fruit weight, the total number of fruits per plant, fruit yield and total yield increase. No significant increase was observed in the yield and growth of okra under control and full NPK fertilizer treatment. Application of organic fertilizers like poultry manure and compost as well as its mixture with full NPK considerably increase the growth and total yield attributes of Okra. On the other hand, in contrast to all other treatments, the joint use of 50% NPK+50% PM exhibits the most significant impact on okra growth
Climate change is adversely affecting coffee production, impact-ing both yields and quality. Coffee production is dominated by the cultivation of Arabica and Robusta coffee, species that represent 99% of production, but both will be affected by climate change. Sustainable management practices that can enhance the resilience of production and livelihoods to climate change are urgently needed as production supports the livelihoods of over 25 million people globally, the majority of whom are smallholder farmers located in the coffee belt spanning the tropics. These communities are already experiencing the impacts of climate change. We conducted a systematic review, identifying 80 studies that describe the direct and indirect impacts of climate change on coffee agroecosystems, or that identify agroecological practices with the potential to enhance climate resilience. Adverse environmental impacts include a reduction in area suitable for production, lower yields, increased intensity and frequency of extreme climate events, and greater incidence of pests and diseases. Potential environmental solutions include altitudinal shifts, new, resilient culti-vars, altering agrochemical inputs, and agroforestry. However, financial, environmental and technical constraints limit the availability of many of these approaches to farmers, particularly smallholder producers. There is therefore an urgent need to address these barriers through policy and market mechanisms, and stakeholder engagement to continue meeting the growing demand for coffee.
Above-ground biomass cover under Coffea arabica on sloping land is beneficial but difficult to sustain. Interplanting annual and perennial legumes can sustain the above-ground biomass cover, and improve soil fertility, yield, and profitability. This was tested on 26 sloping farms in a four-growing season experiment on undersowing C. arabica with new crop combinations: Mucuna pruriens var. utilis (T1); Millettia dura Dunn (T2); a combination of M. pruriens and M. dura (T3); and the control with a no-cover legume (T4). On each farm, all treatments followed a randomized single-block design. T3 produced 8.7 mt/ha/yr above-ground biomass that was significantly (p < 0.01) higher than other treatments and was increasing with the seasons. Under T3, plant-available nitrogen (N) and potassium (K) increased more than in other treatments. During the fourth season, coffee yield in T3 was 54%, 22%, and 11% higher than in T4, T2, and T1, respectively. The gross profit under T3 was 86% higher than in T4 in the fourth season. This indicates that interplanting a combination of M. pruriens and M. dura under C. arabica on sloping land can sustainably increase above-ground biomass cover, soil’s plant-available N and K, coffee yield, and profitability. Based on the results, the combination of M. pruriens and M. dura is recommended to optimize coffee production under the described conditions.
The fermentation stage is considered to be one of the critical steps in coffee processing due to its impact on the final quality of the product. The aim of this study was to determined the effect of Lactobacillus fermentum CK165 addition and fermentation time on the physical characteristics of Arabica coffee Kintamani, Bangli, and knowing the right treatment to produce Arabica coffee with the best physical characteristics. This study used a completely randomized design (CRD) with treatment using Lactobacillus fermentum CK165 addition and duration of fermentation consisting of 0 hours, 12 hours, 24 hours, and 36 hours. Each treatment was repeated 2 times to obtain 16 experimental units. The physical characteristics of Arabica coffee were analyzed statistically by analysis of variance (ANOVA) and continued with Duncan multiple range test (DMRT), if there was an affect between treatments. The result showed that Lactobacillus fermentum CK165 addition and fermentation time significantly affected the bulk density, moisture content, bean number/10 g, weight of 100 beans, bean wide, and color (L* and b*). Lactobacillus fermentum CK165 addition and fermentation for 24 hours resulted Arabica coffee with the best physical characteristics with bulk density 0.637 g/ml, moisture content 8.507%, bean number/10 g 51.500 beans, weight of 100 beans 19.873 g, long 10.570 mm, wide 7.401 mm, thick 4.305 mm, L* 36.588, a* 1,670, b* 11.045, broken beans 0.533 bean number/100 g, brown beans 0.102 bean number/100 g, and partly black beans 1.766 bean number/100 g.
Coffee berry disease (CBD) is a calamitous anthracnose of green berries of Coffea arabica L. caused by a fungal pathogen Colletotrichum kahawae Waller & Bridge. Coffee yield losses reach 80–100% on susceptible cultivars if effective control is not properly implemented. The antagonistic potential of 23 native bacterial strains, collected from Arabica coffee tree, was assayed against the fungus under in vitro and in vivo conditions. The strains were first tested for their antifungal activities on mycelia growth inhibition and suppression of conidia germination. Those promising strains were further evaluated for disease reduction and biocontrol efficacy in detached green berries and seedling hypocotyls of highly- and moderately- susceptible coffee cultivars. Among others, Bacillus cereus ECk-03, B. megaterium ECk-05, B. mycoides ECk-06, and Pseudomonas spinosa ECk-17 showed significantly (P < 0.05) greater mycelia growth inhibition (67–87%) and higher suppression of conidia germination (85–90%). The infection of berries and seedling hypocotyls by C. kahawae were almost prevented and thereby significantly (P < 0.05) reduced severity of CBD (>75–80%) was achieved in highly and moderately susceptible coffee cultivars ‘cv. 370’ and ‘cv. 74110’ treated with Bacillus megaterium ECk-05, B. mycoides ECk-06 and P. spinosa ECk-17. The strains demonstrated the highest CBD reduction and pronounced biocontrol efficacy (>70%) at 48 h pre-fungal inoculation. The consistent performance of Bacillus megateriumECk-05, B. mycoidesECk-06 and P. spinosaECk-17 strains in antifungal activities and higher disease reduction suggest as potential biocontrol for the management of CBD encouraging organic coffee production.
Although a common plant response to environmental gradients, leaf trait plasticity is often uncharted in agroforestry systems. The objective of this study was to examine the effect of a i) local-scale gradient (light, nutrients) induced by shade tree diversity and ii) large-scale gradient (climato-edaphic) induced by altitude on coffee plant response on multiple agroforestry research farms in Costa Rica. Results show large variability of coffee traits: leaf photosynthetic rates, specific leaf area (SLA) and number of fruiting nodes deviate along both gradients. Mean SLA increased with increasing shade tree diversity. However, with increasing altitude, full sun coffee photosynthesized at higher rates than shaded coffee. Concurrently, other coffee leaf physiological and morphological traits differentiated between full sun and shaded coffee with increasing altitude. Results suggest soil moisture and light availability dominate environmental correlates to intraspecific coffee trait plasticity, providing insight to sources of coffee performance variability in monoculture and agroforestry systems.
