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Unofficial road building in the Brazilian Amazon: Dilemmas and models for road governance
Abstract and Figures
Unofficial roads form dense networks in landscapes, generating a litany of negative ecological outcomes, but in frontier areas they are also instrumental in local livelihoods and community development. This trade-off poses dilemmas for the governance of unofficial roads. Unofficial road building in frontier areas of the Brazilian Amazon illustrates the challenges of ‘road governance.’ Both state-based and community-based governance models exhibit important liabilities for governing unofficial roads. Whereas state-based governance has experienced difficulties in adapting to specific local contexts and interacting effectively with local peoples, community-based governance has a mixed record owing to social inequalities and conflicts among local interest groups. A state-community hybrid model may offer more effective governance of unofficial road building by combining the oversight capacity of the state with locally-grounded community management via participatory decision-making.
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... As políticas de desenvolvimento implantadas no país nos anos 70 incluem projetos integrados de colonização (PIC) na Amazônia, que envolveram a construção de rodovias ofi ciais (PERZ et al., 2007). Foram observados apenas 39% de área fl orestada no assentamentos da região, contra 58% de solo exposto e áreas queimadas. ...
... Os principais exemplos de estradas ofi ciais na Amazônia brasileira que levaram à disseminação do desmatamento na região são a Rodovia Transamazônica (BR-230), e a BR-364, que atravessa o Estado de Rondônia (fi guras 4 e 5). Nestes casos, foram construídas, a cada 5 km às margens das rodovias primárias, estradas vicinais perpendiculares, com cerca de 10 km de extensão cada, formando uma arquitetura conhecida como "espinha de peixe" (PERZ et al., 2007). Como a migração espontânea levou a uma demanda por terras além do que era acessível pelas estradas ofi ciais, os colonos passaram a abrir trilhas que procuravam seguir o trajeto planejado pelo Estado, com o objetivo de reivindicar as propriedades por meio de grupos de pressão que gradualmente conquistavam reconhecimento público (PERZ et al., 2007). ...
... Nestes casos, foram construídas, a cada 5 km às margens das rodovias primárias, estradas vicinais perpendiculares, com cerca de 10 km de extensão cada, formando uma arquitetura conhecida como "espinha de peixe" (PERZ et al., 2007). Como a migração espontânea levou a uma demanda por terras além do que era acessível pelas estradas ofi ciais, os colonos passaram a abrir trilhas que procuravam seguir o trajeto planejado pelo Estado, com o objetivo de reivindicar as propriedades por meio de grupos de pressão que gradualmente conquistavam reconhecimento público (PERZ et al., 2007). ...
Informações acerca de fontes e sumidouros de carbono podem ser inferidas a partir de variações nas concentrações de CO2 atmosférico observadas via modelagem com imagens de satélite multiespectrais. Este estudo utilizou a relação (aqui chamada de CO2flux) entre dois índices normalizados de vegetação, o NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index) e o PRI (Photochemical Reflectance Index), para estimar as áreas fotossinteticamente ativas, bem como as áreas sem atividade fotossintética, de terras indígenas e assentamentos rurais situados na região da Amazônia Legal conhecida como "Arco do Desflorestamento", considerada crítica para o desmatamento. Os resultados permitiram confirmar a eficiência das terras indígenas, aqui entendidas como áreas protegidas, na conservação da cobertura florestal, em taxas que superam 90% de vegetação fotossinteticamente ativa. As modalidades de assentamento tradicionais apresentaram grande perda de cobertura florestal, não cumprindo os percentuais de preservação estabelecidos na legislação ambiental (a reserva legal é de 80% para a Amazônia) em algumas regiões (apenas 39% de área vegetada em Rondônia, e 52% no Noroeste do Maranhão). No entanto, as modalidades de assentamento com viés sustentável, implantadas mais recentemente na Amazônia, se mostraram como uma alternativa interessante para a região, ao apresentarem altos índices de vegetação fotossinteticamente ativa. No Oeste do Pará e no Sul do Amazonas, onde predominam estes assentamentos, o percentual de área florestada foi de 81,3% e 80%, respectivamente.
... Entonces, para explicar la fragmentación forestal emergente, este capítulo considera cómo los caminos y propiedades agrícolas surgen espacialmente en la selva tropical primaria que previamente no conocía de trazos viales ni privatización del territorio. Para mantener la coherencia con la literatura, nos referimos a los caminos del sistema federal y de los estados federales como oficiales, y a los construidas por los ciudadanos particulares como no oficiales (Brandão & Souza, 2006;Perz et al., 2007;Perz, Overdevest, et al., 2007;Perz et al., 2005). ...
