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Still wrestling with context in Interlanguage Theory
Abstract
One of the most intractable issues in the field of second-language acquisition (SLA) research has been the attempt to identify the role of social context in influencing (or not) the process of acquisition of a second language. The central question has been whether a theory of SLA must account only for the psycholinguistic processes involved in acquiring an interlanguage (IL), or, alternatively, whether social and sociolinguistic factors influence those psycho-linguistic processes to such an extent that they too must be included in such a theory. It seems very clear that SLA is a psycholinguistic process. But to what extent are those psycholinguistic processes affected by social context? In 1985, Selinker and Douglas proposed a construct of ‘discourse domains’ to show how social and psycholinguistic processes might be included in a theory of inter-language; Young (1999) reviews that proposal and a recent attempt to test it, concluding that the results are still uncertain. After 15 years, this is still a lively issue in the field of SLA. Indeed, it is becoming a source of increasing conflict both within the field of SLA and within such areas of applied linguistics as second/foreign language teaching and second/foreign language teacher training. In this article, I will briefly summarize the problem, and review and summarize the current evidence being brought to bear upon this issue in the SLA research literature.
... In addition, this research, which has pointed out the complexities of the process of acquiring a second language in two very different contexts (SA and AH), invites a reexamination of the questions posed by recent debates in the SLA literature on the relative importance of the effects of social and cognitive factors on the process of acquiring a second language (Firth & Wagner 1997, Long 1997, Tarone 2000. ...
... Despite the importance of taking such an emic approach to the discussion of communicative contexts, much of the SLA research to date has not yet addressed in detail the micro-level issue of the possible interaction of social/contextual factors with the specific cognitive processes involved in SLA-an interaction that may cause very different types of interlanguages to be formed in classroom (AH) vs. study abroad (SA) contexts. Notable exceptions to this trend are Kormos (1999), Tarone (2000) and Batstone (2002), who have questioned how contextual factors might affect the actual cognitive processes involved in acquiring a second language. For instance, Kormos (1999) notes that the accuracy demand of the situation (context) may affect the error detection process, Tarone (2000) proposes that different contexts provide different types of input and varying amounts of modeling and 6 According to Schema Theory (Bartlett 1932, Carrell & Eisterhold 1983 learners rely upon previously acquired structures of knowledge (schemata) to construct meaning from new texts. ...
... Notable exceptions to this trend are Kormos (1999), Tarone (2000) and Batstone (2002), who have questioned how contextual factors might affect the actual cognitive processes involved in acquiring a second language. For instance, Kormos (1999) notes that the accuracy demand of the situation (context) may affect the error detection process, Tarone (2000) proposes that different contexts provide different types of input and varying amounts of modeling and 6 According to Schema Theory (Bartlett 1932, Carrell & Eisterhold 1983 learners rely upon previously acquired structures of knowledge (schemata) to construct meaning from new texts. When schemata are composed of a series of events that prototypically characterize a set of actions (e.g., buying a plane ticket), the term "script" (Schank & Abelson 1977) is used. ...
... Secondly, sociolinguistic models (Ellis, 1997;Gass, 2005;Swain, 2000;Tarone, 2000) advance that context is a crucial factor that influences language acquisition. Within this approach the Interaction Hypothesis developed by Long (1998) maintains that three steps account for language learning: positive evidence (or input), negative evidence (or feedback) and output. ...
... In line with sociolinguistic accounts, a revealing insight was contributed by The Variationist approach in the view of Tarone (2000) who expands other L2/FL acquisition theories by considering social setting and the impacts it may have. For this model, learners will apprehend (or not) corrective feedback based on whether they recognise the interlocutor as someone to be trusted or someone to feel identified with. ...
Applied Linguistics-AL-has been gathering momentum since its origins in the 1950's and ever since has been contributing with practical solutions to second language-L2-and foreign language-FL-teaching and learning with such a prolific body of knowledge that is an intellectual feat to keep up to date with it. From AL corpus three theoretical models were selected: Innatist, Sociolinguistic and Neurolinguistic as a proposal for addressing language teaching based on AL theoretical underpinnings. Departing from the chosen methods, simple and easy-to-apply classroom practices are suggested and explained. They are meant for classroom settings conformed by adolescents and young adults whose L2/FL language is beginners or false beginners and whose objective is that of learning English for general purposes. RESUMEN La Lingüística Aplicada-LA-ha venido creciendo desde la década del 1950 y desde ese momento ha contribuido con soluciones prácticas para la enseñanza y aprendizaje de segundas lenguas-L2-o lenguas extranjeras-LE-con un cuerpo de conocimiento tal que es un desafío intelectual mantenerse a la vanguardia. Del corpus de la LA se seleccionaron tres enfoques metodológicos: Innatista, Sociolingüístico y Neurolingüístico como propuesta para abordar la enseñanza de las L2/LE basada en sustentos teóricos. Partiendo de los enfoques elegidos, se sugieren y explican prácticas docente simples y fáciles de implementar, pensadas para contextos áulicos conformados por adolescentes y adultos jóvenes con un nivel L2/LE principiante cuyo objetivo es aprender inglés para fines generales. Palabras
... (p. 293) Tarone (2000a) pointed out that these two positions were too extreme, making claims that in some cases were simply erroneous. For example, Long was right that SLA research documenting the impact of social context on learner language had too often tended to focus on multilingual use in natural settings at a single point in time, without exploring the impact of social factors on the longitudinal development of specific linguistic forms in the learner language system (its grammar, morphology, phonology). ...
... For example, Long was right that SLA research documenting the impact of social context on learner language had too often tended to focus on multilingual use in natural settings at a single point in time, without exploring the impact of social factors on the longitudinal development of specific linguistic forms in the learner language system (its grammar, morphology, phonology). And, Long was wrong in asserting that there was no evidence at all that social context affects the language learner's cognition and processes of acquisition; indeed, Tarone (2000a) cited studies clearly showing the impact of those variables on acquisition, affecting both error types and (in at least one case, Tarone & Liu, 1995) longitudinal developmental sequences. Current support for the position that cognition is complexly related to social context comes directly from cognitive science itself. ...
Addressing themes from the Douglas Fir Group's (2016) transdisciplinary framework, this paper bridges boundaries between cognitive and social disciplines by showing how social contextual factors can affect the psycholinguistic development of complexity, accuracy, and fluency (CAF) in learner language. Sociolinguistic and sociocultural frameworks are blended with use of a multidimensional psycholinguistic frame, CAF, to analyze speech samples produced by 10 adult learners of English across different developmental levels as they all produced narratives containing constructed dialogue. Learners enacted imagined ‘voices’ that were significantly more accurate and fluent compared to their narrative baseline voices. Our findings suggest that emerging L2 proficiency consists of many distinct voices that can significantly differ in accuracy of grammatical forms and fluency; related studies show they also differ in suprasegmentals, nonverbals, discourse style, and expressed social stance. Learners’ ability to produce such voices in constructed dialogue supports a view of their proficiency as heteroglossic, complex, dynamic, and holistic, and of language play as facilitative of SLA. Theoretical and practical implications for L2 learning, instruction, and assessment are considered.
... Young (2000) and He and Young (1998), for example, draw on the research in areas such as conversational analysis, linguistic anthropology, sociolinguistics, and speech act theory, all of which focus clearly on the speech event, the interaction, language use. In this regard, the same criticism could be applied here as Tarone (2000) applied to SLA researchers who take a narrowly "sociolinguistic or co-constructionist orientation": The moderate interactionalist claim that language ability is changed by interaction raises, in my mind at least, questions about the generalizability and relevance of the research upon which the claim is based. Chalhoub-Deville (2003) draws largely on the literature in learning and cognition in building a case for the construct as ability-in-language user-in context. ...
... Although Chalhoub-Deville does not draw on the literature in SLA, she might well have cited research suggesting that acquisition varies as a function of context. Tarone (2000), for example, discusses a number of studies in SLA that suggest that differing social contexts affect what gets acquired and how it gets acquired. However, the research cited by Tarone 64 WHAT Is THE CONSTRUCT'? ...
Language Testing Reconsidered provides a critical update on major issues that have engaged the field of language testing since its inception. Anyone who is working in, studying or teaching language testing should have a copy of this book. The information, discussions, and reflections offered within the volume address major developments within the field over the past decades, enlivened by current "takes" on these issues. The real value of this collection, however, lies in its consideration of the past as a means of defining the future agenda of language testing.
... For researchers taking interpretive approaches, another reason to use case studies is to carefully document the interaction of individual and context and to document how language learning is mediated by participants' understandings of and interactions with context over time. Of course, "context" can be defined in a number of ways (Goodwin and Duranti, 1992;Tarone, 2000), from discourse context (e.g., Han, 2000;Huebner, 1983;Toohey, 2000), to classroom and institutional context (e.g., Harklau, 2000;Toohey, 2000), to broader community, national, economic, and sociopolitical contexts (e.g., Kanno, 2003;Norton, 2000). Within these contexts, case studies offer the advantage of access to the frequently overlooked perceptions, beliefs, and attitudes of learners themselves (Kanno, 2003). ...
... Nevertheless, they could both arguably be classified as advanced language learners. In all, then, the study of advanced SLA demands that we move away from monolithic and circumscribed notions of language proficiency towards a conceptualization of proficiency as a repertoire of multiple styles and registers that vary according to individual background, social context, and modality (see, e.g., Tarone, 2000). Case study is a method ideally suited to exploring and theorizing this variability. ...