Aims: This study mainly intends to analyze the production side of coffee that would throw light on the scenario of coffee growers to understand the cost structure and returns from coffee cultivation in the study area. Study Design: Purposive sampling technique was adopted for the current study on Araku valley coffee, where the primary data has been collected from 120 coffee growers. Place and Duration of Study: The research was carried out in the Visakhapatnam district of Andhra Pradesh and the primary data was collected from April to July 2022. Methodology: Costs and returns of coffee cultivation were estimated for Araku Valley Coffee in the study area. Results: The establishment cost of Araku Valley coffee in the Visakhapatnam district was Rs. 144039.06/ha, which encompassed both the initial investment costs and maintenance costs during the coffee gestation period. The cost of cultivation during the coffee fruit-bearing period was Rs. 611353.67/ha. With this total cost per hectare, the cost per Kg of coffee produced turns out to be Rs 9.83/kg. Fresh fruit berries were sold on the market for an average price of Rs. 40/kg. Net profits were Rs. 2317053.55/ha while gross returns were Rs. 3072446.28/ha. The BCR, NPV@12% discount rate, and IRR recorded were 1.68, Rs.144581, and 28.7% respectively. It was an undeniable fact that raising coffee plantations in Andhra Pradesh was lucrative and could be operated on a commercial scale for fostering profits over a generation. Conclusion: The pace of tribal development in the Visakhapatnam district was sustained in large part by coffee production. From a long-term viewpoint, this study signifies and validates the real economics of coffee production for sustainable resource management, profitable revenue generation, and expanded employment opportunities.
This study investigates the determinants of coffee prices received by growers in Costa Rica, paying attention to the impact of environmental, regional, quality, and international aspects in a panel data set for the period 2008–2016. We identify three groups of variables that affect domestic coffee prices. Some of them are external to the control of the coffee growers, such as the international price of green coffee or the power of multinationals; others, such as the altitude where the coffee is harvested or the berries' yield, are related to coffee quality but difficult to modify by coffee growers. The focus of our study is on the third group, which refers to differentiation strategies related to environmental certifications. More specifically, we consider two particularly relevant certifications, which are Fairtrade mills and organic coffee. We find that organic coffee berries received higher prices, but Fairtrade mills report lower average prices than other, non-certified, buyers.
Comparing to non-organic coffee, organically grown coffee has been regarded to be healthier at a more expensive price. Recently, in Sumatra, Robusta organic coffee is becoming more popular. However, it is difficult to assess the origin of organic ground roasted coffee resulting in frequent mislabeling incidence in the market. In this research, an effort to discriminate Robusta organic coffee from different origins was evaluated using ultraviolet (UV) spectroscopy and principal component analysis (PCA). A total of fifty samples of ground-roasted organic coffee from two origins in Sumatra Indonesia (Lampung and Bengkulu) was used. The samples were extracted using hot distilled water, filtered, and diluted with distilled water (1:70 volume/volume). UV spectra were measured in the range of 220-400 nm with 1 nm of the resolution using a benchtop UV-Vis spectrometer. Principal component analysis (PCA) was applied for original and preprocessed spectral data in the range of 220-400 nm. Using the first and the second principal components (PC1 and PC2) using preprocessed spectra resulted in a distinct cluster between Lampung and Bengkulu organic coffee samples. This result showed the effectiveness of PCA in differentiating between the organic Robusta coffee from different origins (Lampung and Bengkulu).
The study aims to test if Ecuadorean coffee's symbolic and material contents agree with the instrumental analysis and grading protocols. We studied the relationship between the chemical composition and the organoleptic characteristics of eight non-specialty and six specialty coffee samples. Firstly, the study addresses the grading following the Specialty Coffee American Association (SCAA) method. The second stage focuses on the qualitative composition of the coffee brews employing GC-MS and caffeine concentrations using HPLC. Then, we employed statistical tools such as Cohen's concordance coefficients, dissimilarity dendrograms, and linear correlations between the chemical compounds in the beverage and the attributes' scores. The grading panel consisted of 6 semi-trained-testers who would assess if the primary cultural capital can provide a criterion to identify specialty coffee. The variety of compounds allowed the evaluators to distinguish between commercial and specialty coffees. However, the composition analysis identified molecules that would imply greater gradation in the tasting, a prevision that was not reflected in the results. Finally, we confirmed that basic training could create cultural capital to distinguish non-specialties from specialty coffees through their chemistry and organoleptic attributes.
The development of organic coffee in Indonesia has been progressing insignificantly, although the country is one of the leading coffee producers. One of the reasons slowing down the development of Organic coffee is because the farmers encounter several obstacles at the farm. This study aims to create strategies for the development of organic coffee in Wonokerso Village because there have been previous researches and the location for some superior coffee clones since 2004 from the Indonesian Coffee and Cocoa Research and organic coffee demonstration plot in farmer’s land. This study was conducted in Wonokerso Village in 2019. Through in-depth interviews and analysis by Strengths Weaknesses Opportunities and Threats (SWOT) and strategy formulated by Treats Opportunities Weaknesses Strengths (TOWS) matrix, data collection was conducted. The respondents consisted of coffee farmers, extension workers, and village officials in Wonokerso. The results show that developing organic coffee is in quadrant III (turn around), which means weaknesses are higher than strengths. Potential opportunities are much more than threats. Strategies include increasing the standardization of organic coffee quality, price guarantee, and improving productivity. The action plan that should be implemented, firstly, facilitating the organic coffee certification. Secondly, establishing Village-Owned Enterprises that accommodate, process and market organic coffee directly to consumers, and lastly, improving technology adoption by training and technology incentive.
