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Decline of the Endangered Barbary macaque Macaca sylvanus in the cedar forest of the Middle Atlas Mountains, Morocco

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The Barbary macaque Macaca sylvanus, categorized as Endangered on the IUCN Red List, is the only macaque species found outside Asia. Conservation concern for the species arises from habitat loss, overgrazing, cutting and collection of firewood and fodder, drought, and the illegal pet trade. Population estimates since 1975 suggest an overall decline. Macaques are considered economic pests in the Middle Atlas of Morocco because they strip cedar Cedrus atlantica bark. The Moroccan department of Eaux et Forêts considers the stripping a serious threat to the cedar forests and has suggested that the macaque population is increasing. The aims of this study were therefore to determine the current status of the macaque in the Middle Atlas and to assess the contradictory claim that the Barbary macaque population is increasing versus the conclusions of a 2002 study that the population is decreasing. We conducted 244 km of line transects from June to December 2005 in the Middle Atlas. Our results indicate densities of 12.1–28.2 km−2. These estimates are lower than earlier estimates of 43–70 km−2 and corroborate the results of the 2002 survey indicating that the macaque population is in decline. Human-induced habitat loss and capture of infants for the pet trade appear to be the two main factors driving the decline. We make recommendations to mitigate these threats.
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Decline of the Barbary macaque Macaca sylvanus in
the cedar forest of the Middle Atlas Mountains,
Morocco
Els van Lavieren and Serge A. Wich
Abstract The Barbary macaque Macaca sylvanus, catego-
rized as Endangered on the IUCN Red List, is the only
macaque species found outside Asia. Conservation concern
for the species arises from habitat loss, overgrazing, cutting
and collection of firewood and fodder, drought, and the
illegal pet trade. Population estimates since 1975 suggest an
overall decline. Macaques are considered economic pests
in the Middle Atlas of Morocco because they strip cedar
Cedrus atlantica bark. The Moroccan department of Eaux
et Fore
ˆts considers the stripping a serious threat to the
cedar forests and has suggested that the macaque popula-
tion is increasing. The aims of this study were therefore to
determine the current status of the macaque in the Middle
Atlas and to assess the contradictory claim that the Barbary
macaque population is increasing versus the conclusions
of a 2002 study that the population is decreasing. We
conducted 244 km of line transects from June to December
2005 in the Middle Atlas. Our results indicate densities of
12.1–28.2 km
-2
. These estimates are lower than earlier
estimates of 43–70 km
-2
and corroborate the results of the
2002 survey indicating that the macaque population is in
decline. Human-induced habitat loss and capture of infants
for the pet trade appear to be the two main factors driving
the decline. We make recommendations to mitigate these
threats.
Keywords Barbary macaque, decline, density, habitat de-
struction, livestock, Morocco.
Introduction
Once widespread throughout North Africa, the Barbary
macaque Macaca sylvanus, the only macaque species
found outside Asia, is now restricted to forest patches in
northern Morocco and Algeria. Conservation concern for
this macaque has arisen because of habitat loss from
logging, overgrazing of the forest undergrowth and regen-
erating trees by livestock, cutting and collection of firewood
and fodder, drought, and the illegal pet trade (Taub, 1975,
1977; Deag, 1977; Fa, 1984; Camperio Ciani, 1986; Menard &
Vallet, 1993; Van Lavieren, 2004,2008; Waters et al., 2007).
Conservation measures such as restricting access of grazing
animals, zonation with fencing, forest guarding and educa-
tion on sustainable use of the forest have been proposed and
partly implemented (Drucker, 1984; Taub, 1984; Camperio
Ciani et al., 2003,2005; Van Lavieren, 2004,2008). These
measures have not yet mitigated threats to the Barbary
macaque (Van Lavieren, 2004; Camperio Ciani et al., 2005)
and the species continues to decline (Camperio Ciani et al.,
2005). The species is consequently now categorized as
Endangered on the IUCN Red List (IUCN, 2008) and is
listed on CITES appendix II (CITES Trade Database Report,
2006). Estimates of Barbary macaque populations and
densities since 1975, although obtained with different meth-
odologies (Table 1), suggest an overall decline.
Macaques are considered economic pests in the Middle
Atlas because they strip and consume cedar bark. Bark-
stripping behaviour is a survival strategy when water is
scarce (Camperio Ciani et al., 2001) or when the macaques
are in search of minerals or nutrients that are otherwise
unavailable (Menard & Quarro, 1999). Because bark strip-
ping can kill young trees, increase the vulnerability of
trees to disease, and decrease timber quality and volume the
Moroccan department of Eaux et Fore
ˆts considers the strip-
ping to be a serious threat to cedar forests (Jensen, 1995;
M. Chouhani, pers. comm., 2006). Conversations in 2003
and 2004 between EvL and Eaux et Fore
ˆts officials indicated
they believed the macaque population was increasing.
The aim of the study reported here was to determine the
current status of the Barbary macaque in the central Middle
Atlas region to assess the contradictory claim that the
Barbary macaque population in the Middle Atlas is in-
creasing versus the conclusions of a 2002 study (Camperio
Ciani et al., 2005) that the population is decreasing.
Methods
The study took place in the Central Middle Atlas region of
Morocco in the regions of Fore
ˆt d’Azrou, Sidi M’Guild and
Michlife
`ne (Fig. 1). The area consists of high cedar Cedrus
atlantica forest, mixed cedar/oak (Quercus rotundifolia and
Quercus faginea) forests and pure holm oak Quercus ilex
forests. Surveys were carried out over a total of 6months
between June and December 2005, subdivided into three
2-month periods (referred to here as periods 1,2and 3). The
first period covered the birth season of Barbary macaques
and the last partly covered the breeding season.
E
LS VAN
L
AVIEREN
(corresponding author) Erfstraat 23, 6668 AD, Randwijk,
The Netherlands. E-mail elsvanlanlavieren@gmail.com
S
ERGE
A. W
ICH
Great Ape Trust of Iowa, Des Moines, Iowa, USA
Received 9April 2008. Revision requested 4June 2008.
Accepted 12 August 2008.