... Young (2000) and He and Young (1998), for example, draw on the research in areas such as conversational analysis, linguistic anthropology, sociolinguistics, and speech act theory, all of which focus clearly on the speech event, the interaction, language use. In this regard, the same criticism could be applied here as Tarone (2000) applied to SLA researchers who take a narrowly "sociolinguistic or co-constructionist orientation": The moderate interactionalist claim that language ability is changed by interaction raises, in my mind at least, questions about the generalizability and relevance of the research upon which the claim is based. Chalhoub-Deville (2003) draws largely on the literature in learning and cognition in building a case for the construct as ability-in-language user-in context. ...
... Although Chalhoub-Deville does not draw on the literature in SLA, she might well have cited research suggesting that acquisition varies as a function of context. Tarone (2000), for example, discusses a number of studies in SLA that suggest that differing social contexts affect what gets acquired and how it gets acquired. However, the research cited by Tarone 64 WHAT Is THE CONSTRUCT'? ...
... Yet, in another strand of research favoring social context, Tarone (2000) described in some detail empirical evidence that directly contradicted Long's contention that cognitive processes of SLA are unaffected by social setting. The evidence showed, for example, that social setting affects whether L2 learners receive adjusted input or corrective feedback (Bondevik 1996;Varonis and Gass 1985), so adjusted input is not universally 8 ...
... However, this being said, it is interesting to note that although both socially oriented SLA research and CSs research have moved almost along the same time, not so much research has been done on CSs regarding social contextual factors. Now the question is that if social variables affect major components of SLA in major ways (Tarone 2000(Tarone , 2009, do they affect CSs? We do not know. ...
Like general theories of human communication, previous research into second language (L2) communication strategies (CSs) has also been characterized on either interactional conceived account or cognitively conceived one. However, this paper is a critical attempt to show that CSs' full significance can only be understood if the domain of CSs research is expanded beyond the particular kinds of psycholinguistic and interactional approaches that currently dominate the field. The expansion requires a significantly enhanced awareness of the other important dimensions of language within L2 contexts that affect/are affected by CSs, such as social variables and contextual factors. Widened in this way, it is argued that the concept of L2 CSs can be fruitfully tailored to a very large literature outside L2 acquisition, and it becomes a rich forum for the investigation of interactional, social, and educational issues.
... Non-native learners' approach to pronunciation is influenced by the specifics of individual second language acquisition (SLA) process that is informed by relevant socio-cultural and psychological circumstances that pertain to both L1 and L2. The role of social contexts in the language learning process and in making language choices has been the focus of attention of many SLA scholars (Levis & Moyer, 2014;Piske, MacKay & Flege, 2001;Tarone, 2000). We believe with Levis and Moyer (2014) that thanks to the "unique connection between accent and the individual learner's sense of self" the L2 phonology can significantly promote a more holistic approach to the context of language learning (Levis & Moyer, 2014: 1). ...
In the current pilot report, we draw on and further develop our previous research examining pre-service teachers’ attitudes and beliefs about accents, in which we proposed a pedagogical intervention reflecting certain aspects of our research outcomes, mainly the positive trend of embracing one’s non-nativeness. A set of four classroom activities, namely Nativeness perception test, Four corners, Bank of experiences and Sociodynamic teacher, were incorporated into three different online graduate courses in the winter and summer semesters 2020/2021 at the Department of the English Language and Literature, Faculty of Education in Prague. The piloting process was partly replicated in face-to-face classes of the following academic year. The overarching goal was to raise awareness of accent variation, especially in such a linguistically homogenous country as the Czech Republic and cultivate future teachers’ ability to address accent-related issues confidently, objectively and sensitively. The subsequent scrutiny of participants’ recorded discussions, written and/or oral feedback, submitted tasks as well as teachers’ observations indicated increased awareness of accent variability and a raised level of pedagogical confidence in approaching accent in the classroom context. Particularly, the respondents proved to be highly creative when devising adequate and supportive reactions to imagined negative comments related to accents or preventing them by specifically designing their lesson plans. Furthermore, the pedagogical intervention was appraised by the participating graduate students in their reflective assessment one year later.
... Effectivement, aucun voisin immédiat de l'île n'a le français ou l'espagnol comme langue officielle ; par conséquent, les apprenants l'apprennent dans le cadre restreint de la salle de classe, d'où de nombreuses ruptures entre la classe de LE et la dynamique interactive de la vie quotidienne. Le développement de leur compétence sociolinguistique et pragmatique se voit donc très limité (Ellis 1992 ;Tarone 2000). Et on peut observer une plus forte proportion d'erreurs pragmatiques (cf. ...
The issue of exploitation foreign languages' instructional comics has been widely discussed in recent years. However, although the authors indicate its advantages and its great educational potential, few have actually investigated learners' attitudes towards this learning resource. And everyone knows the importance of affective factors in the process of learning foreign languages. In addition, comic is rarely used as a teaching aid in Asia. As part of this contribution exploratory, we propose to examine not only the attitudes of Sinophones Learners of French as Foreign Language towards comic, but also the support it can provide. To achieve this goal, fifty-five Taiwanese learners, from level A1 to B1, divided into three distinct groups were probed, questioned and subjected to work around comics. According to the results, we conclude that (i) learners have positive attitudes towards comics, mangas, and are highly motivated; (ii) the use of comics has helped to improve their language skills and intercultural learning as well as revitalize the target language. Implications of these findings are discussed.
... An orientation to isolating factors that promote acquisition also extends to considerations of social context. According to Tarone (2000), the main focus of interlanguage research on social context is on the "impact of social factors on the psycholinguistic processes of acquisition of specific interlanguage morphosyntactic, lexical, and phonological forms" (p. 193). ...
... Bayley and Tarone (2012) review variationist SLA studies and conclude that these show that the variation in learner language is systematic. Variation in interlanguage production, documented in dozens of variationist studies, has profound implications for data elicitation and analysis in research (Preston, 1989(Preston, , 2002Tarone, 2000;Geeslin & Gudmestad, 2010). Variationist researchers argue that because production of given interlanguage forms varies systematically in relation to social context, task, topic, focus on form, interlocutor, and so on, researchers need to document the contextual factors in play in each elicitation, and use sophisticated statistical tools to model interlanguage. ...
At a time when no systematic research was being conducted on second language acquisition, Selinker proposed that a linguistic system (interlanguage, or IL) underlies the learner language produced by adults when they attempt meaningful communication using a language they are in the process of learning (target language). He called for research to compare the structure of that learner language with the structure of the learner's native language and the target language, and to identify the psycholinguistic processes that shape interlanguage over time. This call initiated a flood of research studies and the establishment of the field of second language acquisition (SLA). This entry defines the essential elements of the interlanguage hypothesis as proposed in 1972, including the five psycholinguistic processes Selinker hypothesized as possibly influential: native language transfer, overgeneralization, transfer of training, strategies of communication, and strategies of learning; Selinker's controversial proposals that all interlanguages fossilize; and the claim that the relevant data for the study of interlanguage should be restricted to learner language produced during meaningful communication. The entry reviews the evolution of the interlanguage hypothesis in relation to several themes: the expansion of the hypothesis to apply to learners of all ages and to view IL as a natural language that obeys principles of universal grammar, and the exploration of the impact of social context and agency on IL psycholinguistic processes (including processes of fossilization and crosslinguistic influence). The basic assumption that interlanguage is systematic continues to underlie data collection and data analysis across the field of SLA.
... Existem muitas críticas a uma abordagem puramente psicolingüística do aprendizado de segunda língua, deixando de lado o contexto social. Na verdade, pesquisas recentes vêm indicando evidências do impacto que o contexto de interação social pode causar nos processos psicolingüísticos de aprendizado de segunda língua (TARONE, 2000). O aprendizado como uma ação isolada e solitária, que se dá dentro do cérebro, apesar de poder explicar parte do fenômeno de aprendizagem de uma língua, não contempla todos os aspectos envolvidos neste processo. ...
... Language Play is perceived as a conscious repetition or modifications of linguistic forms like syntactic, phonologic or lexemes patterns (Belz, 2002). Language play is the most relevant type of humour to the FL classroom context since playing with words and their meanings can be a very typical type of interaction for students in this specific context (Tarone, 2000). Many studies have reported the usefulness of language play in L2/FL classrooms (Sullivan, 2000). ...
... SLA is a multi-disciplinary field which makes use of insights and research paradigms from other domains such as linguistics, education, sociology, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics and psychology (Ellis & Barkhuizen, 2005). It is commonly stated that the issues concerning L2 learning cannot be fully understood from a single perspective (Tarone, 2000). L2 learning involves a multitude of complex and interacting incidents which cannot be captured and understood from a narrow viewpoint. ...
This paper describes an interaction analysis study, which was carried out in a French Polynesian elementary school context. The corpus for the study was gathered via video recordings during an extensive educational project. This project aimed at collecting corpora on various school subjects from French Polynesian elementary schools between the years 2014-2017. The researchers used ATLAS.ti, a Computer Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software (CAQDAS) to analyse the classroom interactions collected from six elementary school teachers' EFL classes. The study attempted: a) to discover common teaching strategies and techniques the teachers employed; b) to understand the effects the teachers' actions on the learners, and c) to determine whether the teachers' teaching methodologies were in concordance with today's foreign language teaching approaches. The study used both comprehensive and descriptive data analysis methods. The transcribed data were examined by focusing on both verbal and nonverbal classroom interventions. The codes were generated by studying both classroom exchanges and video recordings. The analysed data were presented using interpretations of individual instances, examples, paradigms, and frequencies.
... De hecho, ningún país vecino inmediato del país africano tiene español como lengua oficial; por lo tanto, los estudiantes están aprendiendo en el contexto limitado y artificial del aula de clase, con muchas rupturas entre los cursos de lengua española y la dinámica interactiva de la vida cotidiana. El desarrollo de sus competencias sociolingüísticas y pragmáticas, en consecuencia se ve seriamente constreñido (Ellis, 1992;Tarone, 2000). Y así, se puede observar en sus producciones una mayor proporción de errores pragmáticos (Romero Trillo, 2002) y pueden permanecer "monoestilísticos" en la lengua meta (Gass, Mackey & Pica, 1998;Dewaele & Regan, 2002). ...