Mexico is an important producer of organic coffee, mainly harvested by producers with small shade plots who use a diversity of varieties. Considering organic cultivation standards, we evaluated fruit production, cherry-parchment industrial yield, and the sensory cup quality of 20 coffee varieties (10 tall stature and 10 compact stature) during six production cycles in Oaxaca, Mexico. The varieties with the highest average fruit production in six years were three compact stature: Colombia Brote Café (30.2 kg / plant), Oro Azteca (29.0 kg / plant), and Yellow Catuai (27 kg / plant). These varieties produce large beans suitable for a European-style preparation. The Aztec Gold varieties presented good aroma, acidity and body attributes. Tall stature varieties with greater intermediate yield were Batie, Dessie, Pluma Hidalgo 177, and Typica 947, with around 24 kg / plant. Pacamara and Blue Mountain had low fruit production. Some varieties achieved a good taste irrespectively of their stature. Abnormalities in beans and agroindustrial yields were similar for all varieties
In Latin America, the cultivation of Arabica coffee (Coffea arabica) plays a critical role in rural livelihoods, biodiversity conservation, and sustainable development. Over the last 20 years, coffee farms and landscapes across the region have undergone rapid and profound biophysical changes in response to low coffee prices, changing climatic conditions, severe plant pathogen outbreaks, and other drivers. Although these biophysical transformations are pervasive and affect millions of rural livelihoods, there is limited information on the types, location, and extent of landscape changes and their socioeconomic and ecological consequences. Here we review the state of knowledge on the ongoing biophysical changes in coffee-growing regions, explore the potential socioeconomic and ecological impacts of these changes, and highlight key research gaps. We identify seven major land-use trends which are affecting the sustainability of coffee-growing regions across Latin America in different ways. These trends include (1) the widespread shift to disease-resistant cultivars, (2) the conventional intensification of coffee management with greater planting densities, greater use of agrochemicals and less shade, (3) the conversion of coffee to other agricultural land uses, (4) the introduction of Robusta coffee (Coffea canephora) into areas not previously cultivated with coffee, (5) the expansion of coffee into forested areas, (6) the urbanization of coffee landscapes, and (7) the increase in the area of coffee produced under voluntary sustainability standards. Our review highlights the incomplete and scattered information on the drivers, patterns, and outcomes of biophysical changes in coffee landscapes, and lays out a detailed research agenda to address these research gaps and elucidate the effects of different landscape trajectories on rural livelihoods, biodiversity conservation, and other aspects of sustainable development. A better understanding of the drivers, patterns, and consequences of changes in coffee landscapes is vital for informing the design of policies, programs, and incentives for sustainable coffee production.
Supplementary information:
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13593-021-00712-0.
Costa Rica's coffee systems have been the subject of many sustainability plans based on unidimensional assessment. The present research aims to evaluate the sustainability of coffee production systems from the multidimensional approach to measure sustainability, 48 indicators were evaluated, divided into three dimensions Environmental Integrity, Economic Resilience, and Social Well–being, taken, and adapted from the Sustainability Assessment for Food and Agriculture (SAFA) tool of the World Food Organization (FAO). The sustainability of each coffee farm generated the following results, three farms in the dark green category (Ideal, 80–100%) and five in light green (Very good, 60–80%). Rincon de Mora coffee systems meet a level from very good to ideal, however, specific aspects must be worked on to improve in the future
El cafe es el cultivo mas importante de la zona alta de los estados Monagas, Sucre y Anzoategui. La baja productividad nacional (5 qq.ha-1) esta asociada al escaso uso de fertilizantes en las plantaciones. Con el objetivo de caracterizar la fertilidad y proponer estrategias de fertilizacion en el eje cafetalero San Agustin-Juasjuillar, municipio Caripe, estado Monagas, se colectaron muestras (profundidades 0-20 cm y 20-40 cm) con fi nes de fertilidad en 173 fi ncas comerciales. Las muestras fueron procesadas en el laboratorio de suelos del Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agricolas del estado Guarico. Se identifi caron y descartaron variables con multicolinearidad a traves del análisis de correlacion. Con el analisis de componentes principales se seleccionaron las variables que aportaron mayor variabilidad y mediante el análisis de agrupamiento jerarquico se defi nieron cuatro grupos de localidades con condiciones similares de suelos. Las tecnicas estadisticas permitieron identificar diez variables que explicaron 73% de la variacion en las propiedades quimicas de los suelos. En las condiciones del eje cafetalero San Agustin – Juasjuillar es sufi ciente con evaluar la capa superficial del suelo para diagnosticar la fertilidad. Se requiere un plan de fertilizacion especifico para cada grupo homogeneo de suelos, orientado a corregir los desbalances nutricionales identificados. Todas las fincas demandan dosis de mantenimiento de nitrogeno y dosis correctivas de fosforo, potasio, calcio y magnesio. En la mayoria de las localidades es necesaria la correccion de los tenores de zinc en el suelo, a excepcion de las localidades de San Agustin y La Guanota.
Okara has gained more importance in every community on the globe due to its nutritional value. This study examined the effect of organic and inorganic fertilizers on the growth and yield and of okra on the on farm level. Organic form of fertilizer used was poultry manure and while the inorganic was NPK fertilizer. The experiment was laid out in a Randomized Complete Block Design during the raining seasons of 2019. Four treatments with three replications were used. Treatments are arranged as control T1 (Without fertilizer + No Poultry Manure + No compost), T2 (NPK full dose (150 kg ha-1N, 75 kg ha-1P and 60 kg ha-1K), T3 (full dose of poultry manure (PM) 30 ton ha-1), T4 (50% NPK+50% Poultry Manure). Plants growth and yield parameters were determined like the total number of leaves per plant, plant height, the total number of fruits per plant, fruit yield and total yield increase. No significant increase was observed in the yield and growth of okra under control and full NPK fertilizer treatment. Application of poultry manure as well as its mixture with full NPK considerably increased the growth and total yield attributes of Okra. The joint use of 50% NPK+50% PM also showed the most significant effect on okra growth and yield of the crop.
Em espécies sensíveis ao frio, como a Ave do Paraíso, a exposição a
baixas temperaturas ocasiona danos celulares, que podem ser quantificados pelo extravasamento de eletrólitos. Esses danos levam a depreciação da qualidade das pétalas e sépalas que juntamente com a massa fresca das flores constituem os principais parâmetros de qualidade para o mercado. Diante disso, objetivou-se com este estudo determinar o efeito da temperatura de armazenamento e da aplicação de MeJA no extravasamento de eletrólitos e massa fresca de flores de corte de Ave do Paraíso. As hastes florais foram pulverizadas com soluções de 100, 250 e 400 µmol L-1 de MeJA
e controle, sem MeJA. Posteriormente, foram transferidas para recipientes contendo água e armazenadas nas temperaturas de 5, 10 e 22 ºC por 7 dias. A exposição das flores a 5 e 10 °C não causou o extravasamento de eletrólitos e promoveu maior massa fresca. A 22 °C, as doses de 100 e 250 µmol L-1 de MeJA aumentaram o extravasamento de eletrólitos e o aumento da dosagem de MeJA promoveu maior massa fresca. Conclui-se que as flores de corte de Ave do Paraíso podem ser armazenadas a 5 °C por 7 dias e que a aplicação de MeJA é indicado para aumentar a massa
fresca apenas em temperaturas mais elevadas. Em espécies sensíveis ao frio, como a Ave do Paraíso, a exposição a
baixas temperaturas ocasiona danos celulares, que podem ser quantificados
pelo extravasamento de eletrólitos. Esses danos levam a depreciação da qualidade das pétalas e sépalas que juntamente com a massa fresca das flores constituem os principais parâmetros de qualidade para o mercado. Diante disso, objetivou-se com este estudo determinar o efeito da temperatura de armazenamento e da aplicação de MeJA no extravasamento de eletrólitos e massa fresca de flores de corte de Ave do Paraíso. As hastes florais foram pulverizadas com soluções de 100, 250 e 400 µmol L-1 de MeJA e controle, sem MeJA. Posteriormente, foram transferidas para recipientes
contendo água e armazenadas nas temperaturas de 5, 10 e 22 ºC por 7 dias. A exposição das flores a 5 e 10 °C não causou o extravasamento de eletrólitos e promoveu maior massa fresca. A 22 °C, as doses de 100 e 250 µmol L-1
de MeJA aumentaram o extravasamento de eletrólitos e o
aumento da dosagem de MeJA promoveu maior massa fresca. Conclui-se que as flores de corte de Ave do Paraíso podem ser armazenadas a 5 °C por 7 dias e que a aplicação de MeJA é indicado para aumentar a massa fresca apenas em temperaturas mais elevadas.