... Entonces, para explicar la fragmentación forestal emergente, este capítulo considera cómo los caminos y propiedades agrícolas surgen espacialmente en la selva tropical primaria que previamente no conocía de trazos viales ni privatización del territorio. Para mantener la coherencia con la literatura, nos referimos a los caminos del sistema federal y de los estados federales como oficiales, y a los construidas por los ciudadanos particulares como no oficiales (Brandão & Souza, 2006;Perz et al., 2007;Perz, Overdevest, et al., 2007;Perz et al., 2005). ...
Se centra en la Amazonía sudoeste contemporánea (es decir, desde el año 2000), un período en el que los cambios se han acelerado notablemente porque las fuerzas motrices claves se han intensificado y los procesos de cambio han sido, a su vez, modificados, tanto en su estructura como en su ritmo.
... Furthermore, due to data limitations, we focused our analysis on official road types (IGAC, 2016). Although this encompasses most roads in Colombia, it leaves out unofficial and illegal roads, which are a growing problem in the neotropics (Perz et al., 2007). The exclusion of such roads may underestimate the true extent of the transportation network and therefore its impact on primate populations. ...
Primates are declining worldwide and rapid infrastructure expansion, particularly roads, threatens their habitat. New roads fragment habitats allowing anthropogenic activities to occur in once pristine ecosystems; this is particularly impactful in tropical areas with high endemic biodiversity, as is occurring with primates in Colombia. However, temporal assessments of how roads impact local biodiversity are rare. We conducted a comprehensive assessment of the exposure of Colombian primates to roads from 1970 to 2015. Using a spatially explicit and species‐specific approach, we estimated the critical road density and the critical patch size primate species can withstand before going locally extinct. Then, overlapping 15 primate species (~40% of the primate species present in Colombia) ranges with Colombia's road networks over time, we determined the road expansion scope within each habitat and consequent fragmentation. Comparing the species critical road density and patch size, we determined the degree of road exposure of each species over time and its vulnerability to local extinction. Our results show that between 1970 and 2015, there were nearly 40 000 km ² where at least one species was at risk of local extinction, due to road expansion, principally in the Andean and Caribbean regions. Primates in these regions faced the greatest exposure to road impacts, with an average 16% increase in the amount of affected habitat during this period. Species in most need of conservation based on road exposure rankings are: Cebus versicolor , Aotus griseimembra , Ateles hybridus , Saguinus leucopus and Saguinus oedipus . Our study contributes to understanding road impacts on local biodiversity in one of the biodiversity hotspots across the tropics and highlights the need of infrastructure accounting for the necessary mitigation and conservation actions.
... Desde os primórdios da humanidade, as estradas exercem um papel-chave no desenvolvimento da sociedade, pois promovem a integração e a defesa do território, facilitando o acesso, o escoamento e o transporte de bens e pessoas (OLIVEIRA Neto & NOGUEIRA, 2016;PERZ et al., 2007). Até 2050, prevê-se que sejam construídos 25 milhões de quilômetros de rodovias pavimentadas no mundo (DULAC, 2013;LAURANCE et al., 2014). ...
Para reforçar as estratégias de implementação de mecanismos de salvaguarda da biodiversidade do nosso estado, reduzindo a morte de animais silvestres e garantindo a segurança dos que trafegam nas rodovias sul-mato-grossenses, a Secretaria de Estado de Infraestrutura (SEINFRA), por meio do Projeto Estrada Viva e da colaboração de instituições ligadas à Ecologia de Transportes, elaborou este Manual de Orientações Técnicas contendo medidas de redução de colisões veiculares com a fauna silvestre nas rodovias estaduais do Mato Grosso do Sul.
... Policy implications of the empirical analysis presented in this work are grounded in the mutual interaction between population distribution, urban concentration, and municipal size, with a specific focus on expanding metropolitan regions [125]. In line with the empirical findings of our work, further studies matching novel methodological frameworks and technical improvements in measurement and official statistics, are especially necessary to demonstrate the role of economic and social structural adjustment strategies fostering economic and social development at the local level [126][127][128]. In this perspective, council size and regional location are important factors of overall development not only in light of economic performance but also in terms of environmental sustainability, as rapidly growing literature shows [60]. ...