Many researchers have considered comics as an excellent educational resource, pointing out to its advantages and its great educational potential. As a result, few authors have investigated the attitudes of students towards comics and they are rarely used as a teaching material in Benin in the learning of foreign languages. In this study, we aim to examine the attitudes of Beninese students of Spanish as a Foreign Language towards comic, as well as offer a reflection on some of the possibilities that can bring this teaching resource. In doing this, we analyze data from 25 participants which was obtained from a questionnaire, interviews, and tasks around the comic. Conclusions show that: (a) most participants showed a positive attitude towards comics and are highly motivated; (b) the use of comics contributed to improving their linguistic and intercultural communicative competences, as well as revitalized the learning of the target language. Finally, the paper concludes by pointing out the study’s implications and limitations, and offering suggestions for future research opportunities.
... Their first foreign language is English. Interlanguage is a language system that has developed in the minds of language learners that learn a second language (Selinker, 1972; O'Grady, Archibald, Aronoff, and Miller, 2005; Tarone, 2000; Riyanto, 2011; Riyanto, 2012). Ellis and Barkhuizen (2005) call the interlanguage the 'learner language.' ...
Many studies reveal that understanding process of sentences is universal. Indonesian learners of the Dutch, however, tend to process sentences in another way than the native speakers. This article focuses on the psycholinguistic study of the syntactic aspects of Dutch-Indonesian interlanguage. The study is based on the interlanguage syntax observed in an oral test given to thirty Indonesian learners of Dutch as a second language, whose purpose is to test the Processability Theory of Pienemann. The results of the study provide evidence for the validity of Pienemann’s theory. Learners who have acquired sentences with the highest level of processing will also already have acquired sentences with a lower level of processing. The results from learners with a high level of Dutch proficiency verify the processability theory with more certainty than the results of learners with a lower proficiency. Learners tend to rely on meaning if they are not confident of their grammatical proficiency. Investigations into interlanguage inspire people not to negatively judge language products of second language learners.
... The findings of these studies are inconclusive because, in line with cognitivism, they are in search of an approach to corrective feedback that will be universally applicable for all learners. Both written and oral corrective feedback research have been driven by what Block (2003) called the Input-Interaction-Output Model and as such they are dead and deaf to the social context of L2 learning (Tarone, 2000). In contrast with the cognitive paradigm that aims at finding a cross-culturally applicable approach to corrective feedback, the following studies indicate that one method cannot be applied universally across varied contexts: ...
Researchers condemn teachers by saying that tradition, rather than research findings, derive their practice while teachers condemn researchers by saying that their research findings are universal generalizations that fail in practice. To turn mutual distrust to mutual trust, this data-driven study aims at theorizing practice, rather than enlighten practice through theory-driven research. The theoretical sampling of twenty EFL teachers’ perspectives concerning corrective feedback, together with the rigorous coding schemes of grounded theory yielded some context-sensitive corrective feedback techniques: direct feedback; indirect feedback such as recast, providing an alternative, asking other students, pausing before the error, providing the rule, using the correct structure and showing surprise; feedback through other language skills including writing and listening; and no correction on cognitive, affective and information processing grounds. Moreover analysis uncovered a set of specifications on when, where, and why to use these techniques. Not only do the findings help practitioners get in-sights and improve their providing feedback, but also they help researchers modify their hypotheses before testing them through the quantitative research that aims at generalization. © 2015: Seyyed Ali Ostovar-Namaghi, Kamal Shakiba, and Nova Southeastern University.
... Researchers in various sociolinguistic traditions have been advocating for a conceptualization of competence as variable (Tarone, 1990(Tarone, , 2000) and the concept of interactional competence (Hall, 1995;Young, 2003) as a goal of language learners. This research has provided CA researchers their entry to the study of second language speakers and it is through the ex- amination of members' methods that these constructs can be explicated visibly and empirically. ...
... The study is psycholinguistic in nature and is based on the Processability Theory (Pienemann 2006, 2007). Interlanguage is a language system that has developed in the minds of language learners that learn a second language (Richards and Schmidt 2002: 267; O'Grady, Archibald, Aronoff, and Miller 2005: 401; Wray and Bloomer 2006: 54, Tarone 2000: 182, 2006: 747). Ellis and Barkhuizen (2005) called interlanguage " the language of learners " . ...
This article focuses on the psycholinguistic study of the syntactic aspects of Dutch-Indonesian interlanguage. The study is based on the interlanguage syntax observed in an oral test given to thirty Indonesian learners of Dutch as a second language, whose purpose is to test the processability theory of Pienemann (2005a, b, c, 2007). The results of the study provide evidence for the validity of Pienemann’s theory. Learners who have acquired sentences with the highest level of processing will also already have acquired sentences with a lower level of processing. The results from learners with a high level of Dutch proficiency verify the processability theory with more certainty than the results of learners with a lower proficiency. Learners tend to rely on meaning if they are not confident of their grammatical proficiency. Interlanguage is the result of the immediate need to encode in the mind concepts and ideas into the form of linguistic items, within a fraction of a millisecond, whilst the supporting means are limited, and whilst learners already have acquired a first language and possibly another language as well.
... An increasing number of researchers have argued that an awareness of contextual and social dimensions of language learning should be enhanced in the field of second language acquisition (SLA) ( van Lier 1996;Firth and Wagner 1997;Tarone 1997;Norton 2000;Tarone 2000;Yanagimachi 2003). One of the major social dimensions that are related to second language (L2) learning is the relationships between learners and their interactants (Goodnow 1993; van Lier 1998;Storch 2002). ...
This paper examines the patterns of language choice and the construction of L2 learning opportunities in foreign language learners’ social networks by focusing on how these patterns and opportunities are socially structured in a Japanese language learner’s natural interactions. It is based on a range of data, including a script of on-line chat occurring in natural environments as well interview data. Drawing on Cummins’ (1996) concept of interpersonal space, the findings indicate that there were a number of social and contextual factors that seemed to affect the learner’s language choice and L2 learning opportunities in complex ways. Most of these factors appeared to be related to the learner’s and/or his network interactants’ identity as an adequate L2 user and their perception of each other’s L2 proficiency and/or role. This paper provides insights into how to create environments that promote the learners’ opportunities for L2 use and learning.
... All the works mentioned above suggest that a sojourn abroad learners' linguistic knowledge is bolstered by linguistic, sociological and pragmatic knowledge. Scholars such as Douglas (2004), Kramsh (2000, Swain (2000), Tarone (2000), Lantolf (2000) believed that language acquisition is a process influenced by social and contextual factors. Study abroad influences student learning and personal development (Carsello & Creaser, 1976;Kuh, 1995;Limburg-Weber, 2000). ...
This research study empirically investigated the impact of study abroad context on L2 learners' pragmatic development compared with study at home group in Iran. For the study abroad group the participants were selected from the Iranian students who registered in a six-month program in language institutes in India (Mysore) and for the study at home group the participants were chosen from the language learners at the most outstanding language institute in Iran (Iran Language Institute) at the intermediate level. A Discourse Completion Task (DCT) including request and apology speech acts was used to measure the gains in the two groups. The DCT was administered one at the beginning as a pre-test and then at the end of the six months course as a post-test. Overall, the study revealed significant development in study abroad learners' pragmatic knowledge, whereas this change in at home group was meager. It was also found that a correlation governs the growth in apology and request proficiency in language learning. This comparative study moreover yielded this finding that gender is not a determining factor in the acquisition of pragmatic knowledge specifically in request and apology speech acts in language learning.
... Although engaging various forms of media such as computer, laptop, cell-phone, … in the realm of education is a matter that research has shown to benefit children and adolescents by enhancing communication, social connection (Schurgin O'Keeffe, & Clarke-Pearson, 2011), In this vein, more recently Firth, and Wanger (1997), and Tarone (2000) suggest that new studies should leave behind the mechanistic model of 'Input-Interaction-Output', as Block (2003) termed, into which most technology-based educations have hitherto been grounded. As a result, a growing number of researchers have tried to expand the boundaries of second language acquisition (SLA) through recognizing 'just as surely as language is social, so is its acquisition' (Atkinson, 2002, p. 527). ...
The current study is an attempt to highlight the levels of English vocabulary proficiency reached by 110 Iranian engineering students. Thus, the students' language proficiency, the manners of learning content delivery, as well as the students' attitudes towards these manners to learn new English vocabulary items were explored. The participants were divided into a 'social' (G1) and an 'individual' (G2) group randomly. The first group members received the materials (i.e., new English vocabulary items) through their cell-phones, made a new sentence with it and collaborated with other members to make a short story, whereas the second group members received the learning content from the same channel, made a new sentence with it, and delivered it to their teacher. A Likert type engagement questionnaire was distributed among participants of both groups and the results of matched t-test revealed that although the learners in two groups had the same attitude towards vocabulary learning through the medium of social webs and story writing, they differed significantly in vocabulary learning proficiency. Also, the results of the study point to the minimal relevance of learners' gender to L2 vocabulary learning through the medium of wireless technology. Thus, wireless technology must be recognized for its contribution to new manners of improving the educational program offered to students.
... Researchers in various sociolinguistic traditions have been advocating for a conceptualization of competence as variable (Tarone, 1990(Tarone, , 2000 and the concept of interactional competence (Hall, 1995;Young, 2003) as a goal of language learners. This research has provided CA researchers their entry to the study of second language speakers and it is through the examination of members' methods that these constructs can be explicated visibly and empirically. ...
In a 2010 plenary at the annual conference of the American Association for Applied Linguistics, Lourdes Ortega proposed that researchers in the area of second language acquisition (SLA) consider making a ‘bilingual turn’. This proposal was made in the wake of almost two decades of theoretical and methodological expansion in the field. This expansion followed calls by Lantolf, Firth & Wagner, Block and others for a reconceptualization of what researchers in the field might consider language and acquisition. Ortega's call focuses on the first word of the title of this area of research, second, by calling on the field to more carefully consider research from outside traditional SLA, bilingual studies particularly, to inform research methods and theory development in SLA. This paper considers Ortega's call for a bilingual turn in SLA by explaining the potential contributions of ethnomethodological conversation analysis (CA) to this program. The paper explains CA's conceptualization of two key constructs in SLA (‘competence’ and ‘native speaker’) and uses empirical data analysis to show how CA methods can be used in support of Ortega's call.
... The role of contextual factors in SLA has been the focus of much debate among SLA researchers. 1 While scholars such as Gregg (1990Gregg ( , 2006, Long (1997) and VanPatten (1990) have emphasized the essentially cognitive nature of the SLA process and minimized the importance of contextual influences, others have stressed the importance of viewing SLA as a process which is crucially affected by, and dependent on, contextual factors (e.g., Collentine and Freed 2004;Tarone 2000Tarone , 2007Firth and Wagner 1997;Mondada and Pekarek 2000;Lantolf 2000;Pavlenko 2002). The authors of this article consider extreme ver-sions of either view as misguided, or at least as premature. ...
This paper reports on a study that investigates the impact of learning context on the L2 acquisition of English by German-speaking pupils. Learning context is operationalized in terms of the relative prominence of the L1 and the L2 within the learning context, which in turn reflects the functional roles and domains of use allocated to the L2 and L1. L2 learning outcomes are compared across four different authentic language-learning contexts which represent four distinct positions on the second language (SL) - foreign language (FL) context continuum. The results show that the learners in the learning context most close to the SL end of the continuum (with high L2 prominence and very low L1 prominence in the wider extra-curricular context) outperform the learners in the three other contexts on most aspects of L2 proficiency investigated. Comparisons between the learners in the three other contexts yield less straightforward observations, including better than anticipated results for the learners in the prototypical FL context.
... In view of the current theoretical interest in the role of context in L2 learning, these findings are important and suggest that opportunities for incidental FonF are not distributed equally within the same classroom context and that differences in participation structure may impact both the provision and usefulness of such FonF. Thus, they lend support to the ideas that FonF is essentially a socially mediated process (Batstone, 2007) and that the usefulness of attention to form depends to a large extent on its social context (Tarone, 2000, 2007). Some limitations of this study need to be kept in mind. ...
This study examined the role of incidental focus on form (FonF) in adult English-as-a-second-language classrooms. Specifically, it explored the extent to which the amount, type, and effectiveness of FonF were related to differences in classroom participation structure, that is, the organization of classroom talk within which FonF may occur. The data consisted of 54 hours of audio- and video-recorded classroom interaction collected over two 12-week semesters from 35 lessons at three levels of language proficiency: beginner, intermediate, and advanced. The data were transcribed and coded in terms of types of FonF (reactive vs. preemptive, and student vs. teacher initiated) and types of participation structure (whole class, small group, and individual one on one). Individualized posttests were developed and administered to each student 1 week after each classroom observation to assess the effectiveness of FonF. The results revealed that incidental FonF occurred rather frequently in all classrooms but its occurrence varied depending on the type of participation structure. The results also demonstrated a relationship between participation structure and the effectiveness of FonF as well as an interaction between participation structure and class levels. These findings highlight the role of classroom participation structure as an important contextual factor that may impact the provision and success of incidental FonF.
... Traditionally, learning contexts have not attracted much attention in second language acquisition (SLA) research. Indeed, Tarone (2000) criticises the fact that many SLA researchers have focused mainly on the psycholinguistic processes involved in language acquisition (e.g. Long 1997) and have sidelined the social contexts of 31er Congreso Internacional de la Asociación Española de Lingüística Aplicada ACTAS L2 learning. ...
ABSTRACT
The study of multilingual competencies and their transfer to the professional world is still in its infancy. This case study attempts to make a contribution to a better understanding of the self-perception of multilingualism and multiculturalism in the context of higher education together with the perception students have of the potential benefits their multilingual profiles might bring to their future careers. It also touches upon issues closely connected to the students’ personal language histories, such as the influence of different learning contexts on language gains, and the connection between language and culture. Data for the case study have been collected from two multilingual university students who have experienced three different English-learning contexts: formal instruction (FI), content and language integrated learning (CLIL), and study abroad (SA). Results point to the high value attached by participants to their multilingual competencies at all levels and especially with regard to the enhancement of their career prospects.
Chinese immersion programs have been increasingly popular in US schools. However, we have insufficient data on young English‐speaking children's acquisition of Chinese as a second language in these programs, and specifically on social contextual variables systematically promoting or hindering Chinese language use. Taking a variationist sociolinguistic approach, this mixed‐methods case study identifies interlocutor and task as central social variables that most significantly condition the use, and therefore the acquisition, of Chinese by second graders attending an early total one‐way Chinese immersion program in the United States. The idiosyncratic social roles learners played with different interlocutors in carrying out classroom tasks and activities help account for their use of Chinese or English, with implications for future research on second language acquisition and pedagogy in one‐way language immersion education.
Within the conceptual framework of the Sociolinguistics of Globalization and Critical Applied Linguistics, and drawing upon poststructuralism and postmodernism, this research enquiry employs Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) to examine educational discourses in the Tunisian context. It is set to problematize language idealization and culture essentialization in the Tunisian EFL curriculum. To proceed with the investigation, intertextually-related corpora (the Education Act, the English Programs, a sample EFL textbook, EFL audio-materials) have been critically analyzed by using a number of research tools: CDA, Social Semiotic Analysis, English Users’ Nationality Analysis, Content Analysis and Postcolonial Discourse Analysis. The findings reveal a top-down macro-micro-discourse structure of homogeneity that underlies the Tunisian EFL curriculum. The overarching macro-discourse of nationalism, due to its inherent centripetal force, seems to generate micro-discourses of linguistic normativity, cultural ethnocentricity, subjugated subalternity, and as a corollary, a “curriculum of the hero.” An alternative dialectical macro-micro-discourse structure of heterogeneity, commensurate with the sociolinguistic reality of the Expanding Circle, is recommended. The alternative model, inherently centrifugal in orientation, is contingent upon a macro-discourse of transnationalism, which impacts, and is mutually impacted by micro-discourses of linguistic variation, cultural heteroglossia and agentive subalternity. The alternative macro-micro-discourse structure is expected to generate a curriculum of criticality whose cogito is “I am in the text, therefore I am.” It ultimately suggests moving towards language and culture pedagogy that empowers subalternity to speak and act outside colonial relations of power. The implications of the alternative model for reconciling acrimonious dichotomies and endorsing a pedagogy of criticality and “third space” are delineated. Limitations and recommendations for future research are outlined to open up new pathways for further interrogation of the Tunisian EFL curriculum in order to expand an area of research that is still underexplored.
Key words: language, culture, curriculum, discourse, homogeneity, heterogeneity, (de)idealization, (trans)national paradigm, deconstruction, multi-inter-trans-culturality, apriority, posteriority, intertextuality, hegemony, subalternity, Expanding Circle, hybridity, third space, mimicry
From its beginnings, English for Specific Purposes (ESP) has been struggling to find its position within the field of applied linguistics. ESP constantly had to defend itself against the accusation that there is nothing specific about it and that it is just another way of teaching General English. The most common ESP courses are Business English courses or courses for technicians. Similarly, foreign football players who are signed with clubs in the English Premier League need a specialised English course. They need to be able to get in contact with their fellow players, to understand their coaches and physiotherapists or organise their lives outside their clubs. Players of different nationalities within one team are a challenge for any English football club. In order for them to perform at their best, they need to learn English as quickly as possible. Football clubs do not only need to invest in their senior players. Given the unbelievably high transfer sums that not all clubs can afford to pay, youth players have become more and more important as they are the future of any club. This thesis tries to demonstrate what linguistic needs foreign football players in the English Premier League have, what tutoring options and support mechanisms could improve the existing language courses and that, without English, players cannot reach their full potential or satisfaction – be it in the club, in private or in both areas of life. It should ultimately provide the theoretical prerequisite for a teaching and learning resource for foreign football players. Abstract (Deutsch) Seit Beginn an kämpft English for Specific Purposes (ESP) um seinen Platz in der Angewandten Linguistik. ESP musste sich permanent gegen die Anschuldigung wehren, nichts Spezifisches zu sein und sich nicht von allgemeinem Englisch abzugrenzen. Die häufigsten ESP Kurse sind Kurse für Wirtschaftsenglisch oder Englisch für Techniker. Doch auch ausländische Fußballspieler, die in der Englischen Premier League spielen, benötigen spezialisiertes Englisch. Sie müssen mit ihren Mitspielern kommunizieren können, ihre Trainer und Physiotherapeuten verstehen oder ihr Leben außerhalb des Fußballclubs organisieren. Spieler unterschiedlicher Nationalitäten stellen für jeden englischen Club eine Herausforderung dar. Um als Spieler sein volles Potential abrufen zu können, muss man so rasch wie möglich Englisch lernen. Fußballclubs investieren aber nicht nur in die Spieler der ersten Mannschaft. Angesichts der sehr hohen Transfersummen, die nicht jeder Club aufbringen kann, werden Nachwuchsspieler immer wichtiger. Schließlich sind sie die Zukunft jedes Clubs. Diese Dissertation versucht aufzuzeigen, welche sprachlichen Bedürfnisse ausländische Fußballspieler in der Englischen Premier League haben, welche Unterrichtsmöglichkeiten und Unterstützungsmechanismen die bestehenden Sprachkurse verbessern könnten und dass die Spieler ohne Englischkenntnisse ihr volles Potential – weder im Spiel noch im Privatleben – ausschöpfen können. Darüber hinaus könnte diese Arbeit die theoretische Basis für eine Lehr- und Lernressource für ausländische Fußballer darstellen.
The present study supports the idea of heteroglossia and its contributions to language learning in second language acquisition (SLA) theory and bilingualism. Bakhtin’s ( 1934/1981 ) theory of heteroglossia differs from variety and register in that when acquiring a language, one internalizes the voices of others. Viewing interlanguage through a heteroglossic lens, it is possible that these voices in heteroglossia may have an effect on second language (L2) users’ language production. By blending sociolinguistic and sociocultural frameworks, this study analyzed the complexity, accuracy, and fluency of two French-English bilinguals’ narratives. Findings demonstrate a clear shift in all three measures of the CAF framework when participants enacted the voice of a perceived interlocutor or perceived self, versus when they recounted a narrative. These findings support the notion that an individual may have variable linguistic systems, and raise other important theoretical and practical implications for SLA research and L2 instruction.
This study discusses the Dutch-Indonesian interlanguage using psycholinguistics in the syntactic level. The sentences in the interlanguage are expressed by thirty students with different language proficiency levels and are analyzed to test the prediction of Pienemann’s processability theory (2005a, 2005b, 2005c, dan 2007). This study proves the validity of the processability theory. The Dutch learners mastering sentences with the most difficult level of processability also master sentences with easier levels of processability. The results from the learners with the high proficiency support the processability theory more firmly than those from the learners with the lower proficiency. Learners rely on meaning when they are not sure of their grammatical competence. Interlanguage is formed because of the demand on the learners that in a short time they have to express concepts and ideas in their minds but the facilitating divices are still limited, while they have already mastered the first language and possibly other languages.
It is believed that ESL contexts are different from EFL contexts with regard to the language learning and teaching practices. Due to various types of language learning opportunities and resources in these two milieus, language learning practices take place differently in these two situations. ESL context provides learners with ample amount of language learning opportunities, while EFL context does not readily make these opportunities and resources available to language learners. Keeping that in mind, the researchers made an attempt to shed light on the resources and opportunities which may exist for English language learners in an EFL context such as Iran. To this end, a group of advanced language learners in Iran was selected, and the required data was gathered through a questionnaire and a semi-structured interview. Results obtained from both descriptive and inferential statistics indicated that the range of resources and opportunities used by language learners is very limited in this milieu. Moreover, it was revealed that in this EFL context, there are some new and widespread language learning resources and opportunities which can assist language learners in all four skills.
This book reflects on the future of the English language as used by native speakers, speakers of nativized New Englishes, and users of English as a lingua franca (ELF). The volume begins by outlining the current position of English in the world and accounts for the differences among native and nativized varieties and ELF usages. It offers a historical
perspective on the impact of language contact on English and discusses whether the lexicogrammatical features of New Englishes and ELF are shaped by imperfect learning or deliberate language change. The book also considers the consequences of writing in a second language and questions the extent to which non-native English-speaking academics and researchers should be required to confirm to ‘Anglo’ patterns of text
organization and ‘English Academic Discourse.’ The book then examines the converse effect of English on other languages through bilingualism and translation.
And according to the publisher:
This volume is essential reading for students and scholars in English language, sociolinguistics, language acquisition, and language policy!
This paper reports work-to-date on a particular practical context, applying one approach to interlanguage, the discourse domains approach, merged with the rhetorical-grammatical approach, involving both language and content. The context is an MA course for teacher residents placed in urban schools, and their English language learners (ELLs) in math and science classes, providing content area teachers the linguistic support they need to teach the language of their content, and thus the content itself. We were interested in how exactly learners' interlanguage creation interacts with their understanding of scientific concepts. We primarily look at the rhetorical function "definition," with discourse level semantic choices, and attendant grammar, with ELL data gathered by the teacher residents. Correct definitions in expected grammatical form point to an understanding of the scientific concept within the discourse domain, providing evidence that the science or mathematics content has been understood by the student. In our data analysis, we concentrated on the semantics and grammar of this rhetorical function, but other functions kept intruding, especially "classification". Cross-language transfer appears not to be a factor, but cross-domain transfer is. Finally, we discuss how the marriage of this view of interlanguage with safe rule rhetorical/grammatical functions can better support teacher preparation, especially given how challenging teaching ELLs is for content area teachers.
Interlanguage Verb Tense Systems of Indonesian EFL Learners
Endang Fauziati, Muamaroh Maftuhin
Abstract
Among aspect of studies on second language acquisition, interlanguage is one of the most important one. To date research on interlanguage features has provided benefits to the study of second language learning in particular to EFL classroom. The present study explored inter language verb tense system to indicate present, past, and future events employed by Indonesian learners of English as a foreign language. Empirical data were 444 ill-formed utterances elicited through free compositions from the EFL learners. Error analysis and interlanguage analysis were used as analytical tools for data analysis. The results indicate the students have developed their own grammatical system to express present, past, and future events. Whilst their interlanguage system was typified by a number of non-targetlike variants, this study provides evidence of the systematicity of interlanguage as well as a model of particular interlanguage systems, i.e. of Indonesian EFL learners.
Full Text: PDF DOI: 10.15640/jflcc.v4n2a7
This paper examines the patterns of language choice and the construction of L2 learning opportunities in foreign language learners’ social networks by focusing on how these patterns and opportunities are socially structured in a Japanese language learner’s natural interactions. It is based on a range of data, including a script of on-line chat occurring in natural environments as well interview data. Drawing on Cummins’ (1996) concept of interpersonal space, the findings indicate that there were a number of social and contextual factors that seemed to affect the learner’s language choice and L2 learning opportunities in complex ways. Most of these factors appeared to be related to the learner’s and/or his network interactants’ identity as an adequate L2 user and their perception of each other’s L2 proficiency and/or role. This paper provides insights into how to create environments that promote the learners’ opportunities for L2 use and learning.
To investigate the role of context in reading development, a comparison of reading comprehension and processes was conducted between learners of Japanese as a second language in study abroad (SA; n = 15) and intensive domestic (in the United States) immersion (IM; n = 15) contexts. A significant difference was found between contexts in pretest to posttest gains on only one measure of reading comprehension, a self-assessment. Differences on the two other measures of comprehension-free-recall and vocabulary knowledge-were not significant. The self-assessment measure indicated that SA students felt more confident reading the second language than their IM counterparts. In terms of reading processes, think-aloud protocols showed significant differences in changes over time in the amount of monitoring understanding (less for IM than SA) and responding and reacting to text content affectively or emotionally (more for IM than SA). In the IM context, office-hour interaction with teachers influenced students to monitor comprehension less and more efficiently and to respond affectively to text more often. Variability in terms of gains on reading measures and contact with language and culture outside of class was greater for SA than for IM. The controlled IM setting and the open SA context contributed to differences in variability. The need for a variety of new measures designed to capture gains specific to any given context is discussed and specific suggestions for new measures are given.
The central theme of this book is the ambiguities and tensions teachers face as they attempt to position themselves in ways that legitimize them as language teachers, and as English speakers. Focusing on three EFL teachers and their schools in the southern Mexican state of Oaxaca, it documents how ordinary practices of language educators are shaped by their social context, and examines the roles, identities, and ideologies that teachers create in order to navigate and negotiate their specific context. It is unique in bringing together several current theoretical and methodological developments in TESOL and applied linguistics: the performance of language ideologies and identities, critical TESOL pedagogy and research, and ethnographic methods in research on language learning and teaching. Balancing and blending descriptive reporting of the teachers and their contexts with a theoretical discussion which connects their local concerns and practices to broader issues in TESOL in international contexts, it allows readers to appreciate the subtle complexities that give rise to the “tensions and ambiguities” in EFL teachers’ professional lives.
In most classrooms that teach second/foreign language (L2) pragmatics, the native-speaker model is presented as the target with the assumption that it is the optimal model for learners and that learners willingly conform to native-speaker norms. In fact, several studies have reported learners' sense of resistance to what they perceive as native speakers' pragmatic norms (e.g., Kubota 1996; LoCastro 1998; Siegal 1996; Takenoya 1995). The areas of resistance appear to center on both sociopragmatic norms (e.g., cultural ideologies of honorifics) and their pragmalinguistic manifestations (e.g., exalted/humble honorific forms). In many of these past studies, however, the phenomenon of resistance to perceived native-speaker pragmatic norms has been reported only in passing and not in depth. This interpretive case study investigates the link between adult learners' subjectivity and their pragmatic use in L2 Japanese. The study explores the stated reasons that seven advanced Japanese learners at a US university provided for their pragmatic choices in previously completed tasks (multiple-rejoinder oral DCT and role-play). Retrospective interviews and follow-up email correspondence examined the deliberate pragmatic decisions learners made while requesting, refusing, and responding to compliments in both their L1 and L2. The interviews identified occasions where learners intentionally either accommodated to or resisted perceived L2 pragmatic norms, and probed how they arrived at those decisions. While the participants largely converged toward L2 norms to emulate the target culture, on occasion they intentionally diverged from L2 norms to resist pragmatic uses of, for example, higher-level honorifics or gendered language. Learners' pragmatic decisions were guided by their subjectivity and intertwined with their life experiences and previous learning and use of Japanese in and outside the classroom. Their agency can be accounted for in terms of speech accommodation theory (Beebe and Giles 1984) which views pragmatic decisions as an enactment of social, psychological, and affective dispositions. The findings can help explain why certain areas of Japanese pragmatic competence may be slow to develop (if at all) for some learners. The paper calls for greater sensitivity to learners' cultures in pragmatics-focused instruction and suggests how pragmatics might be more aptly taught and evaluated with learners' subjectivity in mind. © 2009 by Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG, D-10785 Berlin. All rights reserved.