The current transgression of ecological boundaries requires a transformation to a ‘Green Economy’, with rigorous and fast reductions of pollution and resource consumption. Transformative policy reforms towards this aim can lead to economic co-benefits, but they can also be costly, at least for certain economic actors. Furthermore, they can involve trade-offs between current and future wellbeing.
Timing and sequencing of reforms is thus far from trivial. More research is needed to inform policymakers in search of the right coping strategies, in particular in economic latecomer countries with persisting poverty and a high need for short-term growth. The main research question of this article is thus: Which economic opportunities arise from orienting economic latecomer strategies towards green technologies and institutions now, versus growing first and cleaning up later?
Literature already provides a fair basis of evidence on this question. However, it is biased towards industrialised countries, and towards a subset of green incentives and technologies, such as carbon pricing and renewable energy support. The aim of this article, therefore, is threefold. First and foremost, we review and structure existing evidence and the new evidence provided by this Special Issue along the economic arguments for “greening now” vs. “cleaning up later”. We thus aim to provide an analytical reference point for the growing body of evidence on economic co-benefits of green transformations, helping to structure the debate, to widen its perspective and encourage further research on emerging aspects. Second, we put this structure in the context of latecomer countries, making the identified issues relevant for their framework conditions and showing where and how the articles assembled in the Special Issue fit in the overall debate. Third, we broaden our assessment to include particularly under-researched areas of green transformations in latecomer countries, such as electric mobility, agriculture, steel, and waste management.
In reviewing the evidence, we find that early greening is likely to bring economic co-benefits, for example in terms of efficiency-induced competitiveness and in gaining a foothold in the markets of the future. Delaying action, in contrast, risks permanent environmental damage, lock-in of polluting socio-technical pathways, and losses from asset stranding. Yet, the decision between “greening now” and “cleaning up later” is not dichotomous. Careful timing and sequencing of green policy reforms are key, and political decision makers can select and design their national policies in ways that turn changing framework conditions into economic opportunities.
This study attempts to uncover the truth behind an increasing number of smallholder farmers participating in sustainable coffee farming in Vietnam. Using stochastic frontier and cost-benefit analysis, a sample of 316 smallholder farmers in Dak Lak was chosen to analyze the economic impacts of sustainable and conventional coffee farming on farmers’ welfare. In addition, we conducted field observation and key informant interviews to describe several farming practices. The results highlight the fact that farmers’ decisions to participate in sustainable coffee farming are mainly driven by economic benefits. Sustainable farming is more cost-effective and profitable than conventional farming, despite the insignificant difference in production efficiency. Improvement of education, farming knowledge, and collective actions could mitigate negative effects of small-scale production for sustainable coffee farmers. Pesticide management, shade coffee encouragement, and reduction of excessive fertilization, over-irrigation, and unproductive coffee varieties are recommended for sustainable development of the sector.
Coffee (Coffea arabica L.) management in Costa Rica is changing from traditional agroecosystems, where coffee is grown beneath a tree overstory, to management systems where shade trees are removed and N fertilizer is applied at high rates (ca. 300 kg N ha-1 yr-1). Although fertilization increases coffee bean production, it also increases the potential for substantial loss of N to groundwater and the atmosphere. We investigated NO3/- leaching and the factors controlling denitrification in shaded and unshaded coffee plantations in the Central Valley of Costa Rica; both plantation types were fertilized with 300 kg N ha-1 yr-1. Nitrate leaching was quantified using porous ceramic cup lysimeters placed 60 cm below the soil surface. Losses were estimated by multiplying the soil water NO3/- concentration by the monthly soil water excess, determined as the difference between precipitation and actual evapotranspiration. In addition, a laboratory experiment was conducted to investigate the influence of NO3/- , C, and O2 availability on N2O production and total denitrification (N2O- N + N2-N). Annual leaching losses of NO3/- were almost three times greater in unshaded plantations (24 kg NO3/--N ha-1 yr-1) than those in shaded plantations (9 kg ha-1 yr-1). In contrast, mean total denitrification rates in control soil samples from shaded plantations were 60% higher (732 μg N2O-N kg-1 d-1) than in unshaded plantations (455 μg N2O-N kg-1 d-1). Carbon additions elicited the largest increase in denitrification, generating nearly a threefold increase (+ C = 8396 μg N2O-N kg-1 d-1; - C = 2985 μg N2O-N kg-1 d-1) in both plantation types. Anaerobic conditions also significantly increased denitrification (+O2 = 4331 μg N2O-N kg-1 d-1; -O2 = 6656 μg N2O-N kg-1 d-1). In both plantation types, the potential for N loss via NO3/- leaching was small compared with that for gaseous N loss.
Root-knot nematodes, Meloidogyne incognita in Guatemala and Meloidogyne sp. in El Salvador frequently cause very serious damage to Coffea arabica. Hypocotyledon grafting on C. canephoravar. Robusta is practiced on a very wide scale to control these pests. However, rootstock seeds come from non selected trees
which provide 30–40%resistance. In this article, we examine the possibility of improving resistance to M. incognita and Meloidogyne sp. Hybrids were created using two North Carolina II factorial mating designs and tested under controlled conditions for
resistance to isolates of the two nematodes. In the trial with Meloidogyne sp. the number of nematodes per plant was counted, and in the trial withM. incognita a root damage index was established. Vegetative measurements (height, weight of aerial parts and roots) were taken in both
trials. The parents were classed according to their cross value and genetic variance was estimated. In the factorial trial
conducted with the Meloidogynesp. isolate from El Salvador, parents T3561 and T3751transmitted high resistance levels of 56 and 54%,respectively, to their
progenies, as opposed to 9% for the other parents. The cross between those two parents achieved 78% resistant plants. In the
trial with the M. incognita isolate from Guatemala, similar results were found. The same two parents transmitted resistance to 64% of their progenies,
as opposed to 36% for the other parents. Classification of the parents did not differ from one trial to the other. The existence
of a complex nematode resistance locus in the C. canephora species seems highly likely. The results show that it is possible to select rootstock varieties that are more resistant to
the main Meloidogyne nematodes in Guatemala and El Salvador. Given the average heritability values (0.28–0.30) and the possibility of applying
strong selection intensity, the genetic progress expected in the next selection cycle should be substantial.