ª2009 Fauna & Flora International,
Oryx
, 0(0), 1–6 doi:10.1017/S0030605309990172 Printed in the United Kingdom
Line transects were used for the surveys because they are
a systematic, objective and rapid method to compare
population parameters between habitats (Buckland et al.,
2001). Transects previously established by Camperio Ciani
et al. (2001 )
AU1 were surveyed (Fig. 1): Sehb, Michlife
`ne 1and 2,
Affenourir, and Sidi M’Guild. Michlife
`ne 1was surveyed
only twice, in the first period, but not thereafter because we
discovered that shepherds had not observed macaques
there since 2004. These transects were walked at least four
times per 2-month period, in the same direction. In ad-
dition we established the transect Michlife
`ne road (Fig. 1)to
extend the area sampled. In addition to these transects we
chose 27 locations and surveyed them only once using
transects with an average length of 1km; these were added to
extend the area sampled in periods 2and 3. The sample
effort by region, period and transect are given in Table 2.
The total forested area of the three regions surveyed is
386.25 km
2
(M. Chouhani, Eaux et Fore
ˆts, pers. comm.
2005) but A. Camperio Ciani (pers. comm., 2006) believes,
after conducting several surveys in the region, that only
c. 50% of this area is suitable macaque habitat. We therefore
present our calculations of macaque densities based on this
smaller area.
All transects were walked with a Global Positioning
System (GPS) and a compass and, initially, some trees were
sprayed with a small red mark to ensure that the same
routes were followed in subsequent surveys. All transects
were walked by EvL and one of two Moroccan assistants
trained in spotting macaques.
For each macaque sighting we recorded the GPS co-
ordinates, time of day, height above ground of the first
individual observed, perpendicular distance to group cen-
tre, age and sex of all individuals, distance of first individual
to observer, distance of group centre to observer, behav-
iour, habitat type and observation duration. Estimates of
group size were possible because group sizes were relatively
small and all individuals could usually be observed. All
distances were either estimated by eye or with a measuring
tape when undergrowth prevented accurate estimation.
Prior to the surveys EvL, who estimated all distances, un-
derwent a training phase to ensure that estimated distances
corresponded to actual distances (to the nearest metre).
Every individual of each group was recorded, allowing
calculation of both group and individual densities.
FIG. 1 The study area in the Atlas mountains of Morocco,
indicating the locations of the six permanent transects (Table 2).
The shaded rectangle on the inset indicates the location of the
main map in Morocco.
TABLE 1Population and density estimates for the Barbary macaque Macaca sylvanus since 1974.
Location Population/density km
-2
Year of survey Source
Morocco 17,000 Unknown Taub (1975)
10,000 2002 Camperio Ciani et al. (2003)
6,000–10,000 Unknown Ross (2004)
5,000 A. Camperio Ciani, (pers. comm., 2006)
Middle Atlas cedar forest of Morocco 70 km
-2
1968 Deag (1974, 1984)
43 km
-2
1977 Taub (1977)
28 km
-2
1994 Camperio Ciani et al. (2005)
As low as 7–10 km
-2
2002 Camperio Ciani et al. (2005)
Global Up to 21,500 Unknown Taub (1975)
10,000–16,000 1992 Lilly & Mehlman (1993)
15,000 Unknown Von Segesser et al. (1999)
E. van Lavieren and S. A. Wich2
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Transects were not surveyed during heavy rain or snow,
when observation quality would be compromised. Distance
sampling analysis followed National Research Council
(1981), Buckland et al. (2001) and Marshall et al. (2008).
Although repeat transects should in some cases be avoided
(Buckland et al., 2001) we surveyed transects more than
once because we wished to obtain repeated sightings of
groups per transect and thus more than one measure of
perpendicular distance per macaque group for each transect.
Macaque densities were calculated according to the
formula (National Research Council, 1981): d5n/(2ll),
where d5density (km
-2
), n 5total numbers of observa-
tions in the sample (individual group sightings), l5tran-
sect length (km) and l5the effective strip width to the
group centre (km), with lcalculated using Distance
4.1
(Thomas et al., 2004). Following the recommendations of
Buckland et al. (2001) data were truncated and grouped
before analysis. Up to 10% of the most distant perpendic-
ular values were considered for truncation to minimize the
influence of outliers (Buckland et al., 2001). Detection
intervals of perpendicular distances were varied to obtain
the best fit of the detection curve models; histograms were
analysed with cut-off points at 4-, 5-, 6-, 7-, 8- and 9-m
intervals. Five recommended models were used (Buckland
et al., 2001): uniform with cosine expansions, half-normal
with cosine or hermite expansions and hazard rate with
either cosine or simple polynomial expansions. Model
selection was based on Akaike’s information criterion
(AIC); the model that gave the lowest AIC value was used
to estimate l(Buckland et al., 2001). However, when
a model with the lowest AIC value also gave significant
goodness-of-fit values, the model with the second lowest
AIC value was given priority because significant goodness-
of-fit statistics may indicate that the wrong model is being
fitted to the detection histogram (Buckland et al., 2001).
Data from 47 observations were used for estimating l.
Perpendicular distance data from the various regions were
lumped because there were insufficient estimates of lper
region. To calculate the total number of macaques in the
area we calculated the average macaque density per for-
est region (Table 3) and multiplied these by 50% of the
total area.
Results
Table 2shows the number of replicates per transect, the
total transect lengths that were walked and the total num-
bers of individual macaques observed in each forest and
region, by season.
Of the various models to estimate lthe uniform plus
simple polynomial model with cut-off points at 8-m
intervals provided the best fit to the data and yielded a l
of 40.7(95% confidence interval 535.447.0). The v
2
value
of the goodness of fit was 4.75 (df 56,P50.576).
The density of macaques by region are given in Table 3.
Extrapolating these densities to 50% of the total surface area
of the three regions indicates that most macaques occur in
the Sidi M’Guild and Fore
ˆt d’Azrou areas, and gives an
TABLE 2Details of transects (Fig. 1) surveyed (both established transects surveyed more than once and short transects surveyed only
once) and number of macaques observed, by region and by 2-month period.
Transect (by region)
No. of replicates,
June–July
(total transect length, km)
No. of replicates,
Aug.–Sep. (total
transect length, km)
No. of replicates,
Oct.–Dec. (total transect
length, km)
Total km
surveyed
1
Fore
ˆt d’Azrou
1, Sehb 6 (36.50) 5 (28.02) 4 (24.99) 89.51
2, Affenourir 6 (10.81) 5 (6.8) 4 (5.84) 23.45
Short (n 55)
2
(9.54) (13.41) 22.95
No. macaques (km surveyed) 84 (47.31) 24 (44.36) 37 (44.24) 135.91
Sidi M’Guild
3, Sidi M’Guild 4 (13.98) 5 (14.05) 4 (11.46) 39.49
Short (n 51)
2
(4.47) 4.47
No. macaques (km surveyed) 16 (13.98) 71 (18.52) 23 (11.46) 43.96
Michlife
`ne
4, Michlife
`ne 1 2 (9.87) 0 0 9.87
5, Michlife
`ne 2 4 (13.56) 4 (13.29) 4 (13.38) 40.23
6, Michlife
`ne road 4 (7.24) 2 (6.60) 0 13.84
No. macaques (km surveyed) 48 (30.67) 70 (19.89) 7 (13.38) 63.94
Total transect length 91.96 82.77 69.08 243.81
Total no. macaques 148 165 67
1
Length of individual transects varied because in cloudy weather or heavy foliage the GPS did not always work accurately. Slight deviations from the
transect were corrected immediately but the extra distances walked due to this were added to the transect length.
2
Each of the short transects (of c. 1 km length) were walked only once.
Barbary macaque in Morocco 3
ª2009 Fauna & Flora International,
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, 0(0), 1–6
estimate of the total number of macaques in the surveyed
region of 4,126 (Table 3).
Discussion
For many wildlife species line transect sampling results
in accurate density estimates, although these methods
can produce consistent over- or underestimates for some
species (Whitesides et al., 1988). Because visual estimation
of distances could lead to overestimates (Brugie
`re & Fleury,
2000) EvL trained in estimating distances until there was
a strong correspondence between actual and estimated
distance, and therefore there were no systematic errors in
distance estimation. An additional concern is that, although
measurements of distance to a group’s centre are required,
these may only be accurate when group sizes are small and
groups are habituated (Marshall et al., 2008). Macaque
groups encountered in our study were small, which should
mitigate problems with accuracy related to group size.
Although variation in habituation might be an additional
concern for accurate group size counts, habituation was
such that groups remained where they were and locations
of individuals did not change greatly as a result of our
presence. This is probably the result of the considerable
human activity in most areas where the macaques occur.
We are unable to directly compare our results with those
of Camperio Ciani et al. (2005) because the methods used
to estimate effective strip width differed. We estimated
distance to the group centre and used Distance to de-
termine the best function to estimate l. Camperio Ciani
et al. (2005) estimated las the average distance to the first
sighting of an animal in each group, which varied for each
habitat type. Nevertheless, the two studies produced a sim-
ilar value: an average of 45 m (Camperio Ciani et al., 2005)
and 40.7m (this study).
Our calculated macaque densities of 12.128.2km
-2
(Table 3) are similar to those of Camperio Ciani et al.
(2005): 12 km
-2
(Fore
ˆt d’Azrou) and 20 km
-2
(Sidi M’Guild).
We estimate that the total number of macaques in the area
surveyed is c. 4,000 when the density estimates are extrap-
olated to the total area and taking into consideration that
only c. 50% of these areas contain habitat suitable for
macaques (Camperio Ciani, pers. comm.). According to
Camperio Ciani et al. (2005) only 14% of the total surveyed
area still contains intact forest, with the remaining forest
degraded or highly degraded and the latter unsuitable
habitat for macaques. The macaque densities in degraded
forest was almost half that of densities in intact forest
(Camperio Ciani & Mouna, 2007). Our transects were all
located in areas with relative high macaque densities but
densities differ substantially by region and there are areas
where macaques do not occur (Camperio Ciani et al., 2005).
Thus our extrapolation to the whole region may be an
overestimate.
Although density estimates cannot be compared di-
rectly, both our study and that of Camperio Ciani et al.
(2005) indicate much lower densities than earlier studies
(Deag, 1977; Taub, 1977; Fa, 1984). Taken together, these
results confirm that the macaque population of the Middle
Atlas is decreasing and thus rules out the contradictory
claim of an increasing population. Although our estimates
of macaque density and forest area are now several years
old, there are no more recent estimates of the area of forest
and disturbance continues, making it likely that our esti-
mates of macaque numbers are conservative.
With respect to poaching for the illegal pet trade there is
a role for both Morocco and the European Union. An
estimated 300 infant macaques are smuggled into Europe
annually (Van Lavieren, 2008). The trade needs be tackled
at the source of the problem: the relative ease with which
macaques can be purchased, the lack of control of poaching
in the forest, the open sale of macaques in markets, and the
lack of control at the border between Morocco and Spain.
The national wildlife laws and CITES regulations are in-
sufficiently enforced in Morocco and we recommend that a
sanctuary for confiscated macaques is created in the coun-
try. Any such macaques could form the basis for future
restorations or reintroductions.
TABLE 3Mean group size and density and mean individual density of Barbary macaques, effective strip width (l, with 95% confidence
interval, CI) and total length of the transect surveys (l, from Table 2), and an estimation of the total number of macaques (with 95%
confidence interval) based on the mean individual density extrapolated to 50% of the area potentially inhabitable by macaques (see
Discussion for further details).
Region (area, km
2
)
Mean
group size
Mean group
density (km
-2
)
Mean
individual
density (km
-2
)l(95% CI) l(km)
Total No. of
individuals
(95% CI)
Fore
ˆt d’Azrou (160) 5.8 2.08 12.1 0.0407 (0.0354–0.0470) 135.91 965 (835–1,123)
Sidi M’Guild (220) 9.2 3.07 28.2 0.0407 (0.0354–0.0470) 43.96 3,107 (2,692–3,613)
Michlife
`ne (6.25) 7.2 3.27 23.5 0.0407 (0.0354–0.0470) 63.94 74 (64–86)
Total (386.25) 7 2.8 21.3 0.0407 (0.0354–0.0470) 243.81 4,146 (3,591–4,821)
E. van Lavieren and S. A. Wich4
ª2009 Fauna & Flora International,
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, 0(0), 1–6
The outcome of this study was presented to Eaux et
Fore
ˆts, and a 2-year project (initiated by WWF MedPO and
AAP Sanctuary for exotic animals in The Netherlands) has
commenced that focuses on the recommendations made
here, by Van Lavieren (2008) and by Camperio Ciani &
Mouna (2007). Various actions have been recently taken to
tackle the illegal trade in Barbary macaque.
Acknowledgements
We acknowledge the support of AAP Sanctuary for exotic
animals, in particular David van Gennep, Rikkert Reijnen,
Jack Drenthe, Dana Bezdickova and Ramon Braaf. For
financial support we thank AAP, the Nationale Postcode-
loterij, Holland, and the International Primate Protection
League. For preparation of this research we thank Andrea
Camperio Ciani and Aad van den Berg. For support and
cooperation in Morocco we thank the Institut Scientifique
in Rabat, Morocco, and in particular Prof. Mohamed
Mouna. We also thank Mr Chouhani of Eaux et Fore
ˆts,
Azrou, Morocco, and Karim Ahwash for his help with
fieldwork. For help with analysis we thank Nelly Menard,
Bart van Lavieren, Leoniek Wijngaards and Anna Nekaris.
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Biographical sketches
ELS VAN LAVIEREN is founder of the Moroccan Primate Conserva-
tion foundation and specializes in the care of wild animals in captivity,
wildlife management and primatology. She spent 4years working on
Barbary macaque conservation projects with IUCN, AAP Sanctuary
for exotic animals, and the WWF Mediterranean Programme in
Morocco. SERGE A. WICH has been studying Indonesian and African
primates since 1993. He now focuses on orang-utan research and
conservation, is co-manager of research at the Ketambe Orang-utan
Research Station in Sumatra and a visiting scientist at the Great Ape
Trust of Iowa.
E. van Lavieren and S. A. Wich6
ª2009 Fauna & Flora International,
Oryx
, 0(0), 1–6
... Sustainable Peeling of Kapok Tree (Ceiba pentandra) Bark by the... as sampling units within which we selected chimpanzee activity hot-spots (Lapuente et al. 2016;Vaidyanathan 2011). From October 2014 to October 2015, we used 20 Bushnell HD trophy cams (model 119437). ...
... This is also the case for most African primates that strip bark; for instance, Barbary macaques in Morocco and Algeria are threatening the last wild Cedrus atlantica forests by bark-stripping during dry periods. It has been hypothesized that the main driver of this destructive behavior is to obtain moisture for the bark, as the macaques lack access to good water sources during the bark-peeling periods (Camperio-Ciani et al. 2001;Van Lavieren and Wich, 2009). The destructive bark-stripping caused on pine plantations by blue monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis) in Malawi and chacma baboons in Zimbawe and South Africa is also considered a pest behavior by some authors (Beeson 1987;Bigalke and Hensbergen 2010;Katsvanga et al. 2009). ...
... Back in Comoé, monitoring 20 peeled and 20 untouched trees for 2 years showed no significant difference in the diameter growth rate. We found no reference to mortality caused to bark-peeled trees by chimpanzees in the literature, but smaller tree species can die if the bark is stripped all around the bole by monkeys, bears, or elephants (Beeson 1987;Bigalke and Hensbergen 2010;Camperio-Ciani et al. 2001;Feher et al. 2016;Katsvanga et al. 2009;Seryodkin et al. 2017;Ssali et al. 2012;Van Lavieren and Wich 2009). All these data suggest that the trees recover totally after the peeling and that bark peeling is a sustainable exploitation of this very valuable resource that can probably be carried out for generations, answering our sixth question. ...
Article
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Primates often consume either bark or cambium (inner bark) as a fallback food to complete their diet during periods of food scarcity. Wild chimpanzees exhibit great behavioral diversity across Africa, as studies of new populations frequently reveal. Since 2014, we have been using a combination of camera traps and indirect signs to study the ecology and behavior of wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in Comoé National Park, Ivory Coast, to document and understand the behavioral adaptations that help them to survive in a savanna–forest mosaic landscape. We found that Comoé chimpanzees peel the bark of the buttresses of kapok tree (Ceiba pentandra) trees to eat the cambium underneath. Individuals of all sex/age classes across at least six neighboring communities peeled the bark, but only during the late rainy season and beginning of the dry season, when cambium may represent an important fallback food. Baboons (Papio anubis) also target the same trees but mainly eat the bark itself. Most of the bark-peeling wounds on Ceiba trees healed completely within 2 years, seemingly without any permanent damage. We recorded chimpanzees visiting trees in early stages of wound recovery but leaving them unpeeled. Only 6% of peeled trees (N = 53) were reexploited after a year, suggesting that chimpanzees waited for the rest of the trees to regrow the bark fully before peeling them again, thus using them sustainably. Many human groups of hunter-gatherers and herders exploited cambium sustainably in the past. The observation that similar sustainable bark-peeling behavior evolved in both chimpanzees and humans suggests that it has an important adaptive value in harsh environments when other food sources become seasonally scarce, by avoiding the depletion of the resource and keeping it available for periods of scarcity.
... The Barbary macaque, once endemic to the entirety of North Africa, is now limited to the mountainous areas of Morocco and Algeria (Fodden 2007). Populations of wild Barbary macaques have declined over 50% since the 1980s, primarily due to poaching for the illicit pet trade and loss of habitat (Cameperio Ciani et al. 2005;Camperio Ciani and Mouna 2006;Van Lavieren and Wich 2009;Waters 2014). Nationwide conservation efforts of the Barbary macaque have been historically sporadic due to lack of governmental funding and weak public support. ...
... This species is on the International Union on the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List and classified as endangered (Butynski et al. 2008). However, despite its protected status, Barbary macaque populations continue to decline (Benrabah 2015;Cameperio Ciani et al. 2005;Camperio Ciani and Mouna 2006;El Alami et al. 2013;Ménard et al. 2014;van Lavieren and Wich 2009;Waters 2014). Of greatest concern is the population in the Middle Atlas, where tourism and habituation of macaques has resulted in elevated rates of poaching (Ménard et al. 2014;van Uhm 2016). ...
Thesis
The endangered Barbary macaque (Macaca sylvanus) of North Africa, the only macaque outside of Asia and north of the Sahara, has experienced a continual decline in numbers over the course of several decades. Understanding perceptions of endangered species such as the Barbary macaque and attitudes towards conservation may be critical to conservation initiatives and their durability. Using an ethnoprimatological approach, I investigate perceptions of Barbary macaques as well as macaque conservation in the Rif Mountains of northern Morocco. In doing this, I observed and participated in the practices of Barbary Macaque Awareness and Conservation (BMAC), a Moroccan NGO whose sociocultural approach to macaque conservation seeks to aid both people and macaques. Additionally, I conducted semi-structured interviews (n=24) with urban and rural Moroccans exhibiting various degrees of contact with macaques and BMAC. Results indicate that macaques are commonly viewed as valuable endemic species and seen as important to local ecologies. There were significant differences in how urban and rural experiences shaped their perceptions of macaques. Despite some negative religious connotations, respondent attitudes were positive towards macaques and macaque conservation across all groups. BMAC's interdisciplinary research methods and socio-cultural approach to conservation, which is highly inclusive of local populations, may be a critical model to follow for future primate conservation endeavors.
... They occupy temperate forests including deciduous broadleaf forests, mixed broadleaf and conifer forests, and conifer forests [19]. Apart from the numerous behavioral studies, previous investigations of the Barbary macaque have focused on demography [19][20][21] and trophic ecology [19][20][21][22][23][24] and found that the macaques are highly folivorous with young leaves accounting for the bulk of monthly diet almost year-round. However, and apart from a recent work, little quantitative information is available about the ranging behavior and habitat use of this species. ...
... They occupy temperate forests including deciduous broadleaf forests, mixed broadleaf and conifer forests, and conifer forests [19]. Apart from the numerous behavioral studies, previous investigations of the Barbary macaque have focused on demography [19][20][21] and trophic ecology [19][20][21][22][23][24] and found that the macaques are highly folivorous with young leaves accounting for the bulk of monthly diet almost year-round. However, and apart from a recent work, little quantitative information is available about the ranging behavior and habitat use of this species. ...
Article
Full-text available
Ranging behavior and habitat use reflect the interaction between ecological factors and patterns of the individual behaviors. We investigated these aspects in a crop-raiding group of Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus) between July and August 2012 in a degraded and poor-fruit forest environment in the Upper Ourika valley, western High Atlas mountains, Morocco. We evaluated the influences of the spatial distribution of food resources on ranging behavior and habitat use. Total home range size for the studied group was 24 ha and the mean daily path length was 1420 m, much lower than those reported for most of the other macaque species. Barbary macaques did not use their home ranges uniformly; 50% of location records occurred within 25% of their home range. They use differently the various zones of their home range and more intense occupation of around (cliffs and lower small valley) and within field crops. This can be related to the concentration of food resources in these latters.
... The Barbary macaque, Macaca sylvanus, is among the most threatened primate species in Africa (classified as an endangered species by the IUCN) [21]. This species is subject to high anthropogenic disturbances leading to a dramatic decline in wild populations [22,23]. Currently, there are few studies examining the microbial communities of the gastrointestinal tract of Barbary macaques. ...
Article
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Simple Summary The gut microbiota is very important for animal physiology and health. It has been demonstrated that the gut microbiota composition of several primate species is influenced by a variety of anthropogenic factors. However, these aspects are not documented for the gut microbiota of the endangered wild Barbary macaque. This study is the first to characterize the faecal microbiota of the species and investigate the impact on it of tourist food provisioning by comparing two groups of Barbary macaques: a tourist-provisioned group and a wild-feeding group. Our results revealed the presence of 209 bacterial genera from 17 phyla in the faecal microbiota of Barbary macaques. Firmicutes was the most abundant bacterial phylum, followed by Bacteroidetes and Verrucomicrobia. The tourism activity was associated with a significant alteration of this profile, probably due to tourist provisioning issues. Increasing risks of obesity and illness call for special management measures to reduce the provisioning rate in tourist areas. Abstract Previous research has revealed the gut microbiota profile of several primate species, as well as the impact of a variety of anthropogenic factors, such as tourist food supply, on these bacterial communities. However, there is no information on the gut microbiota of the endangered wild Barbary macaque (Macaca sylvanus). The present study is the first to characterize the faecal microbiota of this species, as well as to investigate the impact of tourist food provisioning on it. A total of 12 faecal samples were collected in two groups of M. sylvanus in the region of Bejaia in Algeria. The first group—a tourist-provisioned one—was located in the tourist area of the Gouraya National Park and the second group—a wild-feeding one—was located in the proximity of the village of Mezouara in the forest of Akfadou. After DNA extraction, the faecal microbiota composition was analysed using 16S rDNA sequencing. Statistical tests were performed to compare alpha diversity and beta diversity between the two groups. Non-metric multidimensional scaling analysis (NMDS) was applied to visualize biodiversity between groups. Behaviour monitoring was also conducted to assess the time allocated to the consumption of anthropogenic food by the tourist-provisioned group. Our results revealed the presence of 209 bacterial genera from 17 phyla in the faecal microbiota of Barbary macaques. Firmicutes was the most abundant bacterial phylum, followed by Bacteroidetes and Verrucomicrobia. On the other hand, the comparison between the faecal microbiota of the two study groups showed that tourism activity was associated with a significant change on the faecal microbiota of M.sylvanus, probably due to diet alteration (with 60% of feeding time allocated to the consumption of anthropogenic food). The potentially low-fibre diet at the tourist site adversely influenced the proliferation of bacterial genera found in abundance in the wild group such as Ruminococcaceae. Such an alteration of the faecal microbiota can have negative impacts on the health status of these animals by increasing the risk of obesity and illness and calls for special management measures to reduce the provisioning rate in tourist areas.
... Endemic, or otherwise small-ranged, species are also potentially vulnerable to climate change (Martínez-Freiría et al., 2013). The main causes of habitat loss and habitat degradation are due to land use changes, with an increasing proportion being used for intense agriculture (Cox et al., 2006;van Lavieren and Wich, 2010). According to Pleguezuelos et al. (2010), harvesting for traditional medicine and entertainment is a serious threat to reptiles in Morocco, particularly to snakes. ...
Article
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Reptiles are traded globally for medicinal purposes. Historic qualitative accounts of reptiles used as medicine in Morocco are numerous, but contemporary quantitative data are rare. In 2013-2014, we surveyed 49 wildlife markets in 20 towns throughout Morocco, plus the Spanish exclaves of Ceuta and Melilla. We recorded 1,586 specimens of at least nine species for sale in 14 of the Moroccan markets with a combined value of about US $100,000. The most prominent markets were those in Marrakesh, Meknes, Casablanca, and Fez, with the former two cites trading equal quantities of dried and live specimens and the latter two trading mainly dried specimens. Common species were the Med-iterranean chameleon (Chamaeleo chamaeleon) with 720 specimens (506 dried, 214 alive) and the Bell's Dabb lizard (Uro-mastyx acanthinura) with 428 specimens (247 dried, 181 alive), both traded in 10 markets, and spur-thighed tortoise (Testudo graeca; 57 carapaces), for sale in eight cities. Over 200 African rock python (Python sebae) skins were identified and may have been illicitly imported from other parts of Africa. The turnover of Mediterranean chameleon and Bell's Dabb lizard specimens after four weeks as measured by repeat surveys was 66% for both species, resulting in an estimated annual turnover of 1,520 chameleons (range 921–2,303) and 775 lizards (range 364–1,174). Despite legal protection and regulations locally within Morocco and internationally through CITES, reptiles are commonly and openly traded for medicinal purposes throughout Morocco. However, traders are not forthcoming in conveying the legal status of these species and restrictions on trade to potential buyers. Increased enforcement of existing wildlife protection legislation is needed to prevent this exploitation from the illegal wildlife trade that could negatively impacts imperiled species.
... Le Rif est occupé depuis le Jbel Moussa jusqu'à la région de Bab Berred par au moins six populations isolées, totalisant plus d'un millier d'animaux, avec plus à l'est au moins une petite population très isolée ; une quarantaine d'animaux ont été relâchés dans le Jbel Gourougou près de Nador en 1985, et les effectifs actuels sont de plusieurs centaines d'animaux (Waters et al. 2007). Dans le Moyen Atlas central, les effectifs sont estimés à 2300-5000 animaux selon les études (Camperio Ciani et al. 2005, Van Lavieren & Wich 2010, Ménard et al. 2013. Les effectifs du Moyen Atlas oriental, où l'espèce est plus localisée, sont plus faibles et non évalués. ...
Article
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Approche intégrative de la 6ème extinction : Influence de l’installation des hommes modernes au Maroc sur l’évolution de la biodiversité des petits vertébrés terrestres Publié dans : Travaux de l'Institut scientifique, Rabat, série Générale Résumé : Bubale (Alcelaphus buselaphus) et Lion (Panthera leo) sont les deux espèces de Mammifères qui ont disparu du Maroc et d'Afrique du Nord dès le début du XXème siècle, victimes des chasseurs européens. Dans les années cinquante, après des tableaux de chasse pouvant dépasser la dizaine d’individus, s’éteignent l’Oryx algazelle (Oryx dammah) et l’Addax (Addax nasomaculatus). La Gazelle dama (Nanger dama) et le Guépard (Acinonyx jubatus) ne leur survivront que quelques décennies. A la fin du siècle ne restaient que quelques spécimens de Panthère (Panthera pardus), espèce vouée à une extinction à court terme, alors que l’avenir du Caracal (Caracal caracal) et du Serval (Leptailurus serval) est très incertain. Gazelle dorcas (Gazella dorcas), Gazelle du Cuvier (Gazella cuvieri), Mouflon à manchettes (Ammotragus lervia), Hyène rayée (Hyaena hyaena), Loutre d’Europe (Lutra lutra) et même Porc-épic (Hystrix cristata) ont subi une forte régression et, pour certains, doivent leur maintien aux mesures de conservation, dont la création d’espaces protégés. Le statut de conservation des autres Carnivores est préoccupant, à commencer par le Phoque moine (Monachus monachus) dont la colonie au sud du Sahara est très isolée et menacée. Chez les petits Mammifères, la Pachyure étrusque (Suncus etruscus) n’a pas été revue depuis les années soixante, le Murin de Capaccini (Myotis capaccinii) est très rare et n’a pas été contacté récemment dans les grottes qu’il fréquentait dans les Beni Snassen. Les colonies de rhinolophes décrites dans les années cinquante ont pour la plupart disparu, les autres Chiroptères cavernicoles ont aussi déserté certains sites. La Gerbille hespérine (Gerbillus hesperinus), isolée dans les dunes littorales de la région d’Essaouira, voit son habitat se réduire au profit des aménagements. L’Ecureuil terrestre du Sénégal (Xerus erythropus) est aussi menacé par l’intensification de l’agriculture dans son aire de répartition limitée à une partie de la plaine du Souss. La principale cause de toutes ces extinctions et régressions est l’anthropisation croissante des milieux naturels, incluant les destructions par la chasse pour les ongulés et le piégeage pour les Carnivores, confortant l’appellation l’anthropocène des derniers millénaires
... Le Rif est occupé depuis le Jbel Moussa jusqu'à la région de Bab Berred par au moins six populations isolées, totalisant plus d'un millier d'animaux, avec plus à l'est au moins une petite population très isolée ; une quarantaine d'animaux ont été relâchés dans le Jbel Gourougou près de Nador en 1985, et les effectifs actuels sont de plusieurs centaines d'animaux (Waters et al. 2007). Dans le Moyen Atlas central, les effectifs sont estimés à 2300-5000 animaux selon les études (Camperio Ciani et al. 2005, Van Lavieren & Wich 2010, Ménard et al. 2013. Les effectifs du Moyen Atlas oriental, où l'espèce est plus localisée, sont plus faibles et non évalués. ...
Article
Full-text available
published in "Travaux de l'Institut scientifique, Rabat, série Générale" Abstract : Bubale (Alcelaphus buselaphus) et Lion (Panthera leo) sont les deux espèces de Mammifères qui ont disparu du Maroc et d'Afrique du Nord dès le début du XXème siècle, victimes des chasseurs européens. Dans les années cinquante, après des tableaux de chasse pouvant dépasser la dizaine d’individus, s’éteignent l’Oryx algazelle (Oryx dammah) et l’Addax (Addax nasomaculatus). La Gazelle dama (Nanger dama) et le Guépard (Acinonyx jubatus) ne leur survivront que quelques décennies. A la fin du siècle ne restaient que quelques spécimens de Panthère (Panthera pardus), espèce vouée à une extinction à court terme, alors que l’avenir du Caracal (Caracal caracal) et du Serval (Leptailurus serval) est très incertain. Gazelle dorcas (Gazella dorcas), Gazelle du Cuvier (Gazella cuvieri), Mouflon à manchettes (Ammotragus lervia), Hyène rayée (Hyaena hyaena), Loutre d’Europe (Lutra lutra) et même Porc-épic (Hystrix cristata) ont subi une forte régression et, pour certains, doivent leur maintien aux mesures de conservation, dont la création d’espaces protégés. Le statut de conservation des autres Carnivores est préoccupant, à commencer par le Phoque moine (Monachus monachus) dont la colonie au sud du Sahara est très isolée et menacée. Chez les petits Mammifères, la Pachyure étrusque (Suncus etruscus) n’a pas été revue depuis les années soixante, le Murin de Capaccini (Myotis capaccinii) est très rare et n’a pas été contacté récemment dans les grottes qu’il fréquentait dans les Beni Snassen. Les colonies de rhinolophes décrites dans les années cinquante ont pour la plupart disparu, les autres Chiroptères cavernicoles ont aussi déserté certains sites. La Gerbille hespérine (Gerbillus hesperinus), isolée dans les dunes littorales de la région d’Essaouira, voit son habitat se réduire au profit des aménagements. L’Ecureuil terrestre du Sénégal (Xerus erythropus) est aussi menacé par l’intensification de l’agriculture dans son aire de répartition limitée à une partie de la plaine du Souss. La principale cause de toutes ces extinctions et régressions est l’anthropisation croissante des milieux naturels, incluant les destructions par la chasse pour les ongulés et le piégeage pour les Carnivores, confortant l’appellation d’anthropocène des derniers millénaires.
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The central High Atlas (CHA) covers an area of 12 791 km² including 5 730 km² labeled "Unesco Global Geopark" by UNESCO in September 2014. It has a rich biological diversity, characterised by numerous different ecosystems, habitats, and species, especially mammals. In this area, there were the last observations of several carnivore species in Morocco as the case of the Barbary lion (1942), the panther (1983), and the striped hyena (2022). The mountain ecosystems of the CHA are strategic for Morocco because of their various socioeconomic and ecological roles. Mammals have important roles in the food webs of practically every ecosystem. The removal of mammal species can have major impacts on ecological communities, destabilizing ecosystems and their food webs. Consequently, extinction and decline of mammals of the CHA have negative impacts on local ecosystems and on national economy. Our previous studies indicated that biodiversity has been declining in this area at an alarming rate in recent years. This article summarizes data collected and published by the author et al. on mammal diversity in the CHA Mountains during the two last decades (2003-2023). In addition new data were recorded and reported here. Data on mammal species and ecosystems were collected on different aspects of mammalian ecology, especially distribution and population status; anthropogenic impact on habitats and species; illegal capture, killing and trade of mammals; effects of tourism activities on ecology and ethology of mammals; human-mammals conflict; ecological and economic consequences of biodiversity loss; and the main actions and ways to preserve biodiversity and ecosystems in the CHA.
Article
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The Barbary macaque Macaca sylvanus is imperiled throughout its distribution range in north-west Africa. In the summers of 2009 and 2013 we used the piecewise line-transect distance sampling method to study the southernmost population in the High Ourika valley, in the western High Atlas of Morocco. This rugged mountainous area is dominated by degraded fruit-poor environments, mostly holm oak Quercus rotundifolia forest patches. We located four and two groups in 2009 and 2013, respectively, and estimated population sizes of 122 and 84 individuals. The mean group size was 12 individuals in 2009 and 46 in 2013. The estimated mean density (individuals per km ² ) varied among groups (10–171), with a mean of 27. The population structure varied significantly among groups and years. Our records comprised 24.8 and 20% adult males, 24.8 and 22% adult females, 11 and 13% subadults, 13 and 17% juveniles and 26.4 and 26.3% infants in 2009 and 2013, respectively. In both years 50–56% of the population consisted of young individuals (subadults excluded). The mean sex ratio among adults was 1 : 1. The apparent fecundity rate was 1.06 infants per adult female. We propose conservation actions to protect this peripheral population of Barbary macaques.
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A survey of Vulnerable Barbary macaque Macaca sylvanus populations in the Djebela region of northern Morocco was conducted in October-November 2004 and the species' presence verified in four areas. This macaque occurs in habitat types ranging from matorral (shrub vegetation) to higher altitude fir forest. A total of 89 individuals were observed in nine groups. Comparisons of our survey with the previous one undertaken in the same area in 1980 indicate that group sizes are similar but the total population size may have decreased. We estimate there is a population of 200–300 Barbary macaques in the Djebela. Although some areas where the species is found are now protected, further work will be crucial to safeguarding this species in northern Morocco.
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Offers a comprehensive introduction to distance sampling, a statistical method used by many biologists and conservationists to estimate animal abundance. The text discusses point transect sampling and line transect sampling and also describes several other related techniques. There are updates on study design and field methods, laser range finders, theodolites and the GPS and advice is given on a wide range of survey methods. Analysis methods have also been generalized, through the use of various types of multiplier and exercises for students in wildlife and conservation management are included.
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The cedar oak forest of the Middle Atlas in Morocco is not only the last of the large forests in the southern Mediterranean, but it also contains all the surviving forest biodiversity. This forest has been severely affected by drought, overgrazing by mixed herds of goat and sheep, and excessive logging for timber, firewood, and livestock fodder. Recently cedar bark stripping by Barbary Macaques (Macaca sylvanus) has begun to have an effect on the forest. We investigated this behavior by monitoring a 500-km2 mosaic forest of cedar and oak in the Middle Atlas of Morocco between 1994 and 1996. We surveyed the forest 18 times in four different seasons along a 90-km transect. We recorded observations of bark stripping and a variety of quantitative ecological factors that could predict this behavior, such as livestock density, forest quality, undergrowth condition, water availability, and monkey density. The statistical analysis (including rank correlation, regression, and nonparametric variance analysis) strongly suggests that water scarcity and monkey exclusion from previously available permanent water sources are correlated with intense cedar bark-stripping behavior by macaques. The density of cedars and of monkeys appeared to be only secondary factors. As a conservation policy making water more accessible to wild monkeys might reduce bark-stripping behavior.
Book
The Barbary macaque (all too often mistakenly called an ape) was first brought to the attention of the Conservation Working Party of the Primate Society of Great Britain late 1979 when John Fa reported that 'surplus' animals were being sent from Gibraltar to dubious locations, such as an Italian safari park. Since there had been no scientific input into the Army's management of the monkey colony on Gibraltar, and there was concern about inbreeding, nutrition and health - about the long-term viability of the colony, it was felt that the Society could help. The Gibraltar Scientific Authority and the Army were very receptive to our offer and ideas, and this topic occupied successive chairmen over the last few years - Robin Dunbar and Richard Wrangham, myself and now Miranda Stevenson - with constant prompting and help from John Fa. Considerations soon extended to the status of the species as a whole, so that there have been three main aspects:- (1) the improved health of a larger self-sustaining population on Gibraltar, (2) the status and behavioural biology of natural populations in North Africa (Morocco and Algeria), and (3) the breeding achievements in European parks and zoos, and their potential for reintroduction to suitable areas in North Africa, along with other possibilities. Robin Dunbar organized the compilation of recommendations for managing the Gibraltar colony with regard to numbers, age-sex struc­ ture and behavioural relationships, with some observations on diet to avoid obesity and infertility.
Chapter
In June 1968 an ideal site was found at Ain Kahla in the Moyen Atlas Mountains of Morocco for a study of the wild Barbary macaque Macaca sylvanus L. (Deag and Crook, 1971; Deag, 1970, 1973, 1974, 1977a, 1977b, 1980a). At this site, in the forest of Sidi M’Guild one of Morocco’s major cedar forests, the monkeys are numerous, entirely dependent on natural food, relatively undisturbed and reasonably easy to observe. The study area has since achieved a greater importance. Its wildness, beauty, nearness to Europe and the fascinating male-baby interactions shown by the monkeys soon attracted others wishing to observe wild primates. It has already seen another major study (Taub, 1971, 1978, 1980) and more are planned. Furthermore, it has been suggested that this forest should be established as one of a series of National Parks for the conservation of Moroccan fauna and flora (Taub, 1975). At Ain Kahla the monkeys live in groups with overlapping home ranges (Deag, 1974) and complex behavioural relationships with neighbouring groups (Deag, 1973). This paper summarizes the demography of the groups, based on a fifteen month field study in 1968–69. The project (which was divided into an initial population study and a later single group study) is described in Deag (1974, 1977b, 1980a).
Chapter
Since the early 1920s most studies on the Barbary macaque have been broad surveys of the geographic distribution of the species (see Taub, 1977 for references). The first detailed work on this primate was undertaken in the Moroccan Moyen Atlas during the last decade (Deag, 1974, 1977; Deag and Crook, 1971; Taub, 1978a,b, 1980). More recently ecological observations have been undertaken in the Northern Rif Mountains (Fa, 1982, 1983 and Mehlman, Chap. 7, this volume). However, detailed information on habitat use and food preferences is still scarce.
Article
Cedar-oak forests of Ain Kahla (Middle Atlas, Morocco) suffer from overgrazing while those of Djurdjura (Algeria) belong to a National Park where sheep herds are less frequent. Overgrazing yields to lesser plant specific diversity. Monkeys of Ain Kahla spent more time eating cedar resources than those of Djurdjura. Only in Morocco monkeys stripped bark and sucked male flowers to get sap. Damages of trees by the monkeys worry foresters. Our study suggests that bark stripping is neither induced by a reduction of free water availability, water content of food resources nor a reduction of food availability. Bark stripping does not induce an increase of water intake. Bark stripping could be a consequence of a lack of some nutrients that monkeys could get from the sap. Managing forests in order to increase plant specific diversity and to favor the extension of herbaceous and shrub species similar to those eaten by Algerian monkeys, might result in a decrease in bark stripping.
Article
(1) We used two line-transect survey techniques and five analytical methods to assess the densities of social groups of seven diurnal primate species resident on Tiwai Island, Sierra Leone, West Africa. (2) A modified standard species-specific strip-width estimation technique was applied to data from twenty-eight single-observer transect samples, each 6 km in length. (3) The second method employed seventeen sweep samples where three observers simultaneously walked parallel transects 100 m apart and 1 km in length. This method used both sightings and localization of vocalizations for density estimation. (4) The third method transformed sighting rates from the single-observer samples into density estimates by incorporating sighting rates and densities from sweep samples into calibration factors. (5) We used long-term data on home-range size and overlap to estimate density for three species for which we had sufficient data. (6) The fifth method employed the hazard-rate model of Hayes & Buckland (1983) which involved transforming estimates of distance to the first sighted individual into estimates of distance to the group centre. (7) The rank orders by species of density estimates produced by all analytical techniques were identical except for the sweep-quadrat method. We found no significant differences among density estimates produced by different analytical methods, except for the C. diana density produced by the sweep samples. (8) We recommend the use of both relatively long single-transect samples and also more localized multi-observer sweep samples. These techniques allow use of a variety of analytical methods.
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The demography and dynamics of two groups, one living in an evergreen cedar-oak forest (Tigounatine) and the other, in a deciduous oak forest (Akfadou) in Algeria, were studied from 1982 to 1990. Group size fell within the range of other wild groups except for the Tigounatine group when it reached 88 individuals before splitting into three new independent groups. The structure of the studied groups, except one which was temporarily “one male,” was comparable to that of other groups of Barbary macaques. There were 43–50% of immatures on average depending on the group. The sex ratio (M:F) of the sexually mature animals was relatively balanced (1:0.9–1.2). The mean age of primiparous females was 5.5 years in Tigounatine and 5.3 in Akfadou; the rate of reproduction of sexually mature females was 0.56 and 0.63, respectively, while the infant mortality rate was 0.23 and 0.38, respectively. Great interannual variations occurred at both sites. The differences between natality and mortality induced a higher intrinsic mean annual increase for the Tigounatine group (14.6%) than for the Akfadou group (4.8%). The rate of intergroup transfers was not correlated with the increase in group size. Integration of male immigrants did not lead to the departure of resident males. Conversely, fission process promoted a substantial increase in the number of transfers in Tigounatine. The period presenting the greatest risk of infant mortality was the summer dry period, in both habitats. Wide interannual variations occurred in the availability of two staple foods for monkeys: caterpillars and acorns. The cumulative effects of a low acorn supply during the gestation period (autumn) and a low caterpillar supply during the beginning of the following nursing period (spring) led to a temporary increase in infant mortality.
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An eight-year-long census and habitat evaluation of the Macaca sylvanus population was conducted in a 484-km2 area of the central region of the Middle Atlas Mountains in Morocco between June 1994 and October 2002. The authors walked a 93.5-km circuit – divided into 16 transect segments – 30 times with teams of trained research assistant volunteers, collecting data on a total of 2,805 linear km. Previous studies had reported an average density of 44–70 individuals per km2, while data from the present study indicate a progressive population decline, from 25 to 30 individuals per km2, down to a current average density of 7–10 I/km2. The population decline is attributed to the loss of prime habitat, mainly cedar forest, which has significantly decreased from 1994 to 2002, due to the growing impact of overgrazing by mixed flocks of goats and sheep and consequent forest degradation. At present, human-caused habitat deterioration in the Middle Atlas risks further compromising the future of the world’s only remaining large M. sylvanus population.