Generative linguistics has long been concerned with the linguistic competence of the "ideal speaker-listener, in a completely homogeneous speech-community, who knows its language perfectly" (Chomsky 1965: 3). Research in formal-linguistics-based second language acquisition takes as its starting point the second language (L2)(1) speaker's underlying mental representation. Here the factors of interest are influence of the learner's native language and, in generative SLA, the operation of innate linguistic mechanisms (Universal Grammar). Similar to methodology in formal syntax, lxSLA adopts techniques such as grammaticality judgment, comprehension and perception tasks supplementing spontaneously produced oral data. While there may be individual differences in oral production, tasks that tap learners' mental representations reveal commonalities across learners from a given native language background with the same amount/type of exposure and age of initial L2 exposure. When it comes to phonology, age has long been a central factor with numerous comparative studies showing younger learners far outperforming older learners (see Piske et al. 2001). This paper discusses a case of possible non-acquisition by L2 children who had had considerable exposure to the L2. Children's non-acquisition is only apparent, and this allows us to consider the value of lxSLA methodology on the one hand, and and raises issues about what might be lacking in the current socio-SLA paradigm, on the other. We argue that only when we return to the cooperation that marked its birth in the 1960s will we have a comprehensive picture of SLA.
This paper examines teaching English for Specific Purposes (ESP) to French graduate students in business, science education, and social science research. It takes a discourse domain perspective (Selinker & Douglas 1985; Whyte 1995) on interlanguage development according to which learners’ expert knowledge and investment in their fields of study affects language learning and use. The study applies a task-based approach (Long 1989; Ellis 2003; Guichon & Nicolaev 2011) to curriculum design, using the methodological principles developed for language teaching with technology by Doughty and Long (2003) to the design and implementation of the three ESP courses. The paper discusses classroom activities, peer and teacher feedback, and presents post-course evaluation data in support of task-based learning, in order to draw nuanced practical and theoretical conclusions on this approach to ESP teaching.
Firth and Wagner's (1997) call for a more socially and contextually situated view of second language acquisition (SLA) research has generated a great deal of discussion and debate, a summary of which is offered in this reflective commentary. Given the individualistic, cognitive origin of the SLA field, such controversy is entirely understandable. With different ontologies and epistemologies, the two views, individual/cognitive and social/contextual, have had little impact on each other. These days, a theoretical pluralism prevails. Eventually, their differences may, though it is not clear that they will, be settled empirically. Another possibility is for there to be a reframing of our understanding, and I offer chaos/complexity theory as one means for doing so. Indeed, the solution the SLA field has perennially adopted when there are conflicting views is to seek a larger frame, one that acknowledges the contributions of each perspective. More specifically, I expect that it will be the point where the two perspectives intersect that will prove to be the most productive for future understanding of SLA, and I believe that there is a new consensus around this point that is emerging.
This study examines the acquisition of copula choice, more particularly the contrast between ser and estar ('to be') in Spanish by native speakers of Portuguese. Our research differs from previous work because the first language of the participants included also contains a copula contrast. Our previous analysis of data collected in adult L1 Spanish and Portuguese L2 Spanish, and data collected in Portuguese from adult L1 Portuguese, demonstrated important differences between these groups (Geeslin & Guijarro-Fuentes, 2006). The frequency of copula selection can be seen to be a result of L1 transfer, but the predictors of copula choice do not transfer directly from L1 to the L2. We argue that one of the key focuses of investigation should be the distinction between obligatory and variable contexts (Geeslin & Guijarro-Fuentes, 2004). Moreover, one must examine the linguistic features associated with variation between these three groups. In response, the current study analyzes those contexts where copula selection is unanimous for some or all of the participants in contrast with those where all speakers exhibit variation. We aim to determine whether or not those contexts that allow variation are the source of differences between the natives and the non-natives. This study is of general interest not only to those working on L2 Spanish, but also to the growing body of research on the acquisition of variable structures in SLA.
Based on an expansive study of Irish university learners of French, this paper aims to illuminate the specificity of the role played by ‘learning context’ on the learners’ language development. Following discussion of the concept of ‘learning context’ in language learning, the paper compares the language development of classroom instructed learners in Ireland and ‘study abroad’ learners who are also instructed learners, but who have resided in France thanks to an international exchange programme. Given the differences in the type of intercultural encounter which each learning context permits, the paper collates results of a study which attempts to capture how such encounters might transform the learners’ language use on a particular aspect of their linguistic repertoire in French, namely the expression of past time reference. Whilst the results detail the highly beneficial effect of the study abroad context on the learners’language development, they none the less point to a number of similarities in the past time systems of both the study abroad learners and the instructed learners. The results are discussed in relation to previous findings and areas for future research.
Speakers monitor their own speech for errors. To do so, they may rely on perception of their own speech (external monitoring) but also on an internal speech representation (internal monitoring). While there are detailed accounts of monitoring in first language (L1) processing, it is not clear if and how monitoring is different in a second language (L2). Here, we ask whether L1 and L2 monitoring differ and, if so, where the differences lie. L1 and L2 might differ in the speed with which monitoring is performed but also in their monitoring foci. We discuss studies on bilingual language control and suggest that self-monitoring might function as a last-resort control process. We conclude with speculation on the role self-monitoring might play in L2 learning and suggestions for future research.
This article provides support for a theoretical orientation toward viewing dialogue as both a means of communication and a cognitive tool. Data to support this position come from an analysis of the language‐related episodes isolated in the dialogue of two grade 8 French immersion students as they carry out a jigsaw task. During the task, the students work out a story line and write it out. As they do so, they encounter linguistic problems. To solve them, the students use their first language (L1) and second language (L2) in order to communicate to each other and as tools to aid their L2 learning. The language‐related episodes discussed provide evidence of language use as both an enactment of mental processes and as an occasion for L2 learning. Variation in how other pairs of students in the class perform the task supports existing evidence that the same task does not provide similar occasions for L2 learning to all student dyads.
It is widely argued that engaging in communicative language tasks helps a learner develop in an L2 in several ways. Tasks provide an opportunity not only to produce the target language, but also, through conversational adjustments, to manipulate and modify it. Checking and clarifying problem utterances ('negotiating for meaning') ensures that task participants receive comprehensible input and generate comprehensible output, both of which have been claimed as crucial to second language acquisition (SLA). Task type is considered significant, with those tasks requiring an exchange of information most likely to prompt negotiations for meaning. This paper reports a classroom observation of the language produced by intermediate EFL students engaged in required and optional information exchange tasks in both dyads and small groups. The results show no clear overall effect for task type or grouping, though there was a discernible trend for dyads doing a two-way task to produce more negotiated interaction. However, it was noticeable that many students in the small groups did not speak at all, many more in both dyads and small groups did not initiate any negotiated interaction, and very few students in either setting produced any modified utterances. Such positive results as were obtained seemed to be due to the disproportionate influence of a small number of the students, and so were not typical of the group as a whole. The setting of the study within a classroom, as opposed to a venue especially arranged for data collecting, is suggested as a significant variable, with important implications for group work research methodology. It is also suggested, contrary to much SLA theorizing, that 'negotiating for meaning' is not a strategy that language learners are predisposed to employ when they encounter gaps in their understanding.
The study of second language acquisition involves understanding what bilinguals know about their second language and how they acquire and use it. Because acquisition and use occur in a social context, it is important for second–language acquisition researchers to understand the ways in which social context and the acquisition and use of a second language are related. In recent years, our understanding of language as a social phenomenon has increased greatly. In a recent survey of sociolinguistics and language teaching, McKay and Hornberger (1996) divide the field into four related areas: 1) studies of language and society–how large–scale social and political issues affect language use in a particular society, 2) studies of language variation—how the “same” language varies from speaker to speaker, from place to place, and from situation to situation, 3) studies of language and interaction—how language is used in face–to–face communication, and 4) studies of language and culture—how particular cultures privilege some kinds of language over others.
The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate that the Interlanguage (IL) hypothesis should be extended from (1)adult second-language acquisition settings to (2) those non-simultaneous child language acquisition settings where the major sociolinguistic variables is the absence of peers who are native speakers of the target language (TL). The paper first establishes the need to postulate the existence of an IL. Next, data from a Toronto French immersion program are presented which suggest that, as in adult second-language speech, the strategies of language transfer, simplification, and overgeneralization of TL rules affect the surface forms of the second-language speech of children in this program. Finally, the possibility is mentioned that, under the sociolinguistic conditions of (2) above, ILs will develop as dialects in their own right, an important possibility for theories of pidginization and creolization, as well as for general theories of language change.
Introduction Sociolinguists and generativists seem to have incompatible views of the psycholinguistic or cognitive status of variation. The sociolinguistic notion of inherent variability points to a single mental construct (i.e. a grammar) in which alternative realizations are possible. Generativists suggest that variation results only from the choice of different structures, an understanding that would imply different grammars, leaving only grammar switching as an alternative to inherent variability. Only some very recent contributions (e.g. Cornips and Corrigan 2005) attempt to deal with these apparently opposing views, and, in fact, historical attention to the problem has been minimal (but see Butters [1990], Fasold [1991], Preston [1991a, b, 1996a, b, 2000b, 2001b, 2002, 2004], andWolfram [1991] for earlier attempts to deal with the psycholinguistic validity of the notion variable rule). To approach this problem, we propose at least three kinds of variationist sociolinguistics, although we might more properly speak here of levels rather than kinds. Level I Some few variationist studies have concerned themselves only with the correlation of linguistic and social facts, and the outcomes from such Level I studies do not seem to lead to ready psycholinguistic interpretations. This does not mean that such studies have no theoretical interest; such interest, however, seems to lie principally in the area of social theory or in the interaction of social forces and linguistic forms (see note 2). For example, in a study of doctor–nt interaction (Marsh 1981), the occurrence of definite article versus pronominal in such sentences as How's the pain in the/your hand? is investigated. Table 3.1 shows how this choice is distributed for patients and physicians, patient social status, and long-term versus short-term physician–patient relationships. © Cambridge University Press 2007 and Cambridge University Press, 2010.
In this article we will give an overview of the findings of L1 and L2 self-repair studies to date. A comparison between L1 and L2 self-repair research shows that, while L1 studies are firmly based in theory, most L2 studies are not. In order to contribute to theories and models of L2 production and acquisition, L2 self-repair studies will have to be more theory-driven than has been the case so far. Moreover, it is essential that large-scale investigations be conducted which focus on self-repair by L2 speakers at different levels of proficiency as well as on intra-individual comparisons between L1 and L2 self-repair.
While some studies indicate that adults can efficiently utilize informal linguistic environments for second language acquisition, other studies suggest that the classroom is of greater benefit. This conflict is resolved in three ways. Evidence is presented to support the hypothesis that informal and formal environments contribute to different aspects of second language competence, the former affecting acquired competence and the latter affecting learned competence. Second, a distinction must be made between informal environments in which active language use occurs regularly and those in which language use is irregular. Finally, data is presented that suggests that the classroom can be used simultaneously as a formal and informal linguistic environment, a result that is consistent with reports of success with language teaching systems that emphasize active language use.
Reported in this paper is a longitudinal study of the acquisition and use of the English sound system by Japanese learners of English. The central point is that the learner's second-language system must be a system of variable rules if it is to account for the variability (wide assortment of pronunciations) in his production, the fluctuations between his in-class and out-of-class performance, and the regularities in his process of acquisition. The model used in this research is the variability model of sociolinguistics. Discussed here are both the theoretical and practical values of this study. First, it captures the regular patterning of diversity in the learner's speech, giving the developing theory of interlanguage a firmer grounding. Second, the study provides insights to help the classroom teacher better understand and evaluate student performance in pronunciation.
Moving beyond the historical and theoretical traditions that have defined teacher education in TESOL over the last quarter century, in this introductory piece we argue for a reconceptualization of the knowledge-base of ESOL teacher education. Essential to this reconceptualization is the premise that the institutional forms and processes of teacher education frame how the profession responds to the basic sociocultural processes of learning to teach. As such, our teacher education practices constitute our professional self-definition. We argue that the core of the new knowledge-base must focus on the activity of teaching itself; it should center on the teacher who does it, the contexts in which it is done, and the pedagogy by which it is done. Moreover, this knowledge-base should include forms of knowledge representation that document teacher learning within the social, cultural, and institutional contexts in which it occurs. Finally, we believe the knowledge-base of language teacher education needs to account for the teacher as a learner of teaching, the social context of schools and schooling within which teacher-learning and teaching occur, and the activities of both language teaching and language learning. This tripartite framework calls for a broader epistemological view of ESOL teacher education, one that accounts for teaching as it is learned and as it is practiced; we argue that it will ultimately redefine how we as teacher educators create professionals in TESOL.
The author argues that second language acquisition (SLA) theorists have struggled to conceptualize the relationship between the language learner and the social world because they have not developed a comprehensive theory of social identity which integrates the language learner and the language learning context. She also maintains that SLA theorists have not adequately addressed how relations of power affect interaction between language learners and target language speakers. Using data collected in Canada from January to December 1991 from diaries, questionnaires, individual and group interviews, and home visits, the author illustrates how and under what conditions the immigrant women in her study created, responded to, and sometimes resisted opportunities to speak English. Drawing on her data analysis as well as her reading in social theory, the author argues that current conceptions of the individual in SLA theory need to be reconceptualized, and she draws on the poststructuralist conception of social identity as multiple, a site of struggle, and subject to change to explain the findings from her study. Further, she argues for a conception of investment rather than motivation to capture the complex relationship of language learners to the target language and their sometimes ambivalent desire to speak it. The notion of investment conceives of the language learner, not as a historical and unidimensional, but as having a complex social history and multiple desires. The article includes a discussion of the implications of the study for classroom teaching and current theories of communicative competence.
This paper examines the goals and assumptions of second-language acquisition (SLA) research, in particular relating these goals and assumptions to those of linguistics. It is argued that SLA is linguistics and that second-language data are of import in understanding the nature of language. The main focus is language universals of which three approaches (Universal Grammar, typological universals, and processing universals) are considered. Both theoretical underpinnings and empirical evidence are brought to bear in presenting supporting and discinfiirming arguments for each of these three approaches. It is argued that we must take into account an understanding of how apparently disparate facts of language—which are universally related—are conceptually related before we can predict their effect on second-language acquisition. It is further pointed out that because an understanding of second-language learning necessitates an interdisciplinary approach, we must be able to specify where any single approach fits into the total picture. Finally, we present a view of the possible ways in which SLA and linguistics are theoretically related and point out that it is incumbent upon SLA researchers to make it known that the data we work with are of relevance and interest to the formulation of theories of language.
The aim of this article is to review the psycholinguistic research on second language (L2) self-repair to date with particular attention to the relevance of this field for L2 production and acquisition. The article points out that W. J. M. Levelt's (1989, 1993, 1992) and W. J. M. Levelt et al.'s (in press) perceptual loop theory of monitoring can be adopted for monitoring in L2 speech as well. It is also argued, however, that this theory needs to be complemented with recent research on consciousness, attention, and noticing in order to account for mechanisms of error detection in L2.
The third‐grade classroom experiences of Mary, a child from Liberia with a limited educational and English language background, are viewed in relation to the beliefs that her teacher held about language, acculturation, natural cognitive processes, and cooperative learning. In the case of teaching linguistic minority children in mainstream classrooms, it is argued that a set of powerful ideas from a sociocultural perspective may have more influence on teachers than those deriving from an input‐output model. Such ideas rest on a view of the development of language and cognition in context, as opposed to a modular view of the development of linguistic structure.
This paper cites observational and interview evidence indicating that immersion students in the U.S. and Canada increasingly avoid using their second language in peer‐peer interactions as they move into higher primary grade levels. Systematic research is called for to explore this reported phenomenon. It is suggested that the phenomenon is actually predictable if one takes a sociolinguistic perspective on immersion classrooms, viewing them as speech communities that become increasingly diglossic over time. The paper ends with a summary of discussions with immersion teachers about possible implications for teaching in immersion settings.
This is a response to the article by Firth and Wagner (F&W) “On Discourse, Communication, and (Some) Fundamental Concepts in SLA Research” that appeared in MLJ 81,3. The present article deals with three areas discussed by F&W. First, I point out that F&W misinterpret my own work as well as that by others who have written within the input/interactionist framework (and within SLA in general); claims that are attributed to certain researchers were not ones made by those researchers. In particular, the scope of inquiry that F&W attribute to some SLA research is quite different from the actual area of inquiry. Second, I deal with the notion of “learners as deficient communicators,” arguing that F&W's attribution of this concept to SLA researchers is flawed. Finally, I discuss F&W's reanalysis of data that originally appeared in some of my earlier publications.
Genre analysis is applied to the study of discourse occurring in the social services financial intake interview, in which information previously written on an application form is reviewed to decide whether an applicant is eligible for benefits. This study of three oral intake interviews used a process of triangulation to establish a prototypical structure for the interview, which followed but did not exactly replicate the application form in content and linguistic structure. Although native-English-speaking and English language learner applicants responded to the interviewer in similar ways, the English language learner used little or no back-channeling to show understanding and fewer explicit responses to confirmation requests and directives. Her responses (or lack of them) often suggested that she did not understand all the information conveyed by the interviewer. Misunderstanding in this context puts an applicant at risk of failing to secure financial support and even of unwittingly committing welfare fraud. This genre may be particularly difficult for English language learners to master, as they have no input on its nature before participating in it and no supportive, mediative collaboration during participation because their only interlocutor plays a different, more powerful role. TESOL professionals can use the findings of this study to design materials that will prepare nonnative-speaking applicants to more effectively negotiate the social services oral intake interview.
In this exploratory study, we examine the role of literacy in the acquisition of second-language (L2) oral skills through a partial replication of Jenefer Philp's (2003) study of recasts in native speaker (NS)-non-native speaker (NNS) interaction. The principal research question was the following: Is the ability to recall a recast related to the learner's alphabetic print literacy level? The participants in the study were eight first language (L1) speakers of Somali with limited formal schooling, who were grouped according to scores on L1 and L2 literacy measures. Procedures involved interactive tasks in which participants received and recalled recasts on their grammatically incorrect interrogative sentences. Unlike Philp's more educated participants, our overall less educated participants showed no significant effects for recast length or, as a group, for number of changes in the recasts. This suggests that findings on the oral L2 processing of more educated L2 learners may not hold for the oral L2 processing of less educated learners. Within our less educated population, the more literate group recalled all recasts significantly better than the less literate group when correct and modified recalls were combined. Literacy level was also significantly related to ability to recall recasts with two or more (2+) changes, with the more literate group doing better than the less literate group. Theoretical implications of these findings are discussed.
This paper examines the way in which, three different paradigms for the study of interlanguage handle the phenomenon of variability
in interlanguage systems: a Chomskyian paradigm proposed by Adjemian (1976, 1981); the Monitor Theory proposed by Krashen
(1976, 1981) and the Continuum paradigm proposed by Tarone (1979, 1982). The paper presents data from several studies showing
that interlanguage speech production varies systematically with elicitation task; it compares the fundamental assumptions
of each of these three paradigms with regard to their views of the nature of the system which underlies learner utterances
and of the methodology appropriate to the study of this system; and it concludes that the Continuum paradigm accounts for
the data better than the other two paradigms, because of its underlying assumptions.
This paper examines the consequences of the fact that human minds may know more than one language for the poverty-of-the-stimulus argument that speakers know more than they could have learnt. Qualifications to the argument are necessary because not all L2 learners attain the same compe tence as L1 speakers; types of evidence are potentially available that can be ruled out for the Ll. The way in which L2 learning has been concep tualized in terms of access to UG and of a black box metaphor makes the L2 grammar seem separate from the L1 grammar rather than one over all system contained within a single mind. What is needed is the idea of 'multicompetence' - the compound state of a mind with two grammars. Multicompetence is the norm for the human race in that most minds know more than one language. Hence the logical problem of language acquisition is how the mind acquires a grammar with one or more settings for each parameter, rather than the special case of a mind that knows only one language. This has implications for all uses of the poverty-of-the-stimulus argument, not just in L2 learning.
L'A. veut montrer qu'un modele variabiliste est tout a fait en mesure d'apporter des explications dans une theorie de l'acquisition d'une langue seconde et donne ainsi une reponse aux travaux critiques de Kevin R. Gregg sur les modeles variabilistes
References to developmental stages and continua seem to be part and parcel of investigations into the acquisition of new grammars. Nonetheless, there seems to be an equivocation in the literature about which is actually the most helpful way of explaining how learner grammars evolve through time. Some see development essentially as gradual growth and, in this perspective, talking about a sequence of discrete stages looks like an artificial way of organizing learner data imposed by researchers simply as a matter of convenience. indeed, the evidence does lend support to the idea of a learner not only developing new solutions to how the L2 works very gradually, but also entertaining alternative solutions at the same time. At the same time, from a linguistic perspective, it often makes sense to see development as a stepwise movement from one rule system to another: the acquisition literature is consequently full of references to stages and evidence to back up this type of analysis. In this paper, we will attempt to resolve the apparent conflict by adopting a language processing perspective called MOGUL that allows for both stages and continua and we shall illustrate our proposals using empirical findings from the second language acquisition literature.
In this paper we discuss miscommunication in exchanges between native speakers and nonnative speakers of a language, focusing on an analysis of a service encounter telephone conversation between a nonnative speaker and a native speaker television repair shop employee. We present a goal-based model of conversation and a coding system for interpreting utterances, both of which are necessary for understanding the type of miscommunication which occurred in the conversation described herein. We argue that the lack of shared background on the part of the interlocutors interacted with their lack of shared linguistic code. In general, such interactions hinder successful communication and increase the probability that the miscommunication will not be recognized and thus not easily resolved. We show that a complete analysis of native/nonnative conversations must minimally invoke notions of correct interpretation, confidence in interpretation, goals of a conversation, shared beliefs, and linguistic as well as cultural systems. (Sociolinguistics, nonnative interactions, conversational analysis, American English)
At least 40 studies have been conducted of the linguistic and conversational adjustments made by native speakers of a language using it for communication with non-native speakers. The modifications sometimes result in ungrammatical speech. Generally, however, they serve to provide input that is well-formed, a sort of linguistic and conversational cocoon for the neophyte second language acquirer. Most of the findings hold across age groups, social classes and settings, although some differences, both qualitative and quantitative, have been noted in these areas, too.
In making the adjustments described, native speakers appear to be reacting not to one, but to a combination of factors. These include the linguistic characteristics and comprehen-sibility of the non-native's interlanguage, but particularly his or her apparent comprehension of what the native speaker is saying. The adjustments appear to be necessary for second language acquisition, in that beginners seem unable to acquire from unmodified native speaker input. There is some doubt as to their sufficiency in this regard.
The extent to which form-focused instruction contributes to the acquisition of second language implicit knowledge is controversial. Whereas Krashen (1993) has argued that the effects of FFI on acquisition are peripheral, N. Ellis (this issue) sees FFI as facilitative and even necessary for developing implicit L2 knowledge. This article examines the role of FFI in developing implicit knowledge by reviewing 11 studies that have examined the effect of FFI on learners' free production. The review suggests that FFI can contribute to the acquisition of implicit knowledge and points to two variables that appear to influence its success—the choice of the target structure and the extent of the instruction. FFI involving extensive instruction directed at “simple” structures was more likely to succeed. However, limited instruction directed at complex structures also proved effective, provided that the target structures are readily available in noninstructional input.
This paper argues that the Interlanguage Hypothesis, as it is currently stated, lacks clear definitions of some of its most important characteristics. The central characteristics of ILs are examined. It is suggested that interlanguages (ILs) are natural languages, in the obvious sense, but that their grammar is peculiar in being permeable. This permeability of ILs explains why learners can transfer grammatical properties from their native language and why they can generalize or otherwise distort target language properties in an effort to communicate. Accepting this view of ILs forces the researcher to gather specific and copious data to support the hypotheses which may be proposed concerning the grammatical intuitions of any IL speaker. The relevance of this proposal to research strategies and the advantages of research with a more explicit notion of ILs are discussed.
Despite a long-standing interest within applied linguistics in the analysis of written genres, few studies have attempted to show how such genres are appropriated by new members in academic or workplace settings. Based on a 22-month qualitative study, this article reports on how francophone nurses, who were newly hired in an English-medium hospital in Montreal, Canada, developed skill in writing nursing notes (which differed from the way they were done in French) in English. Central to the analysis is the construct of mediation, explored in terms of how collaborative processes, both overt and covert, shape text production as well as other less visible, taken-for-granted aspects of the social context.
Studies of second language acquisition often employ analytical concepts defined relative to the target language (such as obligatory context, error, etc.). It is demonstrated here that this practice can be a serious obstacle to the investigation of crucial questions about the nature of learners' languages. The difficulties caused by this practice—called here the “comparative fallacy”—are illustrated in an investigation of the framework proposed by Tarone, Frauenfelder, and Selinker (1976) to study the issue of interlanguage systematicity and variability. Their framework is shown to result in incorrect or unrevealing analyses of systematicity and to obscure the character of the interlanguage. These defects are shown to be the results of the comparative fallacy.
This article argues for a reconceptualization of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) research that would enlarge the ontological and empirical parameters of the field. We claim that methodologies, theories, and foci within SLA reflect an imbalance between cognitive and mentalistic orientations, and social and contextual orientations to language, the former orientation being unquestionably in the ascendancy. This has resulted in a skewed perspective on discourse and communication, which conceives of the foreign language speaker as a deficient communicator struggling to overcome an underdeveloped L2 competence, striving to reach the “target” competence of an idealized native speaker (NS). We contend that SLA research requires a significantly enhanced awareness of the contextual and interactional dimensions of language use, an increased “emic” (i.e., participant-relevant) sensitivity towards fundamental concepts, and the broadening of the traditional SLA data base. With such changes in place, the field of SLA has the capacity to become a theoretically and methodologically richer, more robust enterprise, better able to explicate the processes of second or foreign language (S/FL) acquisition, and better situated to engage with and contribute to research commonly perceived to reside outside its boundaries.
This review summarizes a range of theoretical approaches to language acquisition. It argues that language representations emerge from interactions at all levels from brain to society. Simple learning mechanisms, operating in and across the human systems for perception, motor-action and cognition as they are exposed to language data as part of a social environment, suffice to drive the emergence of complex language representations. Connectionism provides a set of computational tools for exploring the conditions under which emergent properties arise. I present various simulations of emergence of linguistic regularity for illustration.
The clam is made that Labov's “Observor's Paradox” and the fire methodological axioms leading to this paradox apply to inter language Thus, we may mew interlanguage as a continuum of styles, which is defined by the amount of attention paid to speech; the most systematic second-language learner speech is produced when the learner is paying the least attention to speech. Yet, when we do research, the presence of the researcher and the tasks presented to the learner, lead our subjects to pay attention to their speech. Therefore, we cannot claim that research can ever observe the most truly systematic form of a learner's interlanguage—unattended or “unmonitored” speech. The methodological implications of the claim are explored, and recommendations for research are made.
While extensive use of the passive is shown by frequency counts of verb tense and aspect which are performed on corpora combining texts from a variety of scientific and technical fields, significantly different results may be obtained when one compares the frequency of the passive and active voices within a single scientific or technical field. In this paper we examine the frequency of the active and passive verb forms in two astrophysics journal articles, finding that we plus an active verb occurs at least as frequently as the passive in both articles. On the basis of consultation with an informant in astrophysics, we propose four rhetorical functions of the passive as opposed to we plus an active verb: (1) we indicates the author's unique procedural choice, while the passive indicates an established or standard procedure; (2) we is used to describe the author's own work and the passive to describe the work of others, unless that work is not mentioned in contrast to the author's, in which case the active is used; (3) the passive is used to describe the author's proposed studies; and (4) the use of the active or the passive is determined by focus due to the length of an element or the need for emphasis.
The style dimension of language variation has not been adequately explained in sociolinguistic theory. Stylistic or intraspeaker variation derives from and mirrors interspeaker variation. Style is essentially speakers' response to their audience. In audience design, speakers accommodate primarily to their addressee. Third persons – auditors and overhearers – affect style to a lesser but regular degree. Audience design also accounts for bilingual or bidialectal code choices. Nonaudience factors like topic and setting derive their effect by association with addressee types. These style shifts are mainly responsive – caused by a situational change. Speakers can also use style as initiative, to redefine the existing situation. Initiative style is primarily referee design: divergence from the addressee and towards an absent reference group. Referee design is especially prevalent in mass communication. (Sociolinguistic variation, code-switching. bilingualism, accommodation theory, ethnography of communication, mass communication)