Social relations associated with conventional agricultural exports find their origins in long term associations based on business, family, and class alliances. Working outside these boundaries presents a host of challenges, especially where small producers with little economic or political power are concerned. Yet, in many developing countries, alternative trade organizations (ATOs) based on philosophies of social justice and/or environmental well-being are carving out spaces alongside traditional agricultural export sectors by establishing new channels of trade and marketing. Coffee provides a case in point, with the fair trade and certified organic movements making inroads into the market place. In their own ways, these movements represent a type of economic and social restructuring from below, drawing upon and developing linkages beyond the traditional boundaries of how coffee is produced and traded. An examination of the philosophies of the fair trade and organic coffee movements reveal that the philosophical underpinnings of both certified organic and fair-trade coffee run counter to the historical concerns of coffee production and trade. Associations of small producers involved in these coffees face stiff challenges – both internal and external to their groups. More work, especially in situ fieldwork aimed at uncovering the challenges, benefits, tensions, and successes, is needed to understand better the ways these networks operate in the dynamic agro-food complex.
Shade trees reduce the stress of coffee (Coffea spp.) and cacao (Theobroma cacao) by ameliorating adverse climatic conditions and nutritional imbalances, but they may also compete for growth resources. For example, shade trees buffer high and low temperature extremes by as much as 5 °C and can produce up to 14 Mg ha−1 yr−1 of litterfall and pruning residues, containing up to 340 kg N ha−1 yr−1. However, N2 fixation by leguminous shade trees grown at a density of 100 to 300 trees ha−1 may not exceed 60 kg N ha−1 yr−1. Shade tree selection and management are potentially important tools for integrated pest management because increased shade may increase the incidence of some commercially important pests and diseases (such as Phythphora palmivora and Mycena citricolor) and decrease the incidence of others (such as Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and Cercospora coffeicola). In Central America, merchantable timber production from commercially important shade tree species, such as Cordia alliodora, is in the range of 4−6 m3 ha−1 yr−1.
The relative importance and overall effect of the different interactions between shade trees and coffee/cacao are dependent upon site conditions (soil/climate), component selection (species/varieties/provenances), belowground and aboveground characteristics of the trees and crops, and management practices. On optimal sites, coffee can be grown without shade using high agrochemical inputs. However, economic evaluations, which include off-site impacts such as ground water contamination, are needed to judge the desirability of this approach. Moreover, standard silvicultural practices for closed plantations need to be adapted for open-grown trees within coffee/cacao plantations.
Quality is an important attribute of coffee. Therefore it is important to understand the effect of overstory trees not only on the environment and long-term coffee production, but also on the quality of coffee grown underneath the trees. This study compared coffee quality of Coffea arabica L. vars. Caturra and Catimor 5175 under different levels of shade in a low-elevation, sub-optimal environment for coffee in Costa Rica. Fruit weight and bean size increased significantly when shade intensity was increased from 0% to more than 80% under unpruned Erythrina poeppigiana. While large beans (diameter > 6.7 mm) accounted for 49 and 43% of the coffee from unshaded Caturra and Catimor, respectively, these proportions increased to 69 and 72% under dense permanent shade. This suggested a stronger shade benefit for Catimor than for Caturra. The conversion percentages from fresh-weight coffee fruits to dry-weight green coffee for export were not affected by the treatments. A blind tasting experiment showed consistent shade-induced improvements in appearance of green and roasted coffee as well as in acidity and body of the brew for both varieties. The effect of shade on aroma of the brew was neutral for Caturra and slightly negative for Catimor. It is hypothesized that, in the sub-optimal (low-altitude) coffee-zone studied, shade promotes slower and more balanced filling and uniform ripening of berries, thus yielding a better-quality product than unshaded coffee plants. Shade experiments along environmental gradients should help to validate this conjecture and its relative importance in different coffee-zones.
In areas where traditional multistrata coffee systems have been transformed to systems with patchy or no shade at all, often
dependent on high chemical inputs, ecological and socioeconomic degradation has become an increasing issue. During the 1990s,
rising environmental and health concerns have promoted the interest in organic production systems and their environmental
services for natural resource conservation. This study compared productivity, profitability, producer-defined constraints,
and goals and research priorities between ten individually paired organic and conventional coffee farms in Costa Rica. Although
five of the organic farms matched or exceeded the production of their conventional counterparts, the three-year mean yield
of the organic farms as a group was 22% lower than that of the conventional farms. However, excluding organic certification
costs, mean variable costs and net income (NI) were similar for both groups, mainly because organic price premiums received
by the farmers compensated for lower yields. If current organic certification costs are included, the price premiums paid
to organic producers would have to increase to 38% in order to equal the NI from conventional coffee. Conventional farmers
indentified low and unstable prices as the main constraints to sustained production and stated further intensification of
production as their main goal. In contrast, the key issues for future development of the organic group centered on farm diversification,
agroecological self-sufficiency, and agronomic practices that permit organic farm management.
The effect of two abundant, easily available and very low-cost agro-industrial organic residues, i.e., filter cake from the sugar industry and poultry litter, on the composting stabilization time of coffee pulp and on the quality of the produced compost, was evaluated. Piles of one cubic meter were built and monitored within the facilities of a coffee processing plant in the Coatepec region of the State of Veracruz, Mexico. Manual aeration was carried out once a week. A longer thermophilic period (28 days) and a much lower C/N ratio (in the range of 6.9-9.1) were observed in the piles containing the amendments, as compared to the control pile containing only coffee pulp (14 days and a C/N ratio of 14.4, respectively). The maximum assimilation rate of the reducing sugars was 1.6 g kg-1 d-1 (from 7.5 to 5.3%) during the first two weeks when accelerators were present in the proportion of 20% filter cake plus 20% poultry litter, while they accumulated at a rate of 1.2 g kg-1 d-1 (from 7.4 to 9.13%) during the same period in the control pile. The best combination of amendments was 30% filter cake with 20% poultry litter, resulting in a final nitrogen content as high as 4.81%. The second best combination was 20% filter cake with 10% poultry litter, resulting in a compost which also contained a high level of total nitrogen (4.54%). It was concluded that the use of these two residues enhanced the composting process of coffee pulp, promoting a shorter stabilization period and yielding a higher quality of compost.
Lines of Coffea arabica derived from the Timor Hybrid (hybrid between C. arabica and C. canephora) are resistant to coffee leaf rust (Hemileia vastatrix) and to the nematode Meloidogyne exigua. The introgression of C. canephora resistance genes is suspected of causing a drop in beverage quality. Coffee samples from pure lines, compared in a Trial 1, and from F1 hybrids and parental lines from a half-diallel trial in a Trial 2, were studied for beverage quality, chemical composition and amount of introgressed genetic material. Chemical analyses (caffeine, chlorogenic acids, fat, trigonelline, sucrose) were carried out with near-infrared spectrometry by reflectance of green coffee. The number of amplified fragment length polymorphic (AFLP) markers introgressed from the Timor Hybrid varied from 1 to 37 for the lines studied. There were significant differences between lines for all of the biochemical compounds analysed and for the acidity and the overall standard of the beverage. Two lines (T17927, T17924) were significantly poorer than the controls for sucrose and beverage acidity. T17924 also had more chlorogenic acids and was poorer for the overall standard. However, two highly introgressed lines, T17934 and T17931 (25 and 30 AFLP markers, respectively), did not differ from the non-introgressed controls. There were no correlations between the number of AFLP markers and the chemical contents or beverage attributes. Significant correlations were found between the performance of the parents and their general combining ability for beverage quality. It was concluded that it should be possible to find lines with both the desired resistance genes and good beverage quality. Selection can avoid accompanying the introgression of resistance genes with a drop in beverage quality.
This book contains 23 peer-reviewed papers presented during the 'International Symposium on Balanced Nutrient Management Systems' which was held between 9 and 12 October 2000 in Cotonou, Republic of Benin. This book is presented in seven sections (i) general introduction; (ii) variability on physical and socioeconomic factors and its consequences for selection of representative areas for integrated nutrient management (INM) research; (iii) soil processes determining nutrient dynamics, particularly N and P; (iv) interactions between organic and mineral nutrient sources; (v) improved utilization of rock phosphate; (vi) decision support systems to improve resource use at farm level: on-farm testing of improved technologies; and (vii) recommendations. The currently accepted INM approach advocates the use of organic resources and mineral fertilizer inputs to redress nutrient depletion and sustain crop production. It also ensures that development of nutrient management strategies is problem-driven and involves farmers that are the end-users of such technologies.
The coffee crop (green beans) includes mineral nutrients which are therefore removed from the plantation system. Compared with some crops (for example, sugar cane) the quantities are not large. Catani and de Moraes (1958) estimated that the major nutrients removed in 1 tonne of arabica green beans amounted to 34.0 kg N, 5.2kg P2O5 and 47.8 kg K2O. However the crop is harvested as cherry which includes pulp and parchment in addition to the beans. In many cases these are not returned to the field so that the nutrients therein are lost to the system. Using data published by Ripperton, Goto and Pahau (1935: 55) the nutrients removed in the bean, pulp and parchment equivalent to 1 tonne of arabica green beans are: in bean, 45.5 kg N, 7.67 kg P2O5, and 37.9 kg K2O; in parchment, 2.27 kg N, 0.3 kg P2O5 and 1.87 kg K2O; in pulp, 15.33 kg N, 3.67 kg P2O5 and 27.4 kg K2O. Ripperton et al. (1935: 47) showed that the concentration of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in the constituents of the cherry varied according to the soil and fertiliser applications. Roelofsen and Coolhaas (1940) reported that the total losses of nutrients from the plantation equivalent to 1 tonne of robusta green bean were: 35 kg N, 6 kg P2O5, 50 kg K2O, 4 kg CaO, 4 kg MgO, 0.3 kg Fe2O3, 0.02 kg Mn3O4. Malavolta, Graner, Sarruge and Gomes (1963) reported the concentrations of macro-and micro-nutrients in pulp and beans of arabica coffee.
The initial effect of ‘tonic’ fungicide sprays on Coffea arabica in Kenya is a 2–3 month delay in leaf fall and this causes a marked increase in yield even when the trees are not noticeably diseased. Five field experiments were carried out to investigate leaf abscission responses to 2-chloroethane phosphonic acid (CEPA) of fungicide-sprayed and unsprayed genotypes. Fungicide-sprayed leaves showed a significantly lower abscission response. Fungicides appear to remove a factor, possibly the leaf surface microflora, which causes increased levels of endogenous ethylene. This induces the leaves to senesce and abscise prematurely under natural conditions, or makes them more responsive to exogenous ethylene. There were marked genotype differences in thresholds for leaf abscission, and the locally selected cv SL28 was among the most resistant to CEPA-induced abscission. It was concluded that tonic sprays of fungicide will continue to be effective in Kenya in increasing yields, even after the introduction of new disease-resistant cultivars.
IntroductionGenetic ResourcesBreedingPropagation of New CultivarsAbbreviationsReferences
The purpose of this review is to summarise existing information on the physiology of the coffee crop, with emphasis on whole-plant physiology and on those characteristics that influence the yield of beans. Information has been drawn from work in Kenya, which is well known to the author, from published reviews on coffee crop physiology (Huxley, 1970; Cannell, 1975), water relations (Nunes, 1976), eco-physiology (Maestri and Barros, 1977) and flowering (Alvim, 1973; Browning, 1975b; Barros, Maestri and Coons, 1978), and from the more recent literature. Most of the statements made here refer specifically to arabica coffee (Coffea arabica L.) but many will also be true for robusta coffee.
Indigenas de la Sierra Madre de Motozintla (ISMAM), the world's foremost producer of organic gourmet coffee, is a prominent example of an associative corporation, an organizational form combining aspects of traditional Indian social organization and modern capitalist enterprises. The development of ISMAM's organic strategy is analyzed as acheiving multiple goals, including improving soils and improving marketing conditions by permitting greater value-added to growers through direct access to high-value markets. The role of external brokers and the impact or organic marketing on organizational structure are analyzed. Though not typical, ISMAM is an encouraging example of a viable small-farmer strategy for meeting the economic and political challenge of globalization.
Yield of decade groups of maize ( Zea mays L.) cultivars typical of those used by U.S. Corn Belt farmers in each of the decades since 1930 was evaluated across a range of soil fertility and climatic environments. This study gave estimates of the rate of genetic improvement in yield for each environment. In addition, a measure of the advisability of continued development and deployment of high yielding, management responsive single cross maize hybrids in light of potential reductions in fertilizer inputs and potentially less favorable future climatic conditions was provided. These cultivars were grown in replicated field trails in a total of 11 environments from Tennessee to Colorado in 1980 and 1981. All plots were grown according to accepted modern agronomic practices except that a low soil fertility treatment was included in both years and two limited irrigation stress treatments were included in 1981. Mean yield of cultivars from more recent decades was consistently higher than those from older decades across or within environments. Regression analysis of mean decade group yield on decade of use within each environment and on an environmental index (treatment/location/year mean yield) across environments gave significant correlations and b values which were always positive, regardless of environment. These results are consistent with the conclusion that U.S. maize production will be best served by the continued development and deployment of improved single cross maize hybrids even if less favorable soil fertility or climatic conditions should Occur.
Field experiments comparing 13 winter wheat varieties representing very old, old, intermediate and modern groups were carried out over three seasons. The experimental sites were on soils of high fertility and weeds, diseases and pests were controlled by applications of proprietary agrochemicals. Lodging was prevented by supporting the plants with coarse-mesh netting.
The average yield of all varieties over the three harvest years 1984, 1985 and 1986 was 7·7 t/ha (at 15% moisture content). Compared with the very old varieties which were grown by farmers during the 19th century, the modern varieties gave 59% more grain, had 14% more ears/m ² and 30% more grains per ear, but a similar mean grain mass. The modern varieties yielded slightly more biomass (total above-ground dry matter at harvest), were much shorter and reached anthesis about 6 days earlier than the older ones. In 1984, when the yields were greater than in 1985 and 1986, the yield advantage of the modern varieties was more in percentage and absolute terms than in the other years. Also, in 1984, the differences between the very old and the modern varieties in biomass was the greatest.
The genetic gain in yield measured in these experiments is compared with those estimated for other countries and reasons for the variation are discussed.
This paper compares nitrate leaching losses from organic farms, which depended on legumes for their nitrogen inputs (66 site years) with those from conventional farms using fertilizers under similar cropping and climatic conditions (188 site years). The conventional farms were within Nitrate Sensitive Areas in England, but sites following special practices associated with that scheme were excluded. Nitrate losses during the organic ley phase (including the winter of ploughing out) were similar (45 kg N ha–1) to those from conventional long-term grass receiving fertilizer N inputs of less than 200 kg N ha–1 (44 kg N ha–1) and from the grass phase of conventional ley-arable rotations (50 kg N ha–1). Losses from conventional grass receiving higher N inputs were greater than from organic or less intensive grass. Nitrate losses following arable crops averaged 47 and 58 kg N ha–1 for the organic and conventional systems respectively, with part of the difference being due to the greater proportion of non-cereal break crops in the latter. Thus under similar cropping, losses from organic systems are similar to or slightly smaller than those from conventional farms following best practice.
This paper reviews current understanding of soil structure, the role of soil organic matter (SOM) in soil structure and evidence for or against better soil physical condition under organic farming. It also includes new data from farm case studies in the UK. Young SOM is especially important for soil structural development, improving ephemeral stability through fungal hyphae, extracellular polysaccharides, etc. Thus, to achieve aggregate stability and the advantages that this conveys, frequent input of fresh organic matter is required. Practices that add organic material are routinely a feature of organically farmed soils and the literature generally shows that, comparing like with like, organic farms had at least as good and sometimes better soil structure than conventionally managed farms. Our case studies confirmed this. In the reviewed papers, SOM was generally larger on the biodynamic/organic farms because of the organic additions and/or leys in the rotation. We can therefore hypothesize that, because it is especially the light fraction of SOM that is involved in soil structural development, soil structure will improve in a soil to which fresh organic residues are added regularly. Thus, we argue it is not the farming system per se that is important in promoting better physical condition, but the amount and quality of organic matter returned to a soil.
Previous studies of the microbial status of soils managed under ‘organic’ and ‘conventional’ regimes have produced conflicting evidence of whether there are distinct differences in the size, composition and activity of the soil microbial biomass which may be attributed to management practice. In the present study, we have compared the microbiology of organically- and conventionally-managed soils at (primarily) two farms in England, over a two year period. Differences in microbial communities in soils under different management practice were subtle rather than dramatic. Many of the parameters measured, including total C and microbial biomass C, often showed no consistently significant differences in soils under different management. In soils from one farm, concentrations of ATP in Ringers solution soil extracts were mostly found to be significantly greater in organically-managed than in comparable conventionally-managed soils. While indirect (plate) counts showed that there were similar numbers of cultivable microorganisms present in these soils, total counts of bacteria (via DAPI-staining) were found to parallel the trends found for readily-extractable ATP. Numbers of metabolically-active bacteria, determined by FISH analysis using a EUB338 probe to detect ribosome-rich cells, indicated that the percentage of metabolically-active bacteria present was not determined by management practice. Total and active fungi were also found to be more abundant in organically-managed soils. It was concluded that changes in soil microbiology may occur as a consequence of switching to organic land management, but these may not be detectable by methods used frequently to assess soil biomass. In particular, increased numbers of viable but non-culturable bacteria and fungi in organically-managed soils points to a greater physiological diversity of microorganisms in such situations.
More than 50 nations, almost all in the developing world, produce and export coffee, one of the world's most valuable traded commodities. Some of these countries are dependent on coffee exports for a very significant portion of their international trade and export income. Between 17 and 20 million families are directly involved in coffee production and most are smallholders utilizing just a few hectares of land. During low price periods, evidence of considerable human hardships in many producing regions confirms coffee's importance as a primary - and sometimes only - source of cash income for many farmers. This study assesses the condition of the world's coffee production and trade and illuminates the profound structural changes that have occurred in recent years. With ample data and thorough analysis of both production and consumption, it clearly illustrates the new trends in the coffee world. Based on this analysis and considerable public-private experience in coffee trade and economics, the authors offers solutions for reducing the impact of inevitable future price collapses and making coffee a less risky source of income for some of the world's poorest.
Complex relationships exist between different components of the organic farm and the quantity and quality of the end products depend on the functioning of the whole system. As such, it is very difficult to isolate soil fertility from production and environmental aspects of the system. Crop rotation is the central tool that integrates the maintenance and development of soil fertility with different aspects of crop and livestock production in organic systems. Nutrient supply to crops depends on the use of legumes to add nitrogen to the system and limited inputs of supplementary nutrients, added in acceptable forms. Manures and crop residues are carefully managed to recycle nutrients around the farm. Management of soil organic matter, primarily through the use of short-term leys, helps ensure good soil structure and biological activity, important for nutrient supply, health and productivity of both crops and livestock. Carefully planned diverse rotations help reduce the incidence of pests and diseases and allow for cultural methods of weed control. As a result of the complex interactions between different system components, fertility management in organic farming relies on a long-term integrated approach rather than the more short-term very targeted solutions common in conventional agriculture.
A review is made of the ecological interactions that occur between shade trees and the perennial crops: coffee (Coffee spp. L.), cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) and tea (Camellia sinensis L. Kuntze). These interactions are classified firstly as advantages or disadvantages, and secondly as: effects on crop management; effects on the hydrological cycle; effects on pathogens, insects and climatic conditions; and effects on soils. References are given for the 20 advantageous and 16 disadvantageous consequences of using shade trees, emphasizing publications that provide original data and useful methodologies. Finally a check list of desirable characteristics for perennial crop shade trees is presented.Se hace revisin de las interacciones ecolgicas que ocurren entre rboles de sombra y los cultivos perennes: caf (Coffee spp. L.), cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) y t (Camellia sinensis L. Kuntze). Estas interacciones fueron clasificadas en primer nivel como ventajas o desventajas, y en segundo nivel como: efectos sobre manejo de los cultivos; efectos sobre el ciclo hidrolgico; efectos sobre patgenos, insectos y condiciones climticas; y afectos sobre los suelos. Se dan referencias para 20 consecuencias ventajosas y 16 consecuencias desventajosas al utilizar rboles de sombra, dando nfasis a publicaciones que proveen datos originales y metodologias tiles. Finalmente se presenta una lista de las caractersticas deseables para rboles de sombra para cultivos perennes.
The Meloidogyne incognita nematode is a destructive, widespread pathogen of Coffea arabica varieties in Guatemala and in other coffee production countries. Nematode resistant Robusta (Coffea canephora) is frequently used as a rootstock; however, as it is not adapted to high altitudes, this is an inadequate solution. Arabica
varieties resistant to the nematode would avoid the need for grafting at altitudes of more than 800–1000 m. Trials were carried
out to test the response to an M. incognita isolate from Guatemala on; 50semi-wild Ethiopian and Sudanese accessions, 20 F1hybrid families obtained by crossing eight
accessions with three susceptible varieties and five F2 populations. An additional trial was conducted to compare resistance
to the Guatemalan nematode isolate with a M. incognita isolate from Brazil. The inoculum doses was 1000 ± 200 eggs for each 2–3month old coffee seedling, and the number of egg
masses per plant was observed. Resistance to M. incognita observed in the Ethiopian accessions was important, as 40% of the accessions tested were totally resistant. Resistance was
dominant in F1 and transmitted to the F2 generations. Segregation in the F2 populations indicated the presence of a single
dominant gene for some crosses and two complementary dominant genes for others. The reactions of the Ethiopian accessions
to the Brazilian isolate of M. incognita were similar to those of the Guatemalan isolate. These results confirm the necessity of widening the genetic base of C. arabica breeding populations using semi-wild Ethiopian trees as a source of resistance to M. incognita.
The relative importance of N fixation, organic material inputs and nutrient inputs in litterfall, as justifications for including shade trees in plantations of coffee or cacao, is discussed. According to existing data, N fixation by leguminous shade trees does not exceed 60 kg.N/ha/a. However, these trees contribute 5,000–10,000 kg. organic material/ha/a.
Comparisons are made between the leguminous shade tree Erythrina poeppigiana and the non-leguminous timber tree Cordia alliodora. The former, when pruned 2 or 3 times/a., can return to the litter layer the same amount of nutrients that are applied to coffee plantations via inorganic fertilizers, even at the highest recommended rates for Costa Rica of 270 kg.N, 60 kg.P, 150 kg.K/ha/a. The annual nutrient return in this litterfall represents 90–100 percent of the nutrient store in above-ground biomass of E. poeppigiana, and hence the consequences of competition with the crop should not be a serious limitation. In the case of C. alliodora, which is not pruned, nutrient storage in the tree stems, especially of K, is a potential limiting factor to both crop and tree productivity.
It is concluded that, in fertilized plantations of cacao and coffee, litter productivity is a more important shade tree characteristic than N fixation.
Nitrogen inputs to the coffee ecosystem are dominated by additions of fertilizer-N (100–300 kg N ha−1 yr−1). Small nitrogen inputs from rains and variable from inputs fixation by the leguminous shade trees can amount to 1–40 kg N ha−1 yr−1. Organic matter mineralization can be an important nitrogen source also.
Nitrogen losses from the system include removal of N in the harvest (15–90 kg N ha−1 yr−1), the removal of coffee and shade tree prunings for firewood, losses from erosion, leaching losses and gaseous losses. Unfortunately, very little information exists for leaching and gaseous losses and for the factors that regulate these processes.
The overall nitrogen cycle in shaded coffee plantings includes three interrelated subsystems. These are the coffee, shade and weeds subcycles.
Soil fertility is de®ned as the ability of a soil to provide the conditions required for plant growth. It is a result of the physical, chemical and biological processes that act together to provide nutrients, water, aeration and stability to the plant, as well as freedom from any substances that may inhibit growth. Within this de®nition, it is useful to distinguish between those components of fertility which change relatively slowly, perhaps over the course of a rotation, or in some cases, decades, and the more immediate contribution from materials such as fertilizers and manures. The term `inherent fertility' is used to describe these more stable characteristics, while recognising that they are, to a large extent, products of soil management. We conclude that, although nutrient management in organically managed soils is fundamentally different to soils managed conventionally, the underlying processes supporting soil fertility are not. The same nutrient cycling processes operate in organically farmed soils as those that are farmed conventionally although their relative importance and rates may differ. Nutrient pools in organically farmed soils are also essentially the same as in conventionally managed soils but, in the absence of regular fertilizer inputs, nutrient reserves in less-available pools will be of greater signi®cance. DEFRA
Special issue - Soil fertility in organically managed soils This paper reviews information from the literature and case studies to investigate whether productivity in organic systems is restricted by the supply of available N during the major phases of crop growth. Organic systems have the potential to supply adequate amounts of available N to meet crop demand through the incorporation of leys, N rich cash crop residues and uncomposted manures. However, this is seldom achieved because leys are only incorporated once every few years and organically produced crop residues and manures tend to have low N contents and slow mineralization rates. N availability could be improved by delaying ley incorporation until spring, applying uncomposted manures at the start of spring growth, transferring some manure applications from the ley phase to arable crops, preventing cover crops from reaching a wide C:N ratio and better matching crop type with the dynamics of N availability. DEFRA
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Introduction and recommendations
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