In the search for a better administrative functioning as a key dimension of economic performances, changes in municipal boundaries and the creation (or suppression) of local administrative units reflect a progressive adjustment to a spatially varying population size and density. With intense population growth, municipal size reflects the overall amount (and spatial concentration) of services and infrastructures, being functionally related with agglomeration economies, land availability for building, and specific sociodemographic attributes of local communities. Based on these premises, the intrinsic relationship between settlement expansion, population growth, and municipal size in a metropolitan region of Southern Europe (Attica, hosting the Greater Athens’ area in Central Greece) was investigated in this study over nearly one century as a contribution to a refined investigation of the (changing) organization of local administrative units under a complete metropolitan cycle from urbanization to reurbanization. Based on descriptive statistics, mapping, (parametric and nonparametric) correlation coefficients, and econometric techniques, a quantitative analysis of the relationship between population size and density and municipal area provides pivotal knowledge to policy and planning adjustments toward a more balanced spatial distribution of population and administered land among local government units. Together with a slight decrease in the average municipal size over time, the average population density per municipal unit increased systematically, with a considerable reduction in spatial heterogeneity of settlements. The observed goodness-of-fit of the linear model explaining municipal area with population density, increased significantly over time. Empirical results of our study indicate that municipal size has slowly adjusted to population density across metropolitan areas, determining an imbalanced spatial distribution of resident population and a supposedly less efficient government partition. The recent administrative reform of local authorities in Greece (the so-called ‘Kallikratis’ law) seems to consolidate–rather than rebalance this organizational structure over space, reflecting spatially polarized settlements. Such conditions represent a base for informed analysis of the spatial structure of local administrative units as a pivotal element of economic sustainability and may contribute to the debate on the optimal size of municipalities at both urban and metropolitan scales of governance.
... Desde os primórdios da humanidade, as estradas exercem um papel-chave no desenvolvimento da sociedade, pois promovem a integração e a defesa do território, facilitando o acesso, o escoamento e o transporte de bens e pessoas (OLIVEIRA Neto & NOGUEIRA, 2016;PERZ et al., 2007). Até 2050, prevê-se que sejam construídos 25 milhões de quilômetros de rodovias pavimentadas no mundo (DULAC, 2013;LAURANCE et al., 2014). ...
Para reforçar as estratégias de implementação de mecanismos de salvaguarda da
biodiversidade do nosso estado, reduzindo a morte de animais silvestres e garantindo a
segurança dos que trafegam nas rodovias sul-mato-grossenses, a Secretaria de Estado de Infraestrutura (SEINFRA), por meio do Projeto Estrada Viva1 e da colaboração de instituições ligadas à Ecologia de Transportes, elaborou este Manual de Orientações Técnicas contendo medidas de redução de colisões veiculares com a fauna silvestre nas rodovias estaduais do Mato Grosso do Sul.
O Manual é fruto de estudos e troca de expertise de técnicos que integram um Grupo de
Trabalho Interinstitucional formado pela equipe do Projeto Estrada Vida, por integrantes de instituições governamentais, da comunidade científica e do terceiro setor, e traz diretrizes técnicas de elaboração para os novos projetos viários estaduais, bem como a aplicação prática em algumas obras já em execução, a fim de tornar os empreendimentos viários do governo do Mato Grosso do Sul de acordo com o real conceito de rodovias mais seguras para todos.
Além disso, essa iniciativa está alinhada com os Objetivos de Desenvolvimento Sustentável (ODS) definidos pela Organização das Nações Unidas, para promover uma mobilidade segura e sustentável.
Com isso, avançamos na busca de um novo cenário nas rodovias estaduais, de forma que todos os envolvidos nesse processo merecem um agradecimento especial pela colaboração em prol do objetivo comum de proteger nossos animais e aumentar a segurança dos usuários de nossas estradas: Projeto Estrada Viva, Instituto de Conservação de Animais Silvestres (ICAS), Núcleo de Ecologia de Rodovias e Ferrovias (NERF-UFRGS), Rede de Especialistas em Ecologia de Transportes (REET Brasil), ViaFAUNA Consultoria Ambiental, AMPARA Silvestre, Caipora Cooperativa de Trabalho para Conservação e Proteção dos Recursos Naturais, Falco AMBIENTAL, Projeto Bonito Não Atropela, Fondation Segré e IMASUL.
... Intuitively and empirically, many public agents and researchers have already realized the importance of freight for deforestation in the Amazon and argue against the construction of some highways (NEPSTAD et al., 2001;SOARES-FILHO et al., 2004;PERZ et al., 2007). ...
The main objective was to recreate the von Thünen model using the Agent-Based Model (ABM) to remove the hypothesis of representative agents from the original model and consider the existence of heterogeneous agents. Our model had three parts: an ad hoc equation, the von Thünen model, and the final ABM model. We use the ad hoc equation to describe the profit behavior of a representative agent and, later, insert it into the von Thünen model. Then this modified von Thünen model was used to create the final ABM model. The results reinforced the importance of freight costs for new productive areas' occupation (and deforestation). The ABM model was also able to recreate the main result of the original von Thünen model, which is the formation of concentric production rings around the city so that the most profitable productive activities occupy the inner rings. Furthermore, this model generated an additional result that could not be recreated with the models without interaction between the agents: due to this interaction, we observed the formation of areas of “poverty” in the countryside. Instead of farmers focusing on their aptitudes to guide their decisions, they focused on the decisions of their closest neighbors (something similar to herd behavior). This behavior led someones to make negative profits until they chose to leave the farm (we call this pattern the “halo of poverty”). Finally, it is essential to say that our work is purely theoretical but that all our codes are available and can be used to carry out further theoretical and empirical research.
The code is available at the electronic address: \url{x}
... Some holdings were larger for agricultural enterprises (Walker 2003;Walker et al. 2004;Perz et al. 2007a). Title would be awarded if the farm conformed to the colonization plan (Perz et al. 2007b) and is shown to be productive in two years. Forest clearing is done in the summer, for burning biomass as fertilizer, since soil fertility is low (Moran 1981). ...
Two related single-valued landscape fragmentation indices D and F are proposed, based on patch aggregation, shape complexity, and percent of the focal pixels on the landscape, and are computed using Fragstats metrics on a colonization landscape continuously fragmented over 36 years. The same was done for two existing single-valued fragmentation indices, i.e., the Matheron index based solely on normalized unlike joins, and the Normalized Hypsometric Curve (NHMC) index from GUIDOS Toolbox. All were plotted chronologically, and also against percent non-forest (%nf) of the landscape, and the trajectories were compared for behavior. The NHMC index starts high even if deforestation is low, and continues increasing even further as deforestation continues, while the other three indices all start close to zero and increase gradually. F mimics D very closely, and the Matheron index only behaves differently from F and D at the end of the data range. The deviation may be due to patch aggregation, which the Matheron index does not consider. An accepted single-valued fragmentation index computed from Fragstats landscape metrices could allow for cross-study comparisons relating fragmentation with any other attribute on or of the landscape, hopefully advancing the science of fragmentation in landscape ecology as cross-study generalizations would now be possible.
... Some holdings were larger for agricultural enterprises (Walker 2003;Walker et al. 2004;Perz et al. 2007a). Title would be awarded if the farm conformed to the colonization plan (Perz et al. 2007b) and is shown to be productive in two years. Forest clearing is done in the summer, for burning biomass as fertilizer, since soil fertility is low (Moran 1981). ...
Two related single-valued landscape fragmentation indices D and F are proposed, based on patch aggregation, shape complexity, and percent of the focal pixels on the landscape, and are computed using Fragstats metrics on a colonization landscape continuously fragmented over 36 years. The same was done for two existing single-valued fragmentation indices, i.e., the Matheron index based solely on normalized unlike joins, and the Normalized Hypsometric Curve (NHMC) index from GUIDOS Toolbox. All were plotted chronologically, and also against percent non-forest (%nf) of the landscape, and the trajectories were compared for behavior. The NHMC index starts high even if deforestation is low, and continues increasing even further as deforestation continues, while the other three indices all start close to zero and increase gradually. F mimics D very closely, and the Matheron index only behaves differently from F and D at the end of the data range. The deviation may be due to patch aggregation, which the Matheron index does not consider. An accepted single-valued fragmentation index computed from Fragstats landscape metrices could allow for cross-study comparisons relating fragmentation with any other attribute on or of the landscape, hopefully advancing the science of fragmentation in landscape ecology as cross-study generalizations would now be possible.
Neste trabalho, os autores apresentam uma descrição sobre o mogno em toda a sua área de ocorrência natural na América do Sul e América Central, com ênfase em uma pesquisa conduzida no Brasil. O livro apresenta os fatores que influenciam na regeneração do mogno e traz recomendações para o manejo desta espécie.
In the north-western Peruvian Amazon, a new road has
recently been constructed to link the city of Iquitos with
the town of Nauta. The road crosses lands that are
remarkably heterogeneous in terms of ecological
conditions, comprising distinctive soil types from
extremely poor to relatively fertile. Although this reality
contributes to the land use potential and human
carrying capacity of each place, deforestation of road
margins appears equally intensive on all types of land.
In the mid-1990s, two dead-end roads starting from both
urban centres were characterized by distinctive zones of
resource exploitation, with a road-free section of
primary forest in between. A few years later, the
separate road ends were linked by a dirt road that served
only occasional traffic, but introduced significant new
settlement. Various developmental trends evidence
incoherent resource management and momentary
public support in the region. By promoting diverse economic
activities that reflect environmental conditions in
the initial land use planning and land allocation, most
sections along this road could be considered economically
valuable for purposes such as sustainable forestry,
tourism, agroforestry and, in suitable sites, intensive
agriculture. To promote the more sustainable uses,
thorough environmental legislation, administrative
guidelines and follow-up based on an implicit mechanism
of learning from previous experiences should be
implemented. At the local level, there are some
important initiatives to support such development,
including ecological and economic zoning. However,
these measures might be too late to prevent the destructive
practices so common in many parts of Amazonia.
This title was first published in 2003: Despite their growing political significance, the linkages between local resource management and the global political economy are often poorly understood. This book addresses these linkages in a grounded analysis of extractive reserves: areas in Brazil set aside for local populations who depend on natural resources for their livelihood. Extractive reserves are the result of the struggle of the rubber tappers for control over their natural resources and worldwide concern with the conservation of the Amazon Rainforest. The author examines their significance for Brazil as a pioneering legislative and policy initiative to combine conservation with productive use of natural resources, to recognize common property rights to natural resources, and to support traditional populations’ modes of production. Extractive Reserves in Brazilian Amazonia examines the formation and institutional sustainability of the reserves, and in so doing provides a valuable insight into the relationship between local institutions and the wider socio-political and economic context with regard to forest management.
Classical views of European integration have been shaken by the evolution of the past decade. It has become clear that the traditional division of tasks between the European Union and its Member States, and between the various European institutions no longer provides a valid description of European policy making. As the EU has become a major actor in the field of risk regulation, new institutional and other actors such as scientific experts and transnational bureaucratic networks increasingly play a major role. This book considers the underlying forces that have brought about such change and critically analyses the responses of the European institutions. Various chapters explore the constitutional and the administrative law dimensions of the developing European market governance, and they consider the changes that have occurred from the perspective of both legal and social theory.
Abstract A huge road network with vehicles ramifies across the land, representing a surprising frontier of ecology. Species-rich roadsides are conduits for few species. Roadkills are a premier mortality source, yet except for local spots, rates rarely limit population size. Road avoidance, especially due to traffic noise, has a greater ecological impact. The still-more-important barrier effect subdivides populations, with demographic and probably genetic consequences. Road networks crossing landscapes cause local hydrologic and erosion effects, whereas stream networks and distant valleys receive major peak-flow and sediment impacts. Chemical effects mainly occur near roads. Road networks interrupt horizontal ecological flows, alter landscape spatial pattern, and therefore inhibit important interior species. Thus, road density and network structure are informative landscape ecology assays. Australia has huge road-reserve networks of native vegetation, whereas the Dutch have tunnels and overpasses perforating road barriers to enhance ecological flows. Based on road-effect zones, an estimated 15–20% of the United States is ecologically impacted by roads.
This article addresses the question of whether and how participation in government promotes the conditions for participants to engage in the open-ended and public-minded discussion heralded by democratic theorists. Ethnographic evidence shows how participants in assemblies of the "participatory budget" in the city of Porto Alegre, Brazil, created open-ended and public-minded discussion in two of the city's poor districts. The urban poor of Latin American have often been treated as unlikely candidates for democratic engagement, but in these meetings participants regularly carved out spaces for civic discourse and deliberation, deploying a language of the commonality of needs as a vocabulary of public interest. In a district with organized networks of civil society, experienced community activists played an important role in curtailing conflict, while in a district without such networks, the assemblies were severely disrupted at times by virtue of being the "only place in the community" that could serve as a staging ground for some participants to manage their reputations. A comparison with a prior period in both districts shows that before the budgeting assemblies were created it was difficult to sustain any kind of regular meeting place beyond individual neighborhoods to carry out these discussions. The notion of the "public sphere" is broadened, calling for a revision of the stark separation of state and civil society in democratic theory.