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Age and loneliness in 25 European nations
Abstract
The relationship between age and loneliness is intriguing. While loneliness has been widely perceived as a problem of old age, there is evidence suggesting that adolescence is the peak age for experiencing loneliness and there are demonstrable variations between nations in reported rates of loneliness. However, comparative data for examining both the prevalence of loneliness across age groups and across nations are sparse. As the first phase of a larger project, we explore the prevalence of loneliness across different age groups in 25 European nations, with a focus on people of an advanced age. After discussing issues of comparability, we present our empirical findings employing data collected in the third round (2006–07) of the European Social Survey (total sample size 47,099, age range 15–101) which included a ‘self-rating’ loneliness scale. Our results suggest that the prevalence of loneliness does increase with age for the combined sample. However, the nation in which one lives shows a greater impact than age on reported levels of loneliness, with Russia and Eastern European nations having the highest proportions of lonely people (about 10–34% for different age groups) and Northern European nations the lowest (mostly below 6%). Possible explanatory factors are identified and discussed, which provides the groundwork of a subsequent and formal study.
... Mit Einsamkeit sind individuelle und gesellschaftliche Risiken wie Krankheit, eine sinkende Solidarität, ein sinkendes Vertrauen in Mitmenschen und in politische und gesellschaftliche Institutionen sowie eine Schwächung der Innovationskraft auf gesellschaftlicher, politischer und wirtschaftlicher Ebene verbunden [1][2][3][4][5]. Da Menschen unter Einsamkeit leiden, wird eine Reaktion auf das gesellschaftliche Problem der Einsamkeit als wichtig angesehen. ...
... Gesellschaftliche Gruppen leiden unterschiedlich stark unter Einsamkeit. Bei sozial Schwachen und Alleinerziehenden ist die Einsamkeit überdurchschnittlich hoch [4]. Im Alter steigt häufig die Einsamkeit und ist dann für einen erheblichen Teil der jeweiligen Altersgruppen eine hohe Belastung [7]. ...
... Es zeigt sich wiederholt, dass in Europa vor allem nordeuropäische Länder vergleichsweise niedrige Einsamkeitswerte aufweisen [4,7]. In internationalen Erhebungen, die das Ausmaß der Einsamkeit erfassen,wird i. d. ...
Zusammenfassung
Das Ausmaß von Einsamkeit unterscheidet sich im internationalen Vergleich. Vor allem in den entwickelten Wohlfahrtsstaaten Nordeuropas sind die Einsamkeitswerte in der Bevölkerung vergleichsweise gering. Der Anstieg an Einsamkeit in vielen Ländern zeigt allerdings, dass bestehende Konzepte für einen wirksamen Schutz vor Einsamkeit nicht ausreichen. Auch jüngere Menschen müssen gestärkt werden, damit sie sich bei Ausgrenzungserfahrungen und Einsamkeit nicht zurückziehen. Hierfür werden qualifizierte Fachkräfte in Kindergärten, Schulen, Vereinen und weiteren Freizeiteinrichtungen benötigt, die Kindern und Jugendlichen helfen, soziale Kontakte aufzubauen. Bei den Strategien gegen Einsamkeit haben sich Freundschafts- und Nachbarschaftsmodelle als erfolgreich erwiesen. Eine höhere Identifikation mit der Nachbarschaft und ein Gefühl der Sicherheit tragen zum Aufbau sozialer Netzwerke bei und reduzieren die Einsamkeit. Für ältere Menschen ist es wichtig, dass sie in ihrem gewohnten sozialen Umfeld wohnen bleiben und ihre sozialen Kontakte aufrechterhalten können. Hierfür sind erreichbare öffentliche Plätze mit Pflegeangeboten und Unterstützungsleistungen zu verbinden, die auf die Bedürfnisse und Wünsche älterer Menschen zugeschnitten sind.
... At the heart of this study is the exploration of loneliness, a complex and subjective state where individuals perceive a discrepancy between desired and actual social connections. This encompasses not only the absence of meaningful personal bonds, often termed emotional loneliness, but also the perceived lack of a wider supportive social network, known as social loneliness (1)(2)(3). The Baltic and Nordic regions, with their unique socio-cultural landscapes, offer a distinct backdrop for investigating loneliness. ...
... As we delve deeper into the intricacies of loneliness in the Baltic and Nordic countries, a complex web of individual, societal, and cultural factors becomes evident. Research spanning 25 European countries indicates geographical distinctions in loneliness experiences, with Northern European countries typically reporting lower loneliness rates compared to their Eastern counterparts (3). When comparing these findings at a broader European level, the distinct nature of loneliness within the Baltic and Nordic regions becomes even more apparent. ...
... In the Baltic region, fewer reports of loneliness may reflect cultural or economic factors fostering community and belonging, as supported by the strong statistical significance of our findings. The Nordic countries, known for their high quality of life and robust social welfare, report the lowest levels of loneliness, potentially due to social trust and community engagement (3,10). Iceland, despite a higher proportion of loneliness, shows a majority still feeling seldom lonely, influenced possibly by its tight-knit communities (16). ...
Introduction
The primary aim of this study is to thoroughly investigate the prevalence and determinants of loneliness among older adults in the Baltic-Nordic region. Utilizing high-quality data sources and employing a methodologically rigorous approach, the study endeavors to enhance our understanding of how loneliness manifests and varies across different cultural and socio-economic contexts within these regions. By identifying key factors influencing loneliness, including demographic, social, and economic variables, the research seeks to contribute significantly to the existing body of knowledge on loneliness and inform targeted public health strategies and interventions tailored to the unique needs of older adults in the Baltic and Nordic countries.
Material and methods
This research, centered on older adults aged 67 and above within the Baltic-Nordic region, draws upon data from the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE), specifically its eighth wave conducted between June and August 2020. The demographic analysis of this study covers a diverse sample of 5,313 participants from the Baltic and Nordic regions. Specifically, the sample includes 2,377 participants from Nordic countries, namely Sweden, Denmark, and Finland, and 2,936 from the Baltic countries of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. The investigation extends to the financial well-being of households, involving an analysis of 3,925 individuals, with 1,748 from Nordic countries and 2,177 from Baltic countries. Although Iceland is categorized as a Nordic country, the analysis within this study is conducted separately due to the unavailability of SHARE data for this region. Instead, the HL20 study, focusing on the health and well-being of the older adult population in Iceland, contributes data for 1,033 respondents. This methodological distinction allows for a comprehensive understanding of regional differences, highlighting the importance of specialized approaches to examine the intricate dynamics of loneliness and well-being across the Baltic-Nordic region.
Results
The study reveals significant regional variations in loneliness among older adults during the COVID-19 outbreak, with the Baltic countries (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania) reporting a lower prevalence of loneliness compared to the Nordic countries (Sweden, Denmark, Finland). Iceland, while grouped with the Nordic countries, was analysed separately. Employment emerges as a key factor in reducing loneliness across all regions, suggesting the benefits of social interactions and structured routines. Gender and marital status significantly influence loneliness, with notable disparities in the Baltic region and smaller gaps in the Nordic countries, reflecting the impact of societal and cultural norms. Additionally, educational attainment and health status show varied associations with loneliness, highlighting the complex interplay of individual and societal factors in these regions.
... Loneliness and age exhibit a non-linear relationship across the life cycle: levels are higher for young adults (late adolescence) and older people than for those who are middle-aged (Yang & Victor, 2011;Barreto et al., 2021). Although in this research we focus exclusively on those aged 50 or more, we also expect a non-linear relationship between loneliness feelings and age. ...
... There is also previous research analysing whether loneliness is more intense in individualistic countries than in collectivist ones (Yang & Victor, 2011;Lykes and Kemmelmeier, 2014;Barreto et al., 2021;Taniguchi & Kaufman, 2022). Focusing on older people in Europe, recent research shows that loneliness does not affect all older people equally in all countries. ...
... Additionally, we find a significant differential in favour of females for the loneliness trajectory "Two-off", i.e., 5.52 percentage points. Previous studies have found a significant relationship between gender and age in terms of loneliness (e.g., Koenig & Abrams, 1999;Yang & Victor, 2011;Nicolaisen & Thorsen, 2014;and Barreto et al., 2021). To shed further light, we have calculated the loneliness score and the distribution of the trajectories of persistence by age and gender. ...
In this article, we analyse loneliness trajectories for older people aged 50 or
more in selected European countries by gender. We also focus on the relationship
between disability and loneliness trajectories. We use three waves of the longitudinal
SHARE database. Loneliness trajectories are non-linear, increasing with age for
both genders, and have the same shape irrespective of disability status but with different
levels of loneliness. Loneliness persistence increases with disability and disability
severity, especially for women. Worsening (improving) disability increases
(decreases) the risk of loneliness persistence. We build rankings of the country’s
effects on loneliness persistence by gender. Mediterranean and Eastern European
countries have the highest persistence rates, while the lowest rates are in Northern
countries.
... Despite the growing recognition of loneliness as a public health concern, studies investigating socioeconomic differences in loneliness, including differences according to age, gender, and socioeconomic status, are comparatively rare (Barjakova´et al., 2023). Most studies have focused on age-differences in loneliness and generally found that older adults and younger adults seem to suffer from loneliness the most (e.g., Hawkley et al., 2022;Luhmann & Hawkley, 2016;Yang & Victor, 2011). For example, one study found that 7.0% of adults aged 60 + report frequent loneliness, whereas 4.4% of adults aged 30 to 59 and 5.1% of adults aged \30 report the same (Yang & Victor, 2011). ...
... Most studies have focused on age-differences in loneliness and generally found that older adults and younger adults seem to suffer from loneliness the most (e.g., Hawkley et al., 2022;Luhmann & Hawkley, 2016;Yang & Victor, 2011). For example, one study found that 7.0% of adults aged 60 + report frequent loneliness, whereas 4.4% of adults aged 30 to 59 and 5.1% of adults aged \30 report the same (Yang & Victor, 2011). Many studies have also investigated gender differences in loneliness, with metaanalytical evidence suggesting similar levels of loneliness in men and women (e.g., Barreto et al., 2021;Liu et al., 2020;Maes et al., 2019). ...
Loneliness represents a serious health risk. However, studies investigating social inequalities in loneliness are rare. Thus, the current study investigates which socioeconomic groups are the most affected by loneliness. Data from the population-based German Aging Survey were used (N = 3,784), with participants being 40+ years old. Education, income, and occupational prestige were used as socioeconomic indicators. It was found that loneliness scores were descriptively higher in groups with lower educational attainment, lower income and lower occupational prestige. In a linear regression analysis, significant socioeconomic differences in loneliness emerged only for income and occupational prestige. Thus, individuals with a low occupational position and those with low income are systematically more affected by loneliness than higher status groups. Material and occupational resources are likely to constitute major socio-structural explanatory variables for loneliness and should be further investigated as such by future studies.
... Fish have also been reported to have a third type, GnRH III. Since GnRH I is the only hormone in animals with hypophysiotropic properties, GnRH I is referred to as GnRH in human contexts [7][8][9]. ...
... Thus, the study conducted to study immunity indicators in healthy girls in Tashkent allows us to conclude that their immunological reactivity is sufficient. The study of the parameters of the immunological status corresponds to the literature data relating to residents of a similar age in the European part of Russia [9,10]. ...
Complex investigation was undertaken on 1064 healthy girls to study parameters of physical and pubertal development age indications of physical and pubertal development of Uzbek girls. This data is correlated with normative indicators of girls living in the European part of the ISU that allowed considering them as standard for all republics. Analysis of