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A Critical Analysis of the Agronomic and Economic Sustainability of Organic Coffee Production
Abstract
Organic coffee is one of several types of speciality coffees selling at a premium over mainstream coffees because of distinct origin and flavour, environment-friendly production or socio-economic concerns for the smallholder coffee growers. The demand for organic coffee in Western Europe, North America and Japan exceeds the present supply, which is still small (<1% of annual world production). More than 85% of organic coffees come from Latin America and practically all is (washed) arabica coffee. The production of certified organic coffee follows the principles of organic farming developed in Europe and the United States out of concern for the perceived negative effects of conventional high-input agriculture on health and environment. It claims superior ecological sustainability in combination with sound economic viability. A rather complex and expensive system of certification has to be passed before such coffees can be sold as truly organic. Growers adhering to the strict rules of organic coffee production may to some extent share the concern of the health- and environment-conscious consumers, but they are motivated primarily by the economic benefits from the premium received for certified organic coffee. Nevertheless, there appears to be considerable injustice between the extreme preconditions demanded for ‘organics’ by the largely urban consumer of the industrialized world and the modest rewards received by the organic coffee growers for their strenuous efforts. From an agronomic point of view, there is also considerable ground for criticism on the principles of organic farming when applied to coffee. For instance, to sustain economically viable yield levels (1 t green coffee ha−1 year−1) large additional amounts of composted organic matter will have to come from external sources to meet nutrient requirements (especially N and K). Most smallholders will be unable to acquire such quantities and have to face declining yields. Organic farming does not necessarily reduce incidence of diseases and pests below economically harmful thresholds, while the humid conditions of heavily shaded coffee may actually stimulate the outbreak of others. These and other aspects peculiar to the preconditions of organic coffee production are addressed in this review. It is concluded that the concept of organic farming in its strict sense, when applied to coffee, is not sustainable and also not serving the interests of the producer and consumer as much as the proponents would like us to believe. On the other hand, agronomically and economically sustainable coffee production is feasible by applying best practices of crop production and post-harvest processing.
... Most progenies of Arabica coffee from wild coffee populations, such as germplasm collections from Ethiopia, beseverely stressed when grown without overhead shade and show low yields [101]. However, according to [101], practically all present cultivars are descendants of early coffee introductions from Ethiopia to Arabia (Yemen), where they were subjected to a relatively dry ecosystem without shade a thousand years before being introduced in Asia and Latin America. ...
... Most progenies of Arabica coffee from wild coffee populations, such as germplasm collections from Ethiopia, beseverely stressed when grown without overhead shade and show low yields [101]. However, according to [101], practically all present cultivars are descendants of early coffee introductions from Ethiopia to Arabia (Yemen), where they were subjected to a relatively dry ecosystem without shade a thousand years before being introduced in Asia and Latin America. Most of these cultivars have retained the physiological attributes of shade-loving plants but can tolerate mild drought and full sunlight, although some cultivars (e.g., Typica) are not suited to the open, showing excessive symptoms of photo-damages when grown at full exposure ( Figure 1). ...
... Cerda and coworkers reported that agroforestry systems, besides providing several ecosystem services, did not reduce coffee yields within the studied range of shade cover (<30%) [17]. In addition, under shade, yields are more stable over time, ensuring also more stable incomes for coffee farmers [101]. In contrast, coffee plantations in full sun had more dead branches, especially with high management intensities. ...
Coffee is one of the most popular beverages worldwide and is consumed by approximately one-third of the world’s population. More than 80 developing countries have earned foreign currency from coffee. Coffee production systems vary from multi-strata agroforestry systems to full-sun monocultures. This literature review aimed to explore the benefits of agroforestry coffee production systems, in which coffee trees are planted together with forest trees, fruits, and timber trees. The question of whether coffee trees benefited from shade trees has not been clear for more than a century. Yield potential, competition for water and nutrients, and perceived lower economic performance compared to high-input monoculture coffee systems are central issues in this controversy. However, various case studies provide evidence that the economic performance of coffee agroforestry systems is equal to or better than that of unshaded plantations and/or plantations with higher input levels. Additionally, agroforestry systems provide several ecosystem services that might help sustain the production of multiple crops, improve farmers' livelihoods, and conserve biodiversity. In the face of climate change and the resulting rainfall decline and increased fluctuations in temperature extremes, tree shade appears to be an important climate adaptation coping strategy for smallholder farmers. Thus, shade can reduce the ecological and economic vulnerability of resource-poor smallholder farmers. Because of the long periods involved in tree growth, our understanding of agroforestry systems will be restricted if it depends only on experimental data. One way to improve our understanding and integrate scattered knowledge on coffee agroforestry is by using process-based models. Therefore, for the effective prediction of coffee growth dynamics, future research should integrate modeling that bridges gaps and can set the development of quantitative models predicting the growth and production of coffee.
... The largest share (70%) of the world's production comes from the Arabica beans known for superior quality and specialty coffees (Gichuru et al., 2008). The disease was first reported in 1922 in Kenya, while its first outbreak was noticed in the early 1970 in Ethiopia and spread to almost all coffee-growing regions of the continent (Biratu, 1995;Derso & Waller, 2003;van der Graaff, 1981). CBD, which is an anthracnose of green coffee berries, causes direct yield loss resulting from premature fruit drop and mummified or damaged fruits (Cabral et al., 2020;Manuel et al., 2010;Pires et al., 2016). ...
... The biocontrol efficacy of five bacterial strains Bacillus cereus ECk-03, B. megaterium ECk-05, B. mycoides ECk-06, Pseudomonas spinosa ECk-17 and Pseudomonas sp. ECk-20 that showed potent antifungal activities under in vitro conditions were further evaluated on the prevention of C. kahawae infection and disease development in detached coffee berry test (Biratu, 1995;van der Graaff, 1978van der Graaff, , 1981 with some modifications. ...
... The number of healthy and infected berries was identified based on typical CBD symptoms and recorded 7 and 14 days after inoculation using a 0-5 severity scale. Disease severity index was estimated for each treatment from the rating scores with the following formula (Biratu, 1995;van der Graaff, 1981). ...
Coffee berry disease (CBD) is a calamitous anthracnose of green berries of Coffea arabica L. caused by a fungal pathogen Colletotrichum kahawae Waller & Bridge. Coffee yield losses reach 80–100% on susceptible cultivars if effective control is not properly implemented. The antagonistic potential of 23 native bacterial strains, collected from Arabica coffee tree, was assayed against the fungus under in vitro and in vivo conditions. The strains were first tested for their antifungal activities on mycelia growth inhibition and suppression of conidia germination. Those promising strains were further evaluated for disease reduction and biocontrol efficacy in detached green berries and seedling hypocotyls of highly- and moderately- susceptible coffee cultivars. Among others, Bacillus cereus ECk-03, B. megaterium ECk-05, B. mycoides ECk-06, and Pseudomonas spinosa ECk-17 showed significantly (P < 0.05) greater mycelia growth inhibition (67–87%) and higher suppression of conidia germination (85–90%). The infection of berries and seedling hypocotyls by C. kahawae were almost prevented and thereby significantly (P < 0.05) reduced severity of CBD (>75–80%) was achieved in highly and moderately susceptible coffee cultivars ‘cv. 370’ and ‘cv. 74110’ treated with Bacillus megaterium ECk-05, B. mycoides ECk-06 and P. spinosa ECk-17. The strains demonstrated the highest CBD reduction and pronounced biocontrol efficacy (>70%) at 48 h pre-fungal inoculation. The consistent performance of Bacillus megateriumECk-05, B. mycoidesECk-06 and P. spinosaECk-17 strains in antifungal activities and higher disease reduction suggest as potential biocontrol for the management of CBD encouraging organic coffee production.
... In 1970, the disease spread to Brazil, and later to both Central America and the Caribbean (Vandermeer et al., 2010). Between 1865 and 1985, the rust disease spread globally to all the coffee growing regions with varied degrees of biological and economic impact (van der Vossen, 2005). Rust primarily attacks the leaves of coffee plants, leaving yellow-orange spots usually 2-4 millimeters in diameter. ...
... ppm) compared to sun farm A (143.16 ppm) and sun farm B (142.38 ppm), respectively. Higher potassium levels of the shade farm were unexpected when compared to previous studies, which found that many organic systems need to add significant quantities of additional composted organic matter from external sources to meet nutrient demand, and that many organic farmers face lower yields because they are unable to acquire the additional compost (van der Vossen, 2005). ...
... Contrary to this pattern of lower nitrogen levels on shade farms, there is a statistically insignificant difference found between nitrogen levels on the organic and conventional farms in this study. Nitrogen is a key factor impacting vegetative growth and coffee yields, which is usually 20-40% lower on organic farms when compared to conventional farms (van der Vossen, 2005). Previous studies indicated that organic farming systems usually fail to achieve optimal levels of available nitrogen exclusively through organic compost and manure (van der Vossen, 2005); however, the shaded system in this study did manage to supply the same amount of nitrogen as both sun farms that utilized chemical fertilizer despite the fact that Senna siamea trees are not nitrogenfixing trees. ...
Coffee is highly vulnerable to climate change, thus impacting coffee-dependent livelihoods and economies. As rising temperatures continue to reduce the suitability of many historical coffee-growing regions, some farmers are practicing regenerative, organic coffee farming as a means of climate change mitigation. In the Central Highlands, the primary coffee growing region of Vietnam, conventional sun-grown, monocrop coffee requires intensive inputs, including fertilizers, pesticides and water. However, some farmers are converting their conventional sun farms to organic shade farms utilizing regenerative farming techniques for both environmental and economic reasons. This study examined regenerative farming practices and sustainable coffee in a small ethnic minority village in Lâm Ðồng province. The comparative analysis between soil samples taken from a regenerative shade-grown coffee farm and two conventional sun-grown coffee farms revealed that the soil of the regenerative farm, enriched with organic manure, is comparable to, or healthier than, the soil on the conventional farms enriched with chemical fertilizers. The results indicate that regenerative farming practices promote biodiversity; however, they also maintain microclimates that promote the growth of Roya fungus, which can decrease coffee yields. The economic analysis of farm costs and net returns found that regenerative farming practices decrease external inputs through a system of crop diversification and integrated livestock production that improves productivity and economic performance while preserving the ecological and environmental integrity of the landscape. Regenerative agriculture is an important step toward climate change adaptation and mitigation; however, in order for the farm communities in the Central Highlands to make the transition to regenerative agriculture, the success factors and benefits of this method must be demonstrated to the coffee farmers.
... While fresh litter layers with high C:N may immobilize soil N, lower, more decomposed litter layers typically have reduced C:N and release more N [150]. Understory tree crops such as cacao and coffee are typically grown under shade trees that provide substantial organic matter and nutrient inputs from leaf litter [67,151]. In coffee agroecosystems, nutrient losses can occur due to crop removal and long-term monocropping, while leaf fall, pruning, organic matter application, and intercropping can enhance soil nutrients [151,152]. ...
... Understory tree crops such as cacao and coffee are typically grown under shade trees that provide substantial organic matter and nutrient inputs from leaf litter [67,151]. In coffee agroecosystems, nutrient losses can occur due to crop removal and long-term monocropping, while leaf fall, pruning, organic matter application, and intercropping can enhance soil nutrients [151,152]. These studies indicate that tree crop systems can be managed to optimize the inherent litter layer and integrate recycled nutrients into nutrient management strategies. ...
... However, the implementation of sustainable practices in coffee varies widely across regions depending on factors such as farm size, external input use, mechanization, economic stability [165,166]. Regular access to substantial amounts of organic matter as nutrient inputs in organic coffee production can be challenging for smallholders [151]. Typically, coffee is often processed offsite and residues might not be easily transported back to coffee farms, which are often located on steep slopes at high altitudes [151]. ...
Ecosystem-based approaches to nutrient management are needed to satisfy crop nutrient requirements while minimizing environmental impacts of fertilizer use. Applying crop residues as soil amendments can provide essential crop nutrient inputs from organic sources while improving nutrient retention, soil health, water conservation, and crop performance. Tree crop hulls, husks, and shells have been found to contain high concentrations of potassium across species including almond, cacao, coffee, pecan, and hazelnut. The objective of this review is to characterize organic sources of potassium focusing on lignocellulosic pericarps and discuss reported effects of surface application on potassium cycling, water dynamics, soil functionality, and crop yield. Research indicates potassium ions solubilize readily from plant material into soil solution due to potassium’s high mobility as a predominately unbound monatomic cation in plant tissues. Studies evaluating tree crop nutshells, field crop residues, and forest ecosystem litter layers indicate this process of potassium release is driven primarily by water and is not strongly limited by decomposition. Research suggests orchard floor management practices can be tailored to maximize the soil and plant benefits provided by this practice. Contextual factors influencing practice adoption and areas for future study are discussed.
... Shade trees are, therefore, essential components in organic systems. Although, this is true, some authors have criticised the inclusion of shade trees in coffee systems (Sondahl et al., 2005;van der Vossen, 2005;Tejeda-Cruz et al., 2010). Therefore some of the benefits and criticisms associated with the use of shade trees in coffee systems are hereby presented. ...
... Another augment is that regular pruning is essential in shade coffee to avoid excessive shading and as a result, Biodiversity it increases labour costs. Therefore, production costs are usually 5-7% higher in organic systems than in conventional systems (van der Vossen, 2005). Finally, shade increases the potential for the occurrence of certain diseases and pests due to increased humidity. ...
... The organic certification works to eliminate the application of agrochemicals and to promote management practices that maintain soil fertility such as little or zero tillage (Vandermeer, 1995). Organic coffee enjoys a premium price in the international market compared to conventionally produced coffee because it is perceived to be environmentally friendly (van der Vossen, 2005;Castro-Tazi et al., 2012). Conventional systems are characterised by high inorganic inputs such as fertilizer, pesticides and herbicides, and may or may not include shade trees (Castro-Tazi et al., 2012). ...
There are many environmental issues that threaten the existence of humans and natural systems. Although most of these issues are prevalent in specific geographical areas only, climate change and biodiversity loss are two major environmental issues that impacts on all human and natural systems. Efforts to curtail these issues include carbon sequestration by forest-based systems and promotion of sustainable agriculture. Agroforestry systems, such as shade-grown coffee agroecosystems, have the potential to capture and store atmospheric carbon in the form of biomass, and to conserve biodiversity by providing habitat for associated biodiversity and reduce pressure on existing forests. The present study explored the carbon stocks and tree biodiversity of shade trees in, and the biophysical characteristics of, coffee agroecosystems with conventional and organic management practices in Costa Rica, Nicaragua and Guatemala. A total of 55 farms were sampled using a sample plot size of 500 m2. Tree biodiversity were estimated using species richness, Shannon and Margalef indices, and Shannon Evenness Index. Carbon stocks were estimated using existing allometric equations. The results indicate that, the organic systems represent richer and more diverse systems, with higher shade levels compared to the conventional systems. The organic coffee systems displayed shade levels that ranged from 28-70%, a mean species richness of 4.8 per plot and a mean tree species diversity (Shannon Index) of 1.12 whilst the conventional farms displayed shade levels that ranged from 31-44%, a mean species richness of 2.9 per plot and a mean tree species diversity (Shannon Index) of 0.73. Four species clusters were observed in Nicaragua, and only organic farms comprised one of these clusters. The mean above ground carbon stocks of the shade trees in the organic and the conventional farms were 13.46 t C ha-1 and 12.47 t C ha-1, respectively. Similar canopy strata, tree density and species evenness were displayed in both systems. For the study areas, Guatemala displayed the highest mean values for tree species richness (4.70) and diversity (1.13) and Costa Rica displayed the least species richness and diversity values (species richness = 2.63 and Shannon Index = 0.61). The mean carbon stocks in trees employed as shade for coffee in the farms examined were 21.18 t C ha-1, 9.97 t C ha-1 and 7.75 t C ha-1, respectively, in Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Guatemala. The present study recommends organic farms as suitable targets for biodiversity projects in the study area, and that, for optimum benefits, proportions of the less represented tree species should be increased. The Nicaraguan systems are also recommended for projects that aim at increasing carbon stocks in shade trees.
... El café de sombra también genera otra serie de impactos como la disminución en la temperatura del suelo, el rompimiento en la fuerza del viento y de las precipitaciones, el control en la erosión en pendientes pronunciadas, supresión de malas hierbas, reciclaje y lixiviación de nutrientes, entre otros. Sin embargo, en las regiones donde la lluvia es limitada y las estaciones secas son prolongadas como es el caso de Kenia, Camerún o Tanzania, los árboles de sombra pueden afectar negativamente a la productividad debido a una fuerte competencia con el café por la humedad disponible en el suelo ( Van der Vossen, 2005). ...
... Los residuos de los frutos del café compostado devueltos al campo sólo pueden suministrar 25 a 30% de estos requerimientos adicionales de nutrientes, por lo que se debe disponer de los medios para adquirir materiales ricos en nutrientes, materia orgánica y abono, para compensar la diferencia y así lograr nutrientes suficientes (Sanchez y Jama, 2002;Van der Vossen, 2005). No obstante, la mayoría de los pequeños productores no cuentan con los recursos para tener acceso regular a cantidades considerables de materia orgánica o de estiércol, lo que los limita o excluye de la posibilidad de certificar sus plantaciones. ...
... También faculta la diversificación en la producción, así como los ingresos, mejorando la calidad de la copa de la planta de café, particularmente en zonas de café ecológicamente sub-óptimas por sus altas temperaturas. Por otro lado, también genera algunos efectos adversos como el daño a los cafetos por la caída de ramas de los árboles de sombra, costos adicionales de mano de obra para la poda regular de árboles cuando hay sombreado excesivo y competencia por el recurso hídrico en regiones con períodos de baja precipitación, entre otras ( Van der Vossen, 2005). ...
Se realizó una revisión de diversos estudios enfocados para establecer el impacto ambiental generado en las fincas productoras de café certificadas con diferentes sellos de buenas prácticas agrícolas y socioeconómicas en las diversas regiones productoras del grano. De esta revisión se establecieron los impactos de mayor persistencia, así como los de mayor singularidad en todo el mundo.
... Trees play a crucial role in agroforestry systems by intercepting water and nutrients that leach beyond the crop rooting zone and returning nutrients to the top soil through litter fall (Van Noordwijk et al., 2015). The supply of essential macronutrients from shade tree litter can compensate for an important portion of nutrients lost during crop harvest (about 40 % for nitrogen and potassium, and even more for phosphorus), thereby contributing significantly to the sustainability of organic production ( Van der Vossen, 2005). Because the application of herbicides is prohibited, organic coffee plantations tend to have more ground vegetation than conventional farms (Staver et al., 2020). ...
... Because the application of herbicides is prohibited, organic coffee plantations tend to have more ground vegetation than conventional farms (Staver et al., 2020). Ground vegetation can compete with coffee for water and nutrients (Van der Vossen, 2005;Staver et al., 2020). In established farms, the shade provided by the trees and coffee plants promotes the growth of ground cover species-characterized by a low, spreading growth form-over more aggressive weeds, such as grasses (Aguilar et al., 2003;Staver et al., 2020). ...
Traditional Arabica coffee plantations in which coffee is grown under diverse shade tree cover are increasingly recognized as a sustainable agricultural practice because of their ecological and socioeconomic benefits as well as their resilience to climate change. In addition, organic coffee production has expanded in the last decades due to premium market prices. However, the extent to which coffee and shade trees show positive (complementary) or negative (competitive) root interactions for belowground water sources in traditional agroforests under organic management is largely unknown. The present study investigated relative and absolute source contributions to water uptake of coffee and shade trees under progressive decline of soil water availability during the dry season in an organic coffee plantation characterized by dense and diverse canopy shade. We used the MixSIAR Bayesian stable isotope mixing model to determine proportional use of belowground water sources for three Arabica coffee varieties/ages and five dominant shade tree species. Corresponding absolute uptake amounts by the whole coffee crop and the whole shade tree canopy were calculated using transpiration estimates obtained from microme-teorological and stomatal conductance measurements. The absence or potential presence of competition for soil water in the studied coffee plants was investigated using a combination of stomatal conductance measurements and modeling, supported by leaf and root hydraulic trait data. Results show that the observed relative and absolute plant water uptake patterns provide evidence of vertical complementarity in belowground water use between coffee and shade trees during the dry season. Findings show that the main water source for coffee was the near-surface soil (< 5 cm depth; 44-56 %), with no distinction among coffee varieties and ages. Our data suggest that dew was an important water input to the near-surface soil and to the coffee water cycle. Soil water limitation during the driest period of the study was observed in the youngest coffee plants (5-20 years old), but not in the oldest (~80 years old). Deeper soil water (60-120 cm; 45-69 %) was the main source for the shade trees, but important differences were observed among species, showing the potential of minimizing competition for water through tree species selection. Finally, our study shows that water uptake from groundwater sources increased with increasing tree size.
... In addition to boost energy levels, coffee can cause digestive issues, breast tissue cysts, insomnia, or anxiety (Clifford, 1985). Also, there are deep sustainability concerns in the coffee sector, particularly in light of the ongoing price crisis and climate change ( Van der Vossen, 2005). In this regard, organic coffee producers share the concerns of health-and environmental-conscious consumers, but they are more motivated by the economic benefits of coffee alternatives (Tadele, 2013;Van der Vossen, 2005). ...
... Also, there are deep sustainability concerns in the coffee sector, particularly in light of the ongoing price crisis and climate change ( Van der Vossen, 2005). In this regard, organic coffee producers share the concerns of health-and environmental-conscious consumers, but they are more motivated by the economic benefits of coffee alternatives (Tadele, 2013;Van der Vossen, 2005). In particular, coffee substitutes are preferred because of their distinct origin and flavor, packaging (pouches, cans, and aseptic cartons), environmentally friendly production, or socioeconomic concerns (Van der Vossen, 2005; Vegro & de Almeida, 2020). ...
Despite being one of the most frequently consumed beverages worldwide, there are concerns that excessive consumption of coffee can have adverse effects, especially concerning the addictive and stimulating effects of the alkaloid caffeine, which contributes to coffee's popularity. It is known to increase the risk of hypertension and heart rate among predisposed individuals, adversely affecting the nervous system. Even though they differ in nature from those found in coffee, coffee substitutes can be considered economically and health‐wise as a favorable alternative to natural coffee brews. This review summarizes the state‐of‐the‐art varieties of plants used as coffee substitutes and discusses their production technology, chemical composition, nutritional properties, health benefits, economic challenges, and rationale for choosing the plant as a substitute for coffee. Various instant products and coffee substitute blends are also available on the market especially based on different kinds of plants and herbs like ginger, rye, date pits, quinoa, lupine, chicory, barley, rye, oak, and so on. These coffee substitutes have several advantages especially having no caffeine and containing different beneficial phytochemicals, although the results of the difference between the levels of harmful compounds in coffee and coffee substitutes were contradictory. Therefore, it is no wonder that the development of coffee substitutes, which are beverages that are able to mimic the taste and aroma of coffee, is on the rise at present.
... The highest yield of solely and staggeringly planted coffee may be associated to having more coffee trees per unit area, and is therefore attributed to effective use of the growing resources, viz., light, moisture, nutrients, and spaces. [34,47]. On the contrary, the high competition of bananas with coffee trees for available soil nutrients and other environmental resources might have contributed to the low clean coffee yield of Arabica coffee planted in a 1:1 ratio of intercropping with bananas. ...
... According to [48], the lower population density of coffee trees is a major factor causing a low yield per unit area. Several authors reported the strong correlation of coffee yield with the population density of coffee trees per unit area [12,34,47,[49][50][51][52]. ...
A field experiment aimed to determine the optimum ratio of intercropping Arabica coffee with banana was conducted at Teppi, Southwest Ethiopia, from 2012 to 2016. The experiment consisted of four cropping arrangements (1:1, 1:2, 1:3 ratios of coffee with banana, and staggered planting) with sole stands of each crop, arranged in a Randomized Complete Block Design with three replicates. The yield and yield-related attributes of the component crops were collected, and the efficiency of the cropping arrangement was estimated using a land equivalent ratio. The analysis of variance showed that the clean coffee yield was significantly (p < 0.05) affected by intercropping with bananas. Intercropping of the component crops also significantly (p < 0.05) influenced the fruit yield of bananas. Thus, the highest clean coffee yield was obtained from the sole coffee plot (2007.4 kg ha-1) followed by the plot in which coffee and banana were arranged staggeringly (1782.6 kg ha-1). Similarly, the highest values of land equivalent ratio (1.25) and yield advantage of coffee (0.88) were recorded from staggeringly arranged coffee with banana compared with other intercrops. The result also indicates the enhanced productivity and compatibility of the component crops when they are inter-planted staggeringly. Accordingly, the aforementioned planting arrangement can be recommended for farmers and growers in the study area for increased yield productivity of the component crops. Further study needs to be repeated one more season in different agro-ecologies with different varieties of component crops.
... New types of coffee and coffee products with functional properties are appearing on the market. The sustainability of coffee consumption habits and culture has been proven by numerous studies [5]. In recent years, special value-added coffee, functional coffee beverages and food products have been increasingly used [6]. ...
... The modification included the insertion of two additional factors, also with the role of predictor in the extended TPB model [61]: habits-HB (containing a total of four questions: frequency of using instant coffee; part of the day of using instant coffee; place where instant coffee is most often drunk; and drinking coffee along with other activities) and sensory preferences (containing a total of eight questions: the influence of visual appearance; using instant coffee with aromas; the influence of flavors on choice; using some sweets with instant coffee; the influence of sensory quality on selection; the influence of coffee fragrance on choice; the taste of coffee influences the choice; and coffee color affects the choice). The theory of planned behavior (TPB) is derived from the theory of reasoning action put forward by Fishbein [5] together with Ajzen [37]. Ajzen's model of planned behavior represents an upgrade of the theory of reasoning action, and its further elaboration. ...
Soluble or instant espresso coffee in capsules with added values is a product that is increasingly recognized as a healthy lifestyle habit, which often goes together with the expansion of spa centers and spa hotels. In addition to the theoretical and empirical examination of sustainable drinking habits regarding different types of instant espresso coffee in Serbia, the aim was to define, by applying the theory of planned behavior, the relationship between certain factors that influence instant espresso coffee beverage reselection. The research model was developed using a sample of 1385 soluble/instant espresso coffee consumers. Structural equation modeling was applied to test the conceptual model and research hypotheses. The results indicate a statistically significant influence of certain predictors on the intention of consumers to rechoose soluble/instant coffee. One exception is perceived behavioral control, where statistical significance exceeds the allowed values, which indicate that the offer of functional soluble/instant espresso solutions should be extended outside high-quality service hotels and spa centers to be available to all consumers with healthy lifestyle habits. Defining the factors that influence instant espresso coffee reselection can help to understand influences on certain consumer behaviors and improve sustainability on the market.
... Biologically produced organic foods started to gain popularity amongurban consumers in Northwest Europe, North America, and Japan over the past 30 years without concern for the harmful effects of conventional crop production on the [72] environment and human health. Organic agriculture combines ecological sustainability with lower health risks and sound economic viability based on the principles to use: (1) Composted organic matter to improve soil quality, (2) Soil conservation (contour planting, terracing, cover crops, mulch, and shade trees), (3) Natural methods of disease, insect and weed control, (4) Minimum fossil fuels in the production system and (5) Post-harvest handling with low environmental pollution (IFOAM, 2000 andvan der Vossen, 2005). ...
... Their already low coffee yields further decline, especially during the very low world coffee price. Due to a lack of financial resources, these most smallholder coffee producers in Ethiopia are effectively produced without inorganic fertilizers and synthetic pesticides and, therefore, organic by default, but do not automatically qualify as organic coffees since some of the assumptions made in organic farming such as soil quality improvement and plant nutrient management are missing scientific proofs (van der Vossen, 2005). Therefore, the objective of the present study was to compare conventional and organic coffee soil management in terms of chemical and microbiological soil quality parameters and find scientific proof for the differences between the two comparative soil management in Ethiopia. ...
ECSS (2022). Sirawdink Fikreyesus Forsido, Getachew WeldeMichael, Esayas Mendesil, Gezahegn Berecha, Taye Kufa, and Kifle Belachew (Eds.). Proceedings of Ethiopian Coffee Science Society (ECSS): Coffee Science and Innovation for Climate Resilience and Sustainable Coffee Value Chain in Ethiopia. Second Biennial Conference of Ethiopian Coffee Science Society (ECSS) Held on 24– 25 May 2019, Bonga, Ethiopia, pp. 181
ISBN 978-99944-3-585-2
... The practice is especially necessary for coffee farms on soils that are degraded or naturally poor or acidic as well as for organic or low-input coffee farms. Coffee farms where low levels of inputs are used, especially those lacking shade trees and soil cover, and occupying steep slopes, are at high risk of soil nutrient depletion, leading to low or declining crop yields [ 121 ]. Since INM helps reduce nutrient runoff and leaching, the practice should also receive high priority in vulnerable watersheds with intensive coffee farming, which are prone to reduced water quality and biodiversity loss resulting from high nutrient loading. ...
... It should be emphasised that all current cultivars are descended from early Arabica coffee introductions from Ethiopia to Arabia (Yemen), where they originally faced relatively arid environments in open fields for centuries before cultivation in Asia and Latin America took place (Van Der Vossen, 2005). In fact, 15th century Yemenese coffee was documented to be cultivated on steep slopes with full sun exposure (Friis, 2015), similar to how coffee is cultivated in the Highlands of Vietnam today (Koutouleas, 2023). ...
The global coffee market is circumscribed to two species, Coffea arabica (aka. Arabica coffee) and C. canephora (aka. Robusta coffee), which account for ca. 99% of coffee production. Both species exhibit fragility to the perils of ongoing climate changes, with exacerbation of these conditions expected over the years to come. Supra-optimal temperatures and drought are the major environmental stresses impacting coffee growth and production, especially under full sunlight conditions. By contrast, growing evidence suggests that elevated atmospheric [CO2] could (at least partially) mitigate the damages caused to coffee plants by warming and droughts. Moreover, the positive effects of enhanced [CO2] on coffee photosynthesis and yields are suggested to be greater under moderate to high solar irradiances. Here, we explore (i) the role of photosynthetic gas exchanges as a key physiological driver on coffee production in a climate change context; (ii) the ecophysiological responses of shaded and unshaded coffee plantations to compare and contrast shade benefits and drawbacks in the coming years (highlighting the use of particle films as an agronomic management strategy to reduce solar energy loads); (iii) the present and forthcoming aspects associated with the coffee production, emphasising the positive role of rising atmospheric [CO2] in boosting coffee yields; (iv) some morpho-physiological aspects linked to the overall superior yield performance of Robusta to that of Arabica coffee; and finally (v) provide some guidance on the optimum temperature range for coffee production.
... • Only small/no price differentials (Bacon, 2005;Kilian et al., 2006;Philpott et al., 2007;Utting-Chamorro, 2005) • Certified farmers may have higher production costs than conventional farmers (Beuchelt andZeller, 2013, 2011;Kilian et al., 2006;Mutersbaugh, 2005;Van der Vossen, 2005) • Low income, household and welfare effects (Beuchelt andZeller, 2013, 2011;Jena et al., 2012;Ruben and Fort, 2012;van Rijsbergen et al., 2016) • Higher labour needs, higher labour expenditures (Beuchelt and Zeller, 2011) • No biodiversity impact of organic or Fairtrade certified farms (Philpott et al., 2007) • Little to no impact on yield on smallholder farms (Beuchelt and Zeller, 2013;Mutersbaugh, 2002) Though VSS in coffee aim to address the above-mentioned sustainability risks and challenges, research results show that the change in management practices does not necessarily lead to the desired outcomes measured by the impact studies. However, many impact studies often focus on poverty, income and yield and less on other impacts (e.g. ...
European public procurement is becoming more sustainable. However, for goods with global supply chains, sustainable procurement faces several challenges. This paper highlights the sustainability challenges for biomass-based products, discusses the suitability of biomass-focused voluntary sustainability standards (VSS) to address them, and identifies experiences and knowledge gaps in the use of VSS in European public procurement. The paper is based on a comprehensive literature review and a case study.
Biomass-based products can have major negative environmental and social impacts in their global supply chains. Biomass-focused VSS using third-party certification, contribute to avoiding such
hazards. VSS are used by public procurers to (i) establish sustainability criteria for tender offers, (ii) minimize risks, and (iii) verify compliance with their criteria. Large knowledge gaps exist with respect
to increasing sustainability of procurement. The impact of sustainably procured goods as well as of more recently created biomass-based VSS is uncertain. The strictness level of VSS necessary to deliver the desired sustainability effects is not clear. Large data gaps exist, e.g., how frequently which type of VSS is used for which products and for what reasons, and where procurers compromise between desired traits and limited market offers. This information would support a dialogue between procurers, business, and policy makers to stimulate markets towards more sustainable products.
... ISFM for coffee appears to be a compromise paradigm between strictly organic and conventional farming systems. Discussing strictly organic farming, Reference [37] noted that smallholder farms with no access to external inputs often produce less than 300 kg ha −1 year −1 green coffee beans, while intensively managed plantations of arabica coffee at conventional spacing may yield 2 mt ha −1 year -1 averaged over several years and Robusta coffee plantations up to 3.5 mt ha −1 . Nitrogen is regarded as one of the key factors limiting productivity. ...
Soil fertility decline in coffee growing areas of Tanzania has been noted as one important limitation to coffee production, thus calling for appropriate remedial measures. This paper reviews soil fertility and its management, with a focus on integrated soil fertility management for coffee in the country. As a general rule, ISFM takes proper germplasm material as one of its tiers. With coffee in Tanzania however, this tier is removed from the sequence following the release and promotion of the 19 improved Arabica coffee varieties and 4 of Robusta, which are considered perfect. A 7-tier sequence is suggested. The first three tiers (terrain management, choice of shade trees and intercropping patterns) are concerned with field establishment and are more or less permanent, while the other four (green manuring, application of manures/composts, strategic application of reduced doses of inorganic fertilizers and soil amelioration) are related to routine management, and can swap between seasons depending on the farmer's resource endowment. The whole idea is to always have accumulation of organic matter in the soil, which mineralizes slowly to release nutrients for plant use. Tanzania Coffee Research Institute (TaCRI) will continue research on ISFM and its promotion to its stakeholders through community-based organizations such as AMCOS. Formal and indigenous knowledge systems must become better integrated to allow farmer associations to recognize, adapt, and implement ISFM practices.
... Some farmer groups and/or cooperatives, with the "organic-by-default" mentality, have initiated processes of formally certifying themselves as such [7]. It was noted by [31] that smallholder farms with no access to external inputs often produce less than 300 kg ha −1 year −1 green coffee beans, while intensively managed plantations of arabica coffee at conventional spacing may annually yield 2 mt ha −1 averaged over several years and Robusta coffee plantations up to 3.5 mt ha −1 Nitrogen is regarded as one of the key factors limiting productivity. Organic farming systems have the potential to supply large amounts of N but there is poor synchronization of N availability versus crop demand. ...
Coffee farmers in Kagera Region do not believe in application of industrial fertilizers in their farms, calling their produce "organic by default". They claim that their soils are too fertile to need industrial fertilizers. TaCRI undertook to verify this claim. Soil fertility data for the region were extracted from the national coffee soil database built in 2015. A total of 73 georeferenced sites had seven parameters (pH, Ca, Mg, K, CEC, OC and total N) rated from zero (poor) to 4 (good). The average ratings were computed and categorized as 0-1, 1-2, 2-3, 3-4 and 4-5 as poor, marginal, moderate, satisfactory and good fertility respectively. A subsample of 27 sites were additionally assessed for available P and particle size. Attributes of the 73 sites were loaded into ArcMap 10.7.1, whereby pH, CEC, BS, OC and C:N ratio were interpolated using the IDW algorithm and clipped on basis of the regional boundary shapefile extracted from the 2022 census polygon shapefile. The soils were marginally (34, 47%) to moderately (39, 53%) fertile where only seven parameters were assessed. With fewer sites and more parameters, the respective figures were 11 (41%) and 16 (59%). pH was increasing from northeast (Bukoba, Misenyi and Muleba) to southwest (Biharamulo, Ngara and Southern Karagwe). CEC was lower in Kyerwa, Karagwe and Muleba than Bukoba, Ngara and Biharamulo. The western half of Kagera had higher OC than its eastern counterpart. C:N ratios were generally less than 30, which is normal. This work has revealed that soils in Kagera are not as fertile as purported, thus disproving the "organic-by-default" paradigm. As such, farmers' mind sets should be changed in favour of industrial fertilizers if we are ever to improve coffee productivity and approach the set national target of producing 300,000 metric tons of clean coffee annually by 2025/26.
... In the same way, in Kenya, Cameroon or Tanzania, where rainfall is limited and the dry season is long, it is observed that agroforests negatively affect productivity due to strong competition between native trees and coffee for available soil moisture. (Van der Vossen, 2005). In Ethiopia, it is commonly observed that the use of pesticides is restricted, not because of the initiative of the coffee growers, but because of the lack of resources (Caviedes & Olaya, 2020). ...
Certification programmes are often promoted as a sustainable solution for the negative environmental and socio-economic effects generated by agricultural activities. This scope review assesses the seven most adopted certification programmes in Colombian coffee plantations and their ecological, economic and social impacts. In addition, this scope review characterises the coffee regions where the studies are conducted and the main methodological approaches that are used. The review revealed that the main methodological approach used in the studies is the mixed approach and that the largest number of studies is not conducted in the departments that report the highest coffee production rates. The main certification program assessed in this review is the Rainforest Alliance. However, this study also reports the existence of several gaps caused by multi-certification effects. In total, 87 reports of ecological, economic, and social impacts were identified. Out of the 87 environmental impact reports of the certifications identified in this study, 66 were positive and only 21 were negative.
... Shade trees have positive effects like recycling nutrients otherwise not available to the coffee and reducing nutrient leaching, Breaking the force of wind and heavy rainfall on coffee. On the other hand, they have also negative effects such as competition for water in dry seasons, Potential increase of some diseases, and pests (Van der Vossen 2005). From all the shade tree species that originated in various coffee farmsteads in Ethiopia, very small types of shade trees are chosen in farmers' coffee farms and even in state farms. ...
to be determinants of coffee yield. Although the scale of shade tree preferences varies, farmers prefer coffee shade trees that have long heights, wider crown shapes, and evergreen leaves throughout the growing season. Accordingly, the ranking analysis in both districts indicated that Albizia gummifera, Acacia abyssinica, and Millettia ferruginea were the greatest preferred coffee shade tree species by farmers of the study area. Hence, improving the capacity of farmers about coffee farm management skills and promoting the use of preferred coffee shade trees should be strengthened to improve the coffee yield and quality in the region.
... Pretty et al. (2010) examined strategies to establish a consensus in developing and testing metrics of sustainability in different agricultural systems that are appropriate and acceptable to several agroecological, social, economic, and political contexts. To perform agricultural sustainability assessments, tools (metrics) have focus on evaluating the sustainability of traditional production systems already established (e.g., Afshar and Dekamin, 2022;Akinnifesi et al., 2006;Astier et al., 2011;Moore et al., 2014;Starkl et al., 2022;Uphoff, 2003;Van Asselt et al., 2014;van der Vossen, 2005). However, to date, there are no tools to assess the sustainability of the treatments (cropping systems) evaluated through experimentation. ...
A variety of established tools are available for agricultural sustainability assessment at global, regional, and farm geographical scales. However, no assessment has been reported in research literature to indicate their ability to provide insights about the most sustainable cropping system at plot level or experimental unit. Despite the environmental and social importance of soil in agricultural systems, many of the sustainability assessments use few or no indicators related to soil properties or processes. Hence, we propose a sustainability assessment methodology oriented to soil-associated agricultural experiments (SMAES) by defining its parameters through simulations and testing the methodology with real data from a fertilization tomato experiment with five treatments: chemical control (CR); organic control (OR); and organic: chemical ratios (OR) of 25:75, 50:50, and 75:25. The distance from the maximum, principal component analysis, and product of weighted indicator techniques were chosen for normalization, weighting, and aggregation in a single index process, respectively. Applying the SMAES methodology, the sustainability level of the treatments followed this sequence: CR (0.95) > O25:C75 (0.73) > O50:C50 (0.60) > O75:C25 (0.55) > OR (0.45). The proposed SMAES methodology allows soil researchers to define the best treatment through the interaction of the environmental, social, and economic dimensions of agricultural systems.
... The average amount of manure applied is 513 kg ha -1 . According to Van der Vossen (2005) nutrient content of NPK (%) is 2-0.8-1.8, respectively. ...
p> Background. In the high mountains in the state of Veracruz Mexico, agriculture is characterized by smallholding coffee cropping systems. VIDA A.C., a rural organization, promotes the management of coffee cropping systems through agroecological practices aimed to enhance biodiversity, build soil fertility, conserve resources, food security, social equity. Objective. To Characterize the agroecological management of coffee cropping systems carried out by smallholder families of rural organization VIDA A.C., and determine their importance to support their livelihoods. Methodology. Research integrated both qualitative and quantitative methods. Tools such as participant observation, interviews, workshops, and transect walks contributed qualitative data. For quantitative data, a structured survey was applied to 50 families to characterize their coffee cropping systems. Results. Coffee cropping systems are distinguished by their high diversity. This diversity is found in the varieties of coffee, shade trees and crops. Coffee management considers at least eleven practices, ranging from seed selection to marketing. All family member participates in the management of coffee systems. Implications. The study shows that rural families have incorporated diverse knowledge and strategies to carry out agroeocological management of coffee cropping systems. Research contributed to the baseline of these systems, and there is a room of opportunities to deep in agroecological principles. Conclusions. Coffee cropping systems are distinguished by having high diversity and implementing agroecological practices that confer a distinctive quality to coffee. Families contribute to the reproduction of coffee cropping systems, as a mean of subsistence, identity and territorial conservation.</p
... Kelebihan kalsium serta kalium dalam tanah akan mengakibatkan rasa pahit yang tinggi pada kopi (Van der Vossen, 2009). Menurut Van der Vossen (2005) ketinggian daerah mempengaruhi pertumbuhan, produksi, kualitas serta citarasa kopi. Ketinggian tempat cenderung mempunyai dampak positif di keasaman sekaligus merendahkan kepahitan, kopi yang paling asam asal tanah vulkanik yang kaya bahan organik (Bertrand et al., 2006). ...
Abstrak. Kopi arabika Gayo telah dikenal dunia karena memiliki citarasa khas dengan ciri utama antara lain aroma dan perisa yang kompleks dan kekentalan yang kuat. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui hubungan antara sifat-sifat kimia tanah dan kualitas kopi arabika Gayo. Metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah metode survei dengan cara observasi lapangan yang disertai pengambilan sampel tanah dan biji kopi untuk dilakukan analisis di Laboratorium. Sifat - sifat kimia tanah yang diamati adalah pH H2O, C-Organik, N-Total, P-Tersedia, Ca-dd, Mg-dd, K-dd, Na-dd, KTK, dan KB dan parameter kualitas citarasa yang diamati adalah Aroma, Flavor, After Taste, Acidity, Body, Balance, Uniformity, Clean Up, Sweetness dan Overall. Data yang diperoleh dianalisis dengan metode regresi dan korelasi berganda Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa sifat – sifat kimia tanah tidak berkorelasi positif terhadap citarasa kopi arabika.Analysis of the Relationship between Soil Chemical Properties and the Quality of Gayo Arabica CoffeeAbstract. Gayo Arabica coffee is known to the world because it has a distinctive taste with the main characteristics, including complex aromas and flavors and strong viscosity. This study aims to determine the relationship between soil chemical properties and the quality of Gayo Arabica coffee. The method used in this study is a survey method by means of field observations accompanied by soil and coffee bean sampling for analysis in the laboratory. The chemical properties of the soil observed were pH H2O, C-Organic, N-Total, P-Available, Ca-dd, Mg-dd, K-dd, Na-dd, CEC, and KB and the parameters of the taste quality observed were Aroma, Flavor, After Taste, Acidity, Body, Balance, Uniformity, Clean Up, Sweetness and Overall. The data obtained were analyzed by regression and multiple correlation methods The results showed that the chemical properties of the soil were not positively correlated with the taste of Arabica coffee.
... Didorong oleh pertumbuhan pasar kopi bersertifikat, harga rendah di pasar utama, dan bantuan dari proyek pembangunan. Dampak produksi kopi organik pada kesejahteraan petani merupakan masalah penting karena produksi kopi organik telah menurunkan hasil dan pendapatan petani dibandingkan dengan apa yang dapat dicapai dengan menggunakan metode konvensional (Valkila, 2009;Van Der Vossen, 2005). ...
Abstrak. Banyak petani kopi mulai bertransisi ke produk organik selama penurunan harga kopi yang terjadi di pasar internasional pada tahun 2000-2004. Didorong oleh pertumbuhan permintaan pasar kopi bersertifikat, harga rendah di pasar utama, dan bantuan dari proyek pembangunan. Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui implementasi fairtrade minimum price dan fairtrade premium sertifikasi kopi Fairtrade dalam mensejahterakan hidup petani kopi gayo. Penelitian ini dilaksanakan di Kabupaten Aceh Tengah yaitu Kecamatan Jagong Jeged. Lokasi dipilih secara sengaja (purposive). Objek dari penelitian ini adalah petani sertifikasi Fairtrade di Kabupaten Aceh Tengah. Analisis yang digunakan adalah analisis deskriptif kuantitatif. Analisis ini bertujuan untuk menjabarkan penerapan dan pengaplikasian prinsip sertifikasi kopi Fairtrade. Berdasarkan hasil penelitian diperoleh kesimpulan bahwa koperasi belum memiliki peran yang signifikan dalam memperbaiki harga kopi akan tetapi petani kopi mengakui bahwa mereka telah mendapatkan Fairtrade premium fee. Implementation Of Fairtrade Minimum Price And Fairtrade Premium of Fairtrade Coffee Certification on the Welfare of Gayo Coffee FarmersAbstract. Many coffee farmers began to transition to organic products during the fall in coffee prices on the international market in 2000-2004. Driven by growing demand for the certified coffee market, low prices in key markets, and assistance from development projects. This study aimed to determine the implementation of fairtrade minimum price and fairtrade premium Fairtrade coffee certification for the welfare of gayo coffee farmers. This research was conducted in Central Aceh District, namely Jagong Jeged District. The location was chosen intentionally (purposively). The object of this research is Fairtrade-certified farmers in Central Aceh District. The analysis used is descriptive quantitative analysis. This analysis aims to describe the application and application of Fairtrade coffee certification principles. Based on the study results, it was concluded that cooperatives had no significant role in improving coffee prices. However, coffee farmers admit that they have received a Fairtrade premium fee.
... The wet technique is used to process around 40% of the world's coffee, including the majority of organically grown coffees. Although particular Ethiopian or Brazilian dry-processed Arabicas are highly sought after for their distinct taste and flavor, washed coffees are typical of higher quality [16]. ...
Coffee quality is critical to the industry and is influenced by a variety of factors both before and after harvest that ensure the final expression of the product's qualification, which is based upon a number of factors including genetics, climate, agronomic practices, harvesting (mature stages), and post-harvest handling from farm to cup. This review aims to stress the importance of coffee processing and how it affects coffee quality attributes as well as fermentation techniques. Fermentation is critical in the coffee processing process, not just for removing mucilage, but also for generating essential sensory quality attributes. If fermentation takes longer than expected, bacteria can degrade the product's quality by producing off-flavors and unappealing qualities. New coffee processing procedures, such as anaerobic and carbonic maceration, have become popular recently. Only a handful of the microorganisms present in natural coffee fermentation can be used as a starting culture. Most microbes recovered from spontaneous coffee fermentation lack sensory quality-enhancing properties. Green coffee beans from farms that employ any of the following processing processes are currently fermented with chosen microbes to improve the coffee's flavor and fragrance. Other molecular sciences can help us understand the chemical components produced during fermentation and their impact on coffee quality, resulting in more reliable and complex data.
... In the 1930s and 1940s, a movement in favor of organic agriculture was set in motion, aiming to reduce dependence on synthetic fertilizers and prioritize a sustainable production system with food security [2]. Organic food production started to gain popularity in the countries of Europe and North America, as well as Japan, approximately 30 years ago [25]. At that time, the organic food production system was recognized by some governments due to its economic growth, raising consumer awareness and preference [26]. ...
Coffee is a crop of great economic importance in many countries. The organic coffee crop stands out from other production systems by aiming to eliminate the use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides. One of the most important limitations in the organic system is the management of diseases, especially coffee rust, which is considered the main disease of this crop. Coffee rust causes a production slump of up to 50%, significantly affecting the profitability of coffee growers. This work aims to review the integrated rust management in organic coffee crop in different producing countries. Regarding the disease management strategies, this review addresses the use of rust-resistant cultivars, cultural management, biological control, use of plant extracts, and chemical rust control by cupric fungicides. Considering the importance of the organic system, the increase in world coffee consumption, and the potential market for this kind of coffee, this review may help researchers and producers looking for alternative strategies to control rust in an organic coffee cultivation system.
... Coffee growing area in Andhra Pradesh and Orissa (non-traditional area-NTA) under two tire shade trees [1], with high rainfall across the elevation 900 to 1100 m above MSL [2] are characterized by undulating topography with terraced slopes having narrow valleys with scattered coffee farms are cultivated by the local trebles under natural habitat of Eastern Ghats of Vishakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh -AP) and Koraput (Orissa) districts. The coffee grown in higher elevation under extreme high and low annual temperature along with high rainfall may affect the available nutrients status in soils and these essential plant nutrients will become non available [3]. Under this situation nutrients present in soil are stored in several pools as organic and inorganic forms in soil exchange complex and are very much essential for coffee plants for their growth and development. ...
Coffee growing areas in Andhra Pradesh and Orissa (non-traditional area - NTA) are characterized by undulating topography with terraced slopes having narrow valleys with scattered coffee farms across the elevation of the Eastern Ghats of Vishakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh) and Koraput (Orissa) districts. Under this situation plant available nutrients will become non-available and the nutrients are stored in several pools as inorganic and organic forms in soil exchange complex are very much essential for coffee plants for its growth and development. Hence, a study was conducted to know the soil nutrient status of coffee growing region of NTA. A total of 693 surface soil samples were collected at depth of 22cm randomly from each coffee growing mandals of NTA and assessed the nutrient status (soil pH, OC, available P and K) at Regional Coffee Research Station, Narsipatnam. Results of the soil test results indicated that most of the Arabica coffee soils of NTA are acidic in reaction (72 %) and soil pH > 6.0 in these soils was 28 % in the tested soils. Plant available phosphorous (P) in the soil is low with 33 % soils and 46 % of the soils are medium in range. However, only 21 % of the soils tested are high in available phosphorous content in these soils. The majority of the soils of this region are high in available potassium about 54 % and 31 % of the soils are medium in range but only 15 % of the soils are low in available K status. Coffee soils of NTA are rich in organic carbon status and almost 47 %. 33 % of the tested soils are medium in range but 19 % of soils were low in organic carbon status. Soils are slightly acidic in reaction and were rich in organic carbon and available potassium status.
... Lack of sustainable practice in the agriculture or coffee plantation could consist of (1) poor water management, leading to low yield productivity in farming and coffee cherries production [154]; (2) poor pest and disease management, causing economic loss in coffee farms, such as coffee leaf rust, black rot, and dieback [155]; (3) lack of cropping systems, affecting loss in the overall production of coffee or agriculture farming [156]; (4) scarcity of nutrient management, bringing about impaired quality of a product [157]; (5) lack of labor availability, high-cost investment, and lack of good management, leading to the poor competitiveness [158]; (6) inferior processing methods, affecting the quality of the product [159]; (7) poor drying and storage facilities that damage coffee beans [160]; (8) lack of waste and pollution management, causing severe environmental problems [33]. Additionally, poor farming management can lead to (1) land degradation from poor land and water management, endangering food security and increasing poverty [161]; (2) threatening food security and possibility of water scarcity [162]; (3) poverty due to drop in the GDP [163]; (4) adverse risk in human health from environmental pollution and high-risk pesticides [164]. ...
Modern agricultural technology management is nowadays crucial in terms of the economy and the global market, while food safety, quality control, and environmentally friendly practices should not be neglected. This review aims to give perspectives on applying big data analytic and modern technologies to increase the efficacy and effectiveness of the coffee supply chain throughout the process. It was revealed that several tools such as wireless sensor networks, cloud computing, Internet of Things (IoT), image processing, convolutional neural networks (CNN), and remote sensing could be implemented in and used to improve the coffee supply chain. Those tools could help in reducing cost as well as time for entrepreneurs and create a reliable service for the customer. It can be summarized that in the long term, these modern technologies will be able to assist coffee business management and ensure the sustainable growth for the coffee industry.
... In our study, full sun production under intensive management performed better in most of the years of evaluation. While cof-fee yields of organic systems are usually lower than conventional ones (Lyngbaek et al., 2001;Van Der Vossen, 2005), this study demonstrated that coffee yields under intensive organic management regimes were similar to those obtained under intensive conventional management yet some significant differences were evident overtime (figure 2, table II). ...
The suitability and profitability of coffee cultivation in Central America are at risk due to pest and disease outbreaks, price fluctuations and climate change. Proper shading is claimed to be one of the most promising practices to seek sustainability and better adapt coffee cultivation to climate change in marginal areas. This study recorded and compared coffee cherry yields over a ten-year period from shaded coffee (N-fixing-trees and timber trees) agroforestry systems under different management regimes (conventional vs. organic) in a suboptimal site. Significant differences in production were detected between conventional inputs vs. combination of organic inputs and shade types in some years of the evaluation period. Full-sun cultivation under intensive management was the most productive system for coffee yields, followed by shaded systems under timber trees. Interestingly, and regardless of management systems (intensive conventional or intensive organic) the worst combinations in terms of coffee yield were shaded systems under leguminous species (Inga laurina (Sw.) Willd. + Simarouba glauca DC.). Across all experimental plots, the timber species Simarouba glauca and Tabebuia rosea (Bertol.) DC. grew well, reaching a mean annual increment in diameter of 2.5-3.3 cm/year (age 12 years). Average gross revenues were higher in full-sun and timber-shaded agroforestry systems. Overall, intensive management regimes were the most expensive cultivation system to run but also the best in terms of coffee yield performance.
GSCM is one of the most crucial strategies that incorporate sustainability into operational and production practices. Based on this premise, the given systematic literature review examines how the key GSCM practices influence sustainability in Sri Lanka's tea export sector. This review identifies synthesized findings from various studies that the adoption of GSCM has led to a significant improvement in economic sustainability through a reduction in operational costs of up to 20%-and enhancing the ability of market competitiveness. In this regard, environmental concerns contribute by reducing resource consumption by up to 30% as waste is generated, promoting sustainable production processes. Socially, GSCM advances good labor practices and strengthens community involvement in the pursuit of better working conditions, improving relationships between the producers and local communities. With all these advantages, however, GSCM in the Sri Lankan tea export sector faces fluctuating global market prices, effects of climate change, and persistent labor shortages. These challenges are indicative that strategic interventions of the government to support and collaborate in the industry do become urgent to enhance sustainability. This review also points out one important limitation in relying on secondary sources of data and emphasizes that there is a dire need for empirical research to enhance the evidence base to provide actionable insights for policymakers and stakeholders. In sum, this literature review underlined that GSCM played a vital role in the advancement of sustainability within the tea export sector and in providing a competing position of the industry in a global market for long-term viability in sustainability.
RESUME Objectif : La présente étude vise à identifier les externalités positives et négatives des systèmes de production d’ananas au Sud-Togo en termes de durabilité à l’échelle des exploitations. Méthodologie et résultats : La méthode utilisée est l’évaluation des indicateurs de durabilité des exploitations agricoles (IDEAv3), combinée aux analyses statistiques (ACP et CAH). Les trois échelles de durabilité agroécologique, socio-territoriale et économique ont été caractérisées au niveau des exploitations et ont permis d’identifier des groupes de systèmes de production d’ananas (SPA). L’évaluation des exploitations par des indicateurs ont montré que le facteur limitant de la durabilité est porté sur l’échelle agroécologique, ainsi le maintien de la performance des exploitations d’ananas repose sur l’amélioration des composantes (diversité végétale et animale, occupation raisonnée de l’espace, pratiques agricoles) de cette l’échelle. En revanche la durabilité économique est tenue par une bonne efficience et viabilité avec une forte dépendance économique par la sensibilité aux aides et aux financements des exploitants d’ananas. La durabilité socio-territoriale est à un niveau acceptable grâce aux indicateurs de démarche qualité orientée vers la certification biologique, implication sociale, contribution à la création d’emploi, travail intense collectif, démarche coopérative, formation collective. Conclusions et application des résultats : En définitive, pour que les SPA restent économiquement viables et efficients et socialement justes, il est important d’inciter les exploitants à l’adoption des pratiques éco-biologiques. Pour se faire, ils nécessitent des renforcements de capacité, l’adoption de l’utilisation des composts, des biofertilisants, engrais biologiques, des plans de rotations efficients, intégration de culture d’ananas sous paillis végétaux et plastiques biodégradables pour améliorer la fertilité des sols. Mots clés : Durabilité, agroécologique, performance, économique, viabilité. 20885 Anani et al., J. Appl. Biosci. Vol: 197, 2024 Évaluation de la durabilité des exploitations d’ananas (Ananas comosus L.) au Sud-Togo par la méthode IDEAv3. ABSTRACT Objective: This study aims to identify both positive and negative externalities of pineapple production systems in Southern Togo in terms of sustainability at the farm level. Methodology and Results: The methodology used is the evaluation of sustainability indicators of agricultural farms (IDEAv3), combined with statistical analyses (PCA and HCA). The three scales of agroecological, socio-territorial, and economic sustainability were characterized at the farm level and helped identify groups of pineapple production systems (PPS). The assessment of farms using these indicators showed that the limiting factor for sustainability is at the agroecological scale; thus, maintaining the performance of pineapple farms relies on improving components (plant and animal diversity, rational space occupation, agricultural practices) of this scale. Conversely, economic sustainability is maintained by good efficiency and viability with a strong economic dependence due to sensitivity to aids and financing of pineapple farmers. Socio-territorial sustainability is at an acceptable level thanks to quality approach indicators oriented towards organic certification, social involvement, contribution to job creation, intense collective work, cooperative approach, and collective training. Conclusions and Application of Results: Ultimately, for agricultural production systems (APS) to remain economically viable, efficient, and socially just, it is important to encourage farmers to adopt eco-biological practices. To achieve this, they need capacity building, the adoption of compost, biofertilizers, organic fertilizers, efficient crop rotation plans, and the integration of pineapple cultivation under plant mulch and biodegradable plastics to improve soil fertility. Keywords: Sustainability, agroecological, performance, economic, viability.
Empirical validation of a good psychometric measure to assess Economic Sustainability (ES) felt utmost critical in the domain of sustainable development. In the quantitative deductive tradition, this paper attempted to make available the empirical evidence for the ES measure developed by Matinaro et al. (2019) in the SME context of a developing country: Sri Lanka. 361 SMEs of three main categories were surveyed twice within one year, with their owners and managers directly involved in the surveyed SMEs' strategic, managerial, and operational functions. Eight dimensions of the sustainable economic performance of SMEs were evaluated based on the 24-item measure with a seven-point response scale. The confirmatory factor analysis was equipped to evaluate the instrument's measurement properties. The results empirically proved the soundness of some measures in terms of validity and reliability.
It is crucial to achieve economic and ecological sustainability in the production of plantation crops in view of their importance to support the livelihood of millions of farmers and agro-industrial entrepreneurs by supplying food, fiber, and industrial raw materials. Plantations are developed by clearing forests, and these perennial crops are confined to the same piece of land for decades. Due to the practice of unsustainable agronomic practices and enhanced influence of climate change on crops in recent years, the production system of plantation crops is confronted with several serious challenges. As soils influence agroecosystem productivity, new directions in soil health management based on ecological principles are required to attain sustainable intensification in plantations. The new paradigms in soil health management and crop nutrition in plantation crops need to be based on remediation, maintenance, and enhancement of soil health. Recent research efforts did result in the development of several low cost, simple, and viable technologies to enhance soil health and plantation ecosystem properties capable of achieving sustainability in the plantations. Management strategies for soil carbon sequestration by enhancing above-ground diversity and proper recycling of lignin-rich biomass have been shown to enhance below-ground biodiversity and together, these practices will contribute to achieve resilience in plantation farming systems. A holistic approach in soil health management in an agroecosystem mode, using integrated nutrient sources, harnessing the potential of biodiversity and carbon sequestration by recycling lignocellulosic plantation biomass will not only help to restore the degraded soils but also will enable to achieve sustainability in plantation crops by enhancing resilience of farming systems to extreme climatic events.
Contextualización: el mercado de cafés especiales ha aumentado su popularidad debido a sus características relacionadas con una mejora y una exclusividad en sus factores sensoriales de calidad, a través de diferentes procesos y actores determinados, con los que se busca garantizar la excelencia en cada etapa de la cadena productiva de los cafés especiales. Esto implica aspectos como la selección de las mejores condiciones de temperatura, altitud y suelo, así como la importancia de la recolección, el tueste, la preparación y el disfrute, los cuales influyen directamente en la experiencia de calidad. Vacío de conocimiento: con relación al campo de conocimiento de los cafés, es deficiente la aplicación de revisiones de literatura, especialmente mediante técnicas de análisis bibliométrico. Adicionalmente, no se encuentra ningún documento que aborde la temática de cafés especiales y describa de forma exhaustiva las diferentes líneas de investigación e indicadores. Propósito: esta investigación pretende sintetizar la literatura académica relacionada con el campo de los cafés especiales por medio de un análisis bibliométrico, por lo que se hace necesaria una búsqueda histórica en relación con el campo de conocimiento para determinar diferentes indicadores que describan el estado actual de la producción científica. Metodología: para la revisión se recolectaron 417 documentos de la base de datos Scopus. Se construyeron diferentes indicadores que describen los principales tópicos en relación con la producción, autores, revistas, países y artículos más citados, además, se construyen redes bibliométricas para identificar tendencias. Finalmente, mediante un análisis cualitativo se describen futuras líneas de investigación. Resultados y conclusiones: los resultados revelan cómo el contexto de producción y comercialización influye de manera determinante en la investigación, especialmente considerando que Brasil ostenta el liderazgo como principal productor académico en este campo. A través de indicadores y redes bibliométricas, se reconocen líneas de investigación que analizan los componentes fisicoquímicos, la calidad sensorial del café, el mercado, consumo y gobernanza de los cafés especiales.
Climate change is adversely affecting coffee production, impact-ing both yields and quality. Coffee production is dominated by the cultivation of Arabica and Robusta coffee, species that represent 99% of production, but both will be affected by climate change. Sustainable management practices that can enhance the resilience of production and livelihoods to climate change are urgently needed as production supports the livelihoods of over 25 million people globally, the majority of whom are smallholder farmers located in the coffee belt spanning the tropics. These communities are already experiencing the impacts of climate change. We conducted a systematic review, identifying 80 studies that describe the direct and indirect impacts of climate change on coffee agroecosystems, or that identify agroecological practices with the potential to enhance climate resilience. Adverse environmental impacts include a reduction in area suitable for production, lower yields, increased intensity and frequency of extreme climate events, and greater incidence of pests and diseases. Potential environmental solutions include altitudinal shifts, new, resilient culti-vars, altering agrochemical inputs, and agroforestry. However, financial, environmental and technical constraints limit the availability of many of these approaches to farmers, particularly smallholder producers. There is therefore an urgent need to address these barriers through policy and market mechanisms, and stakeholder engagement to continue meeting the growing demand for coffee.
Above-ground biomass cover under Coffea arabica on sloping land is beneficial but difficult to sustain. Interplanting annual and perennial legumes can sustain the above-ground biomass cover, and improve soil fertility, yield, and profitability. This was tested on 26 sloping farms in a four-growing season experiment on undersowing C. arabica with new crop combinations: Mucuna pruriens var. utilis (T1); Millettia dura Dunn (T2); a combination of M. pruriens and M. dura (T3); and the control with a no-cover legume (T4). On each farm, all treatments followed a randomized single-block design. T3 produced 8.7 mt/ha/yr above-ground biomass that was significantly (p < 0.01) higher than other treatments and was increasing with the seasons. Under T3, plant-available nitrogen (N) and potassium (K) increased more than in other treatments. During the fourth season, coffee yield in T3 was 54%, 22%, and 11% higher than in T4, T2, and T1, respectively. The gross profit under T3 was 86% higher than in T4 in the fourth season. This indicates that interplanting a combination of M. pruriens and M. dura under C. arabica on sloping land can sustainably increase above-ground biomass cover, soil’s plant-available N and K, coffee yield, and profitability. Based on the results, the combination of M. pruriens and M. dura is recommended to optimize coffee production under the described conditions.
The fermentation stage is considered to be one of the critical steps in coffee processing due to its impact on the final quality of the product. The aim of this study was to determined the effect of Lactobacillus fermentum CK165 addition and fermentation time on the physical characteristics of Arabica coffee Kintamani, Bangli, and knowing the right treatment to produce Arabica coffee with the best physical characteristics. This study used a completely randomized design (CRD) with treatment using Lactobacillus fermentum CK165 addition and duration of fermentation consisting of 0 hours, 12 hours, 24 hours, and 36 hours. Each treatment was repeated 2 times to obtain 16 experimental units. The physical characteristics of Arabica coffee were analyzed statistically by analysis of variance (ANOVA) and continued with Duncan multiple range test (DMRT), if there was an affect between treatments. The result showed that Lactobacillus fermentum CK165 addition and fermentation time significantly affected the bulk density, moisture content, bean number/10 g, weight of 100 beans, bean wide, and color (L* and b*). Lactobacillus fermentum CK165 addition and fermentation for 24 hours resulted Arabica coffee with the best physical characteristics with bulk density 0.637 g/ml, moisture content 8.507%, bean number/10 g 51.500 beans, weight of 100 beans 19.873 g, long 10.570 mm, wide 7.401 mm, thick 4.305 mm, L* 36.588, a* 1,670, b* 11.045, broken beans 0.533 bean number/100 g, brown beans 0.102 bean number/100 g, and partly black beans 1.766 bean number/100 g.
Although a common plant response to environmental gradients, leaf trait plasticity is often uncharted in agroforestry systems. The objective of this study was to examine the effect of a i) local-scale gradient (light, nutrients) induced by shade tree diversity and ii) large-scale gradient (climato-edaphic) induced by altitude on coffee plant response on multiple agroforestry research farms in Costa Rica. Results show large variability of coffee traits: leaf photosynthetic rates, specific leaf area (SLA) and number of fruiting nodes deviate along both gradients. Mean SLA increased with increasing shade tree diversity. However, with increasing altitude, full sun coffee photosynthesized at higher rates than shaded coffee. Concurrently, other coffee leaf physiological and morphological traits differentiated between full sun and shaded coffee with increasing altitude. Results suggest soil moisture and light availability dominate environmental correlates to intraspecific coffee trait plasticity, providing insight to sources of coffee performance variability in monoculture and agroforestry systems.
Aims: This study mainly intends to analyze the production side of coffee that would throw light on the scenario of coffee growers to understand the cost structure and returns from coffee cultivation in the study area. Study Design: Purposive sampling technique was adopted for the current study on Araku valley coffee, where the primary data has been collected from 120 coffee growers. Place and Duration of Study: The research was carried out in the Visakhapatnam district of Andhra Pradesh and the primary data was collected from April to July 2022. Methodology: Costs and returns of coffee cultivation were estimated for Araku Valley Coffee in the study area. Results: The establishment cost of Araku Valley coffee in the Visakhapatnam district was Rs. 144039.06/ha, which encompassed both the initial investment costs and maintenance costs during the coffee gestation period. The cost of cultivation during the coffee fruit-bearing period was Rs. 611353.67/ha. With this total cost per hectare, the cost per Kg of coffee produced turns out to be Rs 9.83/kg. Fresh fruit berries were sold on the market for an average price of Rs. 40/kg. Net profits were Rs. 2317053.55/ha while gross returns were Rs. 3072446.28/ha. The BCR, NPV@12% discount rate, and IRR recorded were 1.68, Rs.144581, and 28.7% respectively. It was an undeniable fact that raising coffee plantations in Andhra Pradesh was lucrative and could be operated on a commercial scale for fostering profits over a generation. Conclusion: The pace of tribal development in the Visakhapatnam district was sustained in large part by coffee production. From a long-term viewpoint, this study signifies and validates the real economics of coffee production for sustainable resource management, profitable revenue generation, and expanded employment opportunities.
This study investigates the determinants of coffee prices received by growers in Costa Rica, paying attention to the impact of environmental, regional, quality, and international aspects in a panel data set for the period 2008–2016. We identify three groups of variables that affect domestic coffee prices. Some of them are external to the control of the coffee growers, such as the international price of green coffee or the power of multinationals; others, such as the altitude where the coffee is harvested or the berries' yield, are related to coffee quality but difficult to modify by coffee growers. The focus of our study is on the third group, which refers to differentiation strategies related to environmental certifications. More specifically, we consider two particularly relevant certifications, which are Fairtrade mills and organic coffee. We find that organic coffee berries received higher prices, but Fairtrade mills report lower average prices than other, non-certified, buyers.
Comparing to non-organic coffee, organically grown coffee has been regarded to be healthier at a more expensive price. Recently, in Sumatra, Robusta organic coffee is becoming more popular. However, it is difficult to assess the origin of organic ground roasted coffee resulting in frequent mislabeling incidence in the market. In this research, an effort to discriminate Robusta organic coffee from different origins was evaluated using ultraviolet (UV) spectroscopy and principal component analysis (PCA). A total of fifty samples of ground-roasted organic coffee from two origins in Sumatra Indonesia (Lampung and Bengkulu) was used. The samples were extracted using hot distilled water, filtered, and diluted with distilled water (1:70 volume/volume). UV spectra were measured in the range of 220-400 nm with 1 nm of the resolution using a benchtop UV-Vis spectrometer. Principal component analysis (PCA) was applied for original and preprocessed spectral data in the range of 220-400 nm. Using the first and the second principal components (PC1 and PC2) using preprocessed spectra resulted in a distinct cluster between Lampung and Bengkulu organic coffee samples. This result showed the effectiveness of PCA in differentiating between the organic Robusta coffee from different origins (Lampung and Bengkulu).
The study aims to test if Ecuadorean coffee's symbolic and material contents agree with the instrumental analysis and grading protocols. We studied the relationship between the chemical composition and the organoleptic characteristics of eight non-specialty and six specialty coffee samples. Firstly, the study addresses the grading following the Specialty Coffee American Association (SCAA) method. The second stage focuses on the qualitative composition of the coffee brews employing GC-MS and caffeine concentrations using HPLC. Then, we employed statistical tools such as Cohen's concordance coefficients, dissimilarity dendrograms, and linear correlations between the chemical compounds in the beverage and the attributes' scores. The grading panel consisted of 6 semi-trained-testers who would assess if the primary cultural capital can provide a criterion to identify specialty coffee. The variety of compounds allowed the evaluators to distinguish between commercial and specialty coffees. However, the composition analysis identified molecules that would imply greater gradation in the tasting, a prevision that was not reflected in the results. Finally, we confirmed that basic training could create cultural capital to distinguish non-specialties from specialty coffees through their chemistry and organoleptic attributes.
The development of organic coffee in Indonesia has been progressing insignificantly, although the country is one of the leading coffee producers. One of the reasons slowing down the development of Organic coffee is because the farmers encounter several obstacles at the farm. This study aims to create strategies for the development of organic coffee in Wonokerso Village because there have been previous researches and the location for some superior coffee clones since 2004 from the Indonesian Coffee and Cocoa Research and organic coffee demonstration plot in farmer’s land. This study was conducted in Wonokerso Village in 2019. Through in-depth interviews and analysis by Strengths Weaknesses Opportunities and Threats (SWOT) and strategy formulated by Treats Opportunities Weaknesses Strengths (TOWS) matrix, data collection was conducted. The respondents consisted of coffee farmers, extension workers, and village officials in Wonokerso. The results show that developing organic coffee is in quadrant III (turn around), which means weaknesses are higher than strengths. Potential opportunities are much more than threats. Strategies include increasing the standardization of organic coffee quality, price guarantee, and improving productivity. The action plan that should be implemented, firstly, facilitating the organic coffee certification. Secondly, establishing Village-Owned Enterprises that accommodate, process and market organic coffee directly to consumers, and lastly, improving technology adoption by training and technology incentive.
Mexico is an important producer of organic coffee, mainly harvested by producers with small shade plots who use a diversity of varieties. Considering organic cultivation standards, we evaluated fruit production, cherry-parchment industrial yield, and the sensory cup quality of 20 coffee varieties (10 tall stature and 10 compact stature) during six production cycles in Oaxaca, Mexico. The varieties with the highest average fruit production in six years were three compact stature: Colombia Brote Café (30.2 kg / plant), Oro Azteca (29.0 kg / plant), and Yellow Catuai (27 kg / plant). These varieties produce large beans suitable for a European-style preparation. The Aztec Gold varieties presented good aroma, acidity and body attributes. Tall stature varieties with greater intermediate yield were Batie, Dessie, Pluma Hidalgo 177, and Typica 947, with around 24 kg / plant. Pacamara and Blue Mountain had low fruit production. Some varieties achieved a good taste irrespectively of their stature. Abnormalities in beans and agroindustrial yields were similar for all varieties
In Latin America, the cultivation of Arabica coffee (Coffea arabica) plays a critical role in rural livelihoods, biodiversity conservation, and sustainable development. Over the last 20 years, coffee farms and landscapes across the region have undergone rapid and profound biophysical changes in response to low coffee prices, changing climatic conditions, severe plant pathogen outbreaks, and other drivers. Although these biophysical transformations are pervasive and affect millions of rural livelihoods, there is limited information on the types, location, and extent of landscape changes and their socioeconomic and ecological consequences. Here we review the state of knowledge on the ongoing biophysical changes in coffee-growing regions, explore the potential socioeconomic and ecological impacts of these changes, and highlight key research gaps. We identify seven major land-use trends which are affecting the sustainability of coffee-growing regions across Latin America in different ways. These trends include (1) the widespread shift to disease-resistant cultivars, (2) the conventional intensification of coffee management with greater planting densities, greater use of agrochemicals and less shade, (3) the conversion of coffee to other agricultural land uses, (4) the introduction of Robusta coffee (Coffea canephora) into areas not previously cultivated with coffee, (5) the expansion of coffee into forested areas, (6) the urbanization of coffee landscapes, and (7) the increase in the area of coffee produced under voluntary sustainability standards. Our review highlights the incomplete and scattered information on the drivers, patterns, and outcomes of biophysical changes in coffee landscapes, and lays out a detailed research agenda to address these research gaps and elucidate the effects of different landscape trajectories on rural livelihoods, biodiversity conservation, and other aspects of sustainable development. A better understanding of the drivers, patterns, and consequences of changes in coffee landscapes is vital for informing the design of policies, programs, and incentives for sustainable coffee production.
Supplementary information:
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13593-021-00712-0.
Costa Rica's coffee systems have been the subject of many sustainability plans based on unidimensional assessment. The present research aims to evaluate the sustainability of coffee production systems from the multidimensional approach to measure sustainability, 48 indicators were evaluated, divided into three dimensions Environmental Integrity, Economic Resilience, and Social Well–being, taken, and adapted from the Sustainability Assessment for Food and Agriculture (SAFA) tool of the World Food Organization (FAO). The sustainability of each coffee farm generated the following results, three farms in the dark green category (Ideal, 80–100%) and five in light green (Very good, 60–80%). Rincon de Mora coffee systems meet a level from very good to ideal, however, specific aspects must be worked on to improve in the future
El cafe es el cultivo mas importante de la zona alta de los estados Monagas, Sucre y Anzoategui. La baja productividad nacional (5 qq.ha-1) esta asociada al escaso uso de fertilizantes en las plantaciones. Con el objetivo de caracterizar la fertilidad y proponer estrategias de fertilizacion en el eje cafetalero San Agustin-Juasjuillar, municipio Caripe, estado Monagas, se colectaron muestras (profundidades 0-20 cm y 20-40 cm) con fi nes de fertilidad en 173 fi ncas comerciales. Las muestras fueron procesadas en el laboratorio de suelos del Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agricolas del estado Guarico. Se identifi caron y descartaron variables con multicolinearidad a traves del análisis de correlacion. Con el analisis de componentes principales se seleccionaron las variables que aportaron mayor variabilidad y mediante el análisis de agrupamiento jerarquico se defi nieron cuatro grupos de localidades con condiciones similares de suelos. Las tecnicas estadisticas permitieron identificar diez variables que explicaron 73% de la variacion en las propiedades quimicas de los suelos. En las condiciones del eje cafetalero San Agustin – Juasjuillar es sufi ciente con evaluar la capa superficial del suelo para diagnosticar la fertilidad. Se requiere un plan de fertilizacion especifico para cada grupo homogeneo de suelos, orientado a corregir los desbalances nutricionales identificados. Todas las fincas demandan dosis de mantenimiento de nitrogeno y dosis correctivas de fosforo, potasio, calcio y magnesio. En la mayoria de las localidades es necesaria la correccion de los tenores de zinc en el suelo, a excepcion de las localidades de San Agustin y La Guanota.
Okara has gained more importance in every community on the globe due to its nutritional value. This study examined the effect of organic and inorganic fertilizers on the growth and yield and of okra on the on farm level. Organic form of fertilizer used was poultry manure and while the inorganic was NPK fertilizer. The experiment was laid out in a Randomized Complete Block Design during the raining seasons of 2019. Four treatments with three replications were used. Treatments are arranged as control T1 (Without fertilizer + No Poultry Manure + No compost), T2 (NPK full dose (150 kg ha-1N, 75 kg ha-1P and 60 kg ha-1K), T3 (full dose of poultry manure (PM) 30 ton ha-1), T4 (50% NPK+50% Poultry Manure). Plants growth and yield parameters were determined like the total number of leaves per plant, plant height, the total number of fruits per plant, fruit yield and total yield increase. No significant increase was observed in the yield and growth of okra under control and full NPK fertilizer treatment. Application of poultry manure as well as its mixture with full NPK considerably increased the growth and total yield attributes of Okra. The joint use of 50% NPK+50% PM also showed the most significant effect on okra growth and yield of the crop.
Coffee (Coffea arabica L.) management in Costa Rica is changing from traditional agroecosystems, where coffee is grown beneath a tree overstory, to management systems where shade trees are removed and N fertilizer is applied at high rates (ca. 300 kg N ha-1 yr-1). Although fertilization increases coffee bean production, it also increases the potential for substantial loss of N to groundwater and the atmosphere. We investigated NO3/- leaching and the factors controlling denitrification in shaded and unshaded coffee plantations in the Central Valley of Costa Rica; both plantation types were fertilized with 300 kg N ha-1 yr-1. Nitrate leaching was quantified using porous ceramic cup lysimeters placed 60 cm below the soil surface. Losses were estimated by multiplying the soil water NO3/- concentration by the monthly soil water excess, determined as the difference between precipitation and actual evapotranspiration. In addition, a laboratory experiment was conducted to investigate the influence of NO3/- , C, and O2 availability on N2O production and total denitrification (N2O- N + N2-N). Annual leaching losses of NO3/- were almost three times greater in unshaded plantations (24 kg NO3/--N ha-1 yr-1) than those in shaded plantations (9 kg ha-1 yr-1). In contrast, mean total denitrification rates in control soil samples from shaded plantations were 60% higher (732 μg N2O-N kg-1 d-1) than in unshaded plantations (455 μg N2O-N kg-1 d-1). Carbon additions elicited the largest increase in denitrification, generating nearly a threefold increase (+ C = 8396 μg N2O-N kg-1 d-1; - C = 2985 μg N2O-N kg-1 d-1) in both plantation types. Anaerobic conditions also significantly increased denitrification (+O2 = 4331 μg N2O-N kg-1 d-1; -O2 = 6656 μg N2O-N kg-1 d-1). In both plantation types, the potential for N loss via NO3/- leaching was small compared with that for gaseous N loss.
Root-knot nematodes, Meloidogyne incognita in Guatemala and Meloidogyne sp. in El Salvador frequently cause very serious damage to Coffea arabica. Hypocotyledon grafting on C. canephoravar. Robusta is practiced on a very wide scale to control these pests. However, rootstock seeds come from non selected trees
which provide 30–40%resistance. In this article, we examine the possibility of improving resistance to M. incognita and Meloidogyne sp. Hybrids were created using two North Carolina II factorial mating designs and tested under controlled conditions for
resistance to isolates of the two nematodes. In the trial with Meloidogyne sp. the number of nematodes per plant was counted, and in the trial withM. incognita a root damage index was established. Vegetative measurements (height, weight of aerial parts and roots) were taken in both
trials. The parents were classed according to their cross value and genetic variance was estimated. In the factorial trial
conducted with the Meloidogynesp. isolate from El Salvador, parents T3561 and T3751transmitted high resistance levels of 56 and 54%,respectively, to their
progenies, as opposed to 9% for the other parents. The cross between those two parents achieved 78% resistant plants. In the
trial with the M. incognita isolate from Guatemala, similar results were found. The same two parents transmitted resistance to 64% of their progenies,
as opposed to 36% for the other parents. Classification of the parents did not differ from one trial to the other. The existence
of a complex nematode resistance locus in the C. canephora species seems highly likely. The results show that it is possible to select rootstock varieties that are more resistant to
the main Meloidogyne nematodes in Guatemala and El Salvador. Given the average heritability values (0.28–0.30) and the possibility of applying
strong selection intensity, the genetic progress expected in the next selection cycle should be substantial.
Social relations associated with conventional agricultural exports find their origins in long term associations based on business, family, and class alliances. Working outside these boundaries presents a host of challenges, especially where small producers with little economic or political power are concerned. Yet, in many developing countries, alternative trade organizations (ATOs) based on philosophies of social justice and/or environmental well-being are carving out spaces alongside traditional agricultural export sectors by establishing new channels of trade and marketing. Coffee provides a case in point, with the fair trade and certified organic movements making inroads into the market place. In their own ways, these movements represent a type of economic and social restructuring from below, drawing upon and developing linkages beyond the traditional boundaries of how coffee is produced and traded. An examination of the philosophies of the fair trade and organic coffee movements reveal that the philosophical underpinnings of both certified organic and fair-trade coffee run counter to the historical concerns of coffee production and trade. Associations of small producers involved in these coffees face stiff challenges – both internal and external to their groups. More work, especially in situ fieldwork aimed at uncovering the challenges, benefits, tensions, and successes, is needed to understand better the ways these networks operate in the dynamic agro-food complex.
The Meloidogyne incognita nematode is a destructive, widespread pathogen of Coffea arabica varieties in Guatemala and in other coffee production countries. Nematode resistant Robusta (Coffea canephora) is frequently used as a rootstock; however, as it is not adapted to high altitudes, this is an inadequate solution. Arabica
varieties resistant to the nematode would avoid the need for grafting at altitudes of more than 800–1000 m. Trials were carried
out to test the response to an M. incognita isolate from Guatemala on; 50semi-wild Ethiopian and Sudanese accessions, 20 F1hybrid families obtained by crossing eight
accessions with three susceptible varieties and five F2 populations. An additional trial was conducted to compare resistance
to the Guatemalan nematode isolate with a M. incognita isolate from Brazil. The inoculum doses was 1000 ± 200 eggs for each 2–3month old coffee seedling, and the number of egg
masses per plant was observed. Resistance to M. incognita observed in the Ethiopian accessions was important, as 40% of the accessions tested were totally resistant. Resistance was
dominant in F1 and transmitted to the F2 generations. Segregation in the F2 populations indicated the presence of a single
dominant gene for some crosses and two complementary dominant genes for others. The reactions of the Ethiopian accessions
to the Brazilian isolate of M. incognita were similar to those of the Guatemalan isolate. These results confirm the necessity of widening the genetic base of C. arabica breeding populations using semi-wild Ethiopian trees as a source of resistance to M. incognita.
Shade trees reduce the stress of coffee (Coffea spp.) and cacao (Theobroma cacao) by ameliorating adverse climatic conditions and nutritional imbalances, but they may also compete for growth resources. For example, shade trees buffer high and low temperature extremes by as much as 5 °C and can produce up to 14 Mg ha−1 yr−1 of litterfall and pruning residues, containing up to 340 kg N ha−1 yr−1. However, N2 fixation by leguminous shade trees grown at a density of 100 to 300 trees ha−1 may not exceed 60 kg N ha−1 yr−1. Shade tree selection and management are potentially important tools for integrated pest management because increased shade may increase the incidence of some commercially important pests and diseases (such as Phythphora palmivora and Mycena citricolor) and decrease the incidence of others (such as Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and Cercospora coffeicola). In Central America, merchantable timber production from commercially important shade tree species, such as Cordia alliodora, is in the range of 4−6 m3 ha−1 yr−1.
The relative importance and overall effect of the different interactions between shade trees and coffee/cacao are dependent upon site conditions (soil/climate), component selection (species/varieties/provenances), belowground and aboveground characteristics of the trees and crops, and management practices. On optimal sites, coffee can be grown without shade using high agrochemical inputs. However, economic evaluations, which include off-site impacts such as ground water contamination, are needed to judge the desirability of this approach. Moreover, standard silvicultural practices for closed plantations need to be adapted for open-grown trees within coffee/cacao plantations.
Quality is an important attribute of coffee. Therefore it is important to understand the effect of overstory trees not only on the environment and long-term coffee production, but also on the quality of coffee grown underneath the trees. This study compared coffee quality of Coffea arabica L. vars. Caturra and Catimor 5175 under different levels of shade in a low-elevation, sub-optimal environment for coffee in Costa Rica. Fruit weight and bean size increased significantly when shade intensity was increased from 0% to more than 80% under unpruned Erythrina poeppigiana. While large beans (diameter > 6.7 mm) accounted for 49 and 43% of the coffee from unshaded Caturra and Catimor, respectively, these proportions increased to 69 and 72% under dense permanent shade. This suggested a stronger shade benefit for Catimor than for Caturra. The conversion percentages from fresh-weight coffee fruits to dry-weight green coffee for export were not affected by the treatments. A blind tasting experiment showed consistent shade-induced improvements in appearance of green and roasted coffee as well as in acidity and body of the brew for both varieties. The effect of shade on aroma of the brew was neutral for Caturra and slightly negative for Catimor. It is hypothesized that, in the sub-optimal (low-altitude) coffee-zone studied, shade promotes slower and more balanced filling and uniform ripening of berries, thus yielding a better-quality product than unshaded coffee plants. Shade experiments along environmental gradients should help to validate this conjecture and its relative importance in different coffee-zones.
In areas where traditional multistrata coffee systems have been transformed to systems with patchy or no shade at all, often
dependent on high chemical inputs, ecological and socioeconomic degradation has become an increasing issue. During the 1990s,
rising environmental and health concerns have promoted the interest in organic production systems and their environmental
services for natural resource conservation. This study compared productivity, profitability, producer-defined constraints,
and goals and research priorities between ten individually paired organic and conventional coffee farms in Costa Rica. Although
five of the organic farms matched or exceeded the production of their conventional counterparts, the three-year mean yield
of the organic farms as a group was 22% lower than that of the conventional farms. However, excluding organic certification
costs, mean variable costs and net income (NI) were similar for both groups, mainly because organic price premiums received
by the farmers compensated for lower yields. If current organic certification costs are included, the price premiums paid
to organic producers would have to increase to 38% in order to equal the NI from conventional coffee. Conventional farmers
indentified low and unstable prices as the main constraints to sustained production and stated further intensification of
production as their main goal. In contrast, the key issues for future development of the organic group centered on farm diversification,
agroecological self-sufficiency, and agronomic practices that permit organic farm management.
The effect of two abundant, easily available and very low-cost agro-industrial organic residues, i.e., filter cake from the sugar industry and poultry litter, on the composting stabilization time of coffee pulp and on the quality of the produced compost, was evaluated. Piles of one cubic meter were built and monitored within the facilities of a coffee processing plant in the Coatepec region of the State of Veracruz, Mexico. Manual aeration was carried out once a week. A longer thermophilic period (28 days) and a much lower C/N ratio (in the range of 6.9-9.1) were observed in the piles containing the amendments, as compared to the control pile containing only coffee pulp (14 days and a C/N ratio of 14.4, respectively). The maximum assimilation rate of the reducing sugars was 1.6 g kg-1 d-1 (from 7.5 to 5.3%) during the first two weeks when accelerators were present in the proportion of 20% filter cake plus 20% poultry litter, while they accumulated at a rate of 1.2 g kg-1 d-1 (from 7.4 to 9.13%) during the same period in the control pile. The best combination of amendments was 30% filter cake with 20% poultry litter, resulting in a final nitrogen content as high as 4.81%. The second best combination was 20% filter cake with 10% poultry litter, resulting in a compost which also contained a high level of total nitrogen (4.54%). It was concluded that the use of these two residues enhanced the composting process of coffee pulp, promoting a shorter stabilization period and yielding a higher quality of compost.
Lines of Coffea arabica derived from the Timor Hybrid (hybrid between C. arabica and C. canephora) are resistant to coffee leaf rust (Hemileia vastatrix) and to the nematode Meloidogyne exigua. The introgression of C. canephora resistance genes is suspected of causing a drop in beverage quality. Coffee samples from pure lines, compared in a Trial 1, and from F1 hybrids and parental lines from a half-diallel trial in a Trial 2, were studied for beverage quality, chemical composition and amount of introgressed genetic material. Chemical analyses (caffeine, chlorogenic acids, fat, trigonelline, sucrose) were carried out with near-infrared spectrometry by reflectance of green coffee. The number of amplified fragment length polymorphic (AFLP) markers introgressed from the Timor Hybrid varied from 1 to 37 for the lines studied. There were significant differences between lines for all of the biochemical compounds analysed and for the acidity and the overall standard of the beverage. Two lines (T17927, T17924) were significantly poorer than the controls for sucrose and beverage acidity. T17924 also had more chlorogenic acids and was poorer for the overall standard. However, two highly introgressed lines, T17934 and T17931 (25 and 30 AFLP markers, respectively), did not differ from the non-introgressed controls. There were no correlations between the number of AFLP markers and the chemical contents or beverage attributes. Significant correlations were found between the performance of the parents and their general combining ability for beverage quality. It was concluded that it should be possible to find lines with both the desired resistance genes and good beverage quality. Selection can avoid accompanying the introgression of resistance genes with a drop in beverage quality.
This book contains 23 peer-reviewed papers presented during the 'International Symposium on Balanced Nutrient Management Systems' which was held between 9 and 12 October 2000 in Cotonou, Republic of Benin. This book is presented in seven sections (i) general introduction; (ii) variability on physical and socioeconomic factors and its consequences for selection of representative areas for integrated nutrient management (INM) research; (iii) soil processes determining nutrient dynamics, particularly N and P; (iv) interactions between organic and mineral nutrient sources; (v) improved utilization of rock phosphate; (vi) decision support systems to improve resource use at farm level: on-farm testing of improved technologies; and (vii) recommendations. The currently accepted INM approach advocates the use of organic resources and mineral fertilizer inputs to redress nutrient depletion and sustain crop production. It also ensures that development of nutrient management strategies is problem-driven and involves farmers that are the end-users of such technologies.
The coffee crop (green beans) includes mineral nutrients which are therefore removed from the plantation system. Compared with some crops (for example, sugar cane) the quantities are not large. Catani and de Moraes (1958) estimated that the major nutrients removed in 1 tonne of arabica green beans amounted to 34.0 kg N, 5.2kg P2O5 and 47.8 kg K2O. However the crop is harvested as cherry which includes pulp and parchment in addition to the beans. In many cases these are not returned to the field so that the nutrients therein are lost to the system. Using data published by Ripperton, Goto and Pahau (1935: 55) the nutrients removed in the bean, pulp and parchment equivalent to 1 tonne of arabica green beans are: in bean, 45.5 kg N, 7.67 kg P2O5, and 37.9 kg K2O; in parchment, 2.27 kg N, 0.3 kg P2O5 and 1.87 kg K2O; in pulp, 15.33 kg N, 3.67 kg P2O5 and 27.4 kg K2O. Ripperton et al. (1935: 47) showed that the concentration of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in the constituents of the cherry varied according to the soil and fertiliser applications. Roelofsen and Coolhaas (1940) reported that the total losses of nutrients from the plantation equivalent to 1 tonne of robusta green bean were: 35 kg N, 6 kg P2O5, 50 kg K2O, 4 kg CaO, 4 kg MgO, 0.3 kg Fe2O3, 0.02 kg Mn3O4. Malavolta, Graner, Sarruge and Gomes (1963) reported the concentrations of macro-and micro-nutrients in pulp and beans of arabica coffee.
The initial effect of ‘tonic’ fungicide sprays on Coffea arabica in Kenya is a 2–3 month delay in leaf fall and this causes a marked increase in yield even when the trees are not noticeably diseased. Five field experiments were carried out to investigate leaf abscission responses to 2-chloroethane phosphonic acid (CEPA) of fungicide-sprayed and unsprayed genotypes. Fungicide-sprayed leaves showed a significantly lower abscission response. Fungicides appear to remove a factor, possibly the leaf surface microflora, which causes increased levels of endogenous ethylene. This induces the leaves to senesce and abscise prematurely under natural conditions, or makes them more responsive to exogenous ethylene. There were marked genotype differences in thresholds for leaf abscission, and the locally selected cv SL28 was among the most resistant to CEPA-induced abscission. It was concluded that tonic sprays of fungicide will continue to be effective in Kenya in increasing yields, even after the introduction of new disease-resistant cultivars.
IntroductionGenetic ResourcesBreedingPropagation of New CultivarsAbbreviationsReferences
The purpose of this review is to summarise existing information on the physiology of the coffee crop, with emphasis on whole-plant physiology and on those characteristics that influence the yield of beans. Information has been drawn from work in Kenya, which is well known to the author, from published reviews on coffee crop physiology (Huxley, 1970; Cannell, 1975), water relations (Nunes, 1976), eco-physiology (Maestri and Barros, 1977) and flowering (Alvim, 1973; Browning, 1975b; Barros, Maestri and Coons, 1978), and from the more recent literature. Most of the statements made here refer specifically to arabica coffee (Coffea arabica L.) but many will also be true for robusta coffee.
Indigenas de la Sierra Madre de Motozintla (ISMAM), the world's foremost producer of organic gourmet coffee, is a prominent example of an associative corporation, an organizational form combining aspects of traditional Indian social organization and modern capitalist enterprises. The development of ISMAM's organic strategy is analyzed as acheiving multiple goals, including improving soils and improving marketing conditions by permitting greater value-added to growers through direct access to high-value markets. The role of external brokers and the impact or organic marketing on organizational structure are analyzed. Though not typical, ISMAM is an encouraging example of a viable small-farmer strategy for meeting the economic and political challenge of globalization.
Yield of decade groups of maize ( Zea mays L.) cultivars typical of those used by U.S. Corn Belt farmers in each of the decades since 1930 was evaluated across a range of soil fertility and climatic environments. This study gave estimates of the rate of genetic improvement in yield for each environment. In addition, a measure of the advisability of continued development and deployment of high yielding, management responsive single cross maize hybrids in light of potential reductions in fertilizer inputs and potentially less favorable future climatic conditions was provided. These cultivars were grown in replicated field trails in a total of 11 environments from Tennessee to Colorado in 1980 and 1981. All plots were grown according to accepted modern agronomic practices except that a low soil fertility treatment was included in both years and two limited irrigation stress treatments were included in 1981. Mean yield of cultivars from more recent decades was consistently higher than those from older decades across or within environments. Regression analysis of mean decade group yield on decade of use within each environment and on an environmental index (treatment/location/year mean yield) across environments gave significant correlations and b values which were always positive, regardless of environment. These results are consistent with the conclusion that U.S. maize production will be best served by the continued development and deployment of improved single cross maize hybrids even if less favorable soil fertility or climatic conditions should Occur.
Field experiments comparing 13 winter wheat varieties representing very old, old, intermediate and modern groups were carried out over three seasons. The experimental sites were on soils of high fertility and weeds, diseases and pests were controlled by applications of proprietary agrochemicals. Lodging was prevented by supporting the plants with coarse-mesh netting.
The average yield of all varieties over the three harvest years 1984, 1985 and 1986 was 7·7 t/ha (at 15% moisture content). Compared with the very old varieties which were grown by farmers during the 19th century, the modern varieties gave 59% more grain, had 14% more ears/m ² and 30% more grains per ear, but a similar mean grain mass. The modern varieties yielded slightly more biomass (total above-ground dry matter at harvest), were much shorter and reached anthesis about 6 days earlier than the older ones. In 1984, when the yields were greater than in 1985 and 1986, the yield advantage of the modern varieties was more in percentage and absolute terms than in the other years. Also, in 1984, the differences between the very old and the modern varieties in biomass was the greatest.
The genetic gain in yield measured in these experiments is compared with those estimated for other countries and reasons for the variation are discussed.
This paper compares nitrate leaching losses from organic farms, which depended on legumes for their nitrogen inputs (66 site years) with those from conventional farms using fertilizers under similar cropping and climatic conditions (188 site years). The conventional farms were within Nitrate Sensitive Areas in England, but sites following special practices associated with that scheme were excluded. Nitrate losses during the organic ley phase (including the winter of ploughing out) were similar (45 kg N ha–1) to those from conventional long-term grass receiving fertilizer N inputs of less than 200 kg N ha–1 (44 kg N ha–1) and from the grass phase of conventional ley-arable rotations (50 kg N ha–1). Losses from conventional grass receiving higher N inputs were greater than from organic or less intensive grass. Nitrate losses following arable crops averaged 47 and 58 kg N ha–1 for the organic and conventional systems respectively, with part of the difference being due to the greater proportion of non-cereal break crops in the latter. Thus under similar cropping, losses from organic systems are similar to or slightly smaller than those from conventional farms following best practice.
This paper reviews current understanding of soil structure, the role of soil organic matter (SOM) in soil structure and evidence for or against better soil physical condition under organic farming. It also includes new data from farm case studies in the UK. Young SOM is especially important for soil structural development, improving ephemeral stability through fungal hyphae, extracellular polysaccharides, etc. Thus, to achieve aggregate stability and the advantages that this conveys, frequent input of fresh organic matter is required. Practices that add organic material are routinely a feature of organically farmed soils and the literature generally shows that, comparing like with like, organic farms had at least as good and sometimes better soil structure than conventionally managed farms. Our case studies confirmed this. In the reviewed papers, SOM was generally larger on the biodynamic/organic farms because of the organic additions and/or leys in the rotation. We can therefore hypothesize that, because it is especially the light fraction of SOM that is involved in soil structural development, soil structure will improve in a soil to which fresh organic residues are added regularly. Thus, we argue it is not the farming system per se that is important in promoting better physical condition, but the amount and quality of organic matter returned to a soil.
Previous studies of the microbial status of soils managed under ‘organic’ and ‘conventional’ regimes have produced conflicting evidence of whether there are distinct differences in the size, composition and activity of the soil microbial biomass which may be attributed to management practice. In the present study, we have compared the microbiology of organically- and conventionally-managed soils at (primarily) two farms in England, over a two year period. Differences in microbial communities in soils under different management practice were subtle rather than dramatic. Many of the parameters measured, including total C and microbial biomass C, often showed no consistently significant differences in soils under different management. In soils from one farm, concentrations of ATP in Ringers solution soil extracts were mostly found to be significantly greater in organically-managed than in comparable conventionally-managed soils. While indirect (plate) counts showed that there were similar numbers of cultivable microorganisms present in these soils, total counts of bacteria (via DAPI-staining) were found to parallel the trends found for readily-extractable ATP. Numbers of metabolically-active bacteria, determined by FISH analysis using a EUB338 probe to detect ribosome-rich cells, indicated that the percentage of metabolically-active bacteria present was not determined by management practice. Total and active fungi were also found to be more abundant in organically-managed soils. It was concluded that changes in soil microbiology may occur as a consequence of switching to organic land management, but these may not be detectable by methods used frequently to assess soil biomass. In particular, increased numbers of viable but non-culturable bacteria and fungi in organically-managed soils points to a greater physiological diversity of microorganisms in such situations.
More than 50 nations, almost all in the developing world, produce and export coffee, one of the world's most valuable traded commodities. Some of these countries are dependent on coffee exports for a very significant portion of their international trade and export income. Between 17 and 20 million families are directly involved in coffee production and most are smallholders utilizing just a few hectares of land. During low price periods, evidence of considerable human hardships in many producing regions confirms coffee's importance as a primary - and sometimes only - source of cash income for many farmers. This study assesses the condition of the world's coffee production and trade and illuminates the profound structural changes that have occurred in recent years. With ample data and thorough analysis of both production and consumption, it clearly illustrates the new trends in the coffee world. Based on this analysis and considerable public-private experience in coffee trade and economics, the authors offers solutions for reducing the impact of inevitable future price collapses and making coffee a less risky source of income for some of the world's poorest.
Complex relationships exist between different components of the organic farm and the quantity and quality of the end products depend on the functioning of the whole system. As such, it is very difficult to isolate soil fertility from production and environmental aspects of the system. Crop rotation is the central tool that integrates the maintenance and development of soil fertility with different aspects of crop and livestock production in organic systems. Nutrient supply to crops depends on the use of legumes to add nitrogen to the system and limited inputs of supplementary nutrients, added in acceptable forms. Manures and crop residues are carefully managed to recycle nutrients around the farm. Management of soil organic matter, primarily through the use of short-term leys, helps ensure good soil structure and biological activity, important for nutrient supply, health and productivity of both crops and livestock. Carefully planned diverse rotations help reduce the incidence of pests and diseases and allow for cultural methods of weed control. As a result of the complex interactions between different system components, fertility management in organic farming relies on a long-term integrated approach rather than the more short-term very targeted solutions common in conventional agriculture.
A review is made of the ecological interactions that occur between shade trees and the perennial crops: coffee (Coffee spp. L.), cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) and tea (Camellia sinensis L. Kuntze). These interactions are classified firstly as advantages or disadvantages, and secondly as: effects on crop management; effects on the hydrological cycle; effects on pathogens, insects and climatic conditions; and effects on soils. References are given for the 20 advantageous and 16 disadvantageous consequences of using shade trees, emphasizing publications that provide original data and useful methodologies. Finally a check list of desirable characteristics for perennial crop shade trees is presented.Se hace revisin de las interacciones ecolgicas que ocurren entre rboles de sombra y los cultivos perennes: caf (Coffee spp. L.), cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) y t (Camellia sinensis L. Kuntze). Estas interacciones fueron clasificadas en primer nivel como ventajas o desventajas, y en segundo nivel como: efectos sobre manejo de los cultivos; efectos sobre el ciclo hidrolgico; efectos sobre patgenos, insectos y condiciones climticas; y afectos sobre los suelos. Se dan referencias para 20 consecuencias ventajosas y 16 consecuencias desventajosas al utilizar rboles de sombra, dando nfasis a publicaciones que proveen datos originales y metodologias tiles. Finalmente se presenta una lista de las caractersticas deseables para rboles de sombra para cultivos perennes.
The relative importance of N fixation, organic material inputs and nutrient inputs in litterfall, as justifications for including shade trees in plantations of coffee or cacao, is discussed. According to existing data, N fixation by leguminous shade trees does not exceed 60 kg.N/ha/a. However, these trees contribute 5,000–10,000 kg. organic material/ha/a.
Comparisons are made between the leguminous shade tree Erythrina poeppigiana and the non-leguminous timber tree Cordia alliodora. The former, when pruned 2 or 3 times/a., can return to the litter layer the same amount of nutrients that are applied to coffee plantations via inorganic fertilizers, even at the highest recommended rates for Costa Rica of 270 kg.N, 60 kg.P, 150 kg.K/ha/a. The annual nutrient return in this litterfall represents 90–100 percent of the nutrient store in above-ground biomass of E. poeppigiana, and hence the consequences of competition with the crop should not be a serious limitation. In the case of C. alliodora, which is not pruned, nutrient storage in the tree stems, especially of K, is a potential limiting factor to both crop and tree productivity.
It is concluded that, in fertilized plantations of cacao and coffee, litter productivity is a more important shade tree characteristic than N fixation.
Nitrogen inputs to the coffee ecosystem are dominated by additions of fertilizer-N (100–300 kg N ha−1 yr−1). Small nitrogen inputs from rains and variable from inputs fixation by the leguminous shade trees can amount to 1–40 kg N ha−1 yr−1. Organic matter mineralization can be an important nitrogen source also.
Nitrogen losses from the system include removal of N in the harvest (15–90 kg N ha−1 yr−1), the removal of coffee and shade tree prunings for firewood, losses from erosion, leaching losses and gaseous losses. Unfortunately, very little information exists for leaching and gaseous losses and for the factors that regulate these processes.
The overall nitrogen cycle in shaded coffee plantings includes three interrelated subsystems. These are the coffee, shade and weeds subcycles.
Soil fertility is de®ned as the ability of a soil to provide the conditions required for plant growth. It is a result of the physical, chemical and biological processes that act together to provide nutrients, water, aeration and stability to the plant, as well as freedom from any substances that may inhibit growth. Within this de®nition, it is useful to distinguish between those components of fertility which change relatively slowly, perhaps over the course of a rotation, or in some cases, decades, and the more immediate contribution from materials such as fertilizers and manures. The term `inherent fertility' is used to describe these more stable characteristics, while recognising that they are, to a large extent, products of soil management. We conclude that, although nutrient management in organically managed soils is fundamentally different to soils managed conventionally, the underlying processes supporting soil fertility are not. The same nutrient cycling processes operate in organically farmed soils as those that are farmed conventionally although their relative importance and rates may differ. Nutrient pools in organically farmed soils are also essentially the same as in conventionally managed soils but, in the absence of regular fertilizer inputs, nutrient reserves in less-available pools will be of greater signi®cance. DEFRA
Special issue - Soil fertility in organically managed soils This paper reviews information from the literature and case studies to investigate whether productivity in organic systems is restricted by the supply of available N during the major phases of crop growth. Organic systems have the potential to supply adequate amounts of available N to meet crop demand through the incorporation of leys, N rich cash crop residues and uncomposted manures. However, this is seldom achieved because leys are only incorporated once every few years and organically produced crop residues and manures tend to have low N contents and slow mineralization rates. N availability could be improved by delaying ley incorporation until spring, applying uncomposted manures at the start of spring growth, transferring some manure applications from the ley phase to arable crops, preventing cover crops from reaching a wide C:N ratio and better matching crop type with the dynamics of N availability. DEFRA
Conditions de durabilit´ e d’un syst` eme agraire caf´ eicole: bilan des transferts de mati` ere organique ` a l’´ echelle de la colline, au Buyenzi (Burundi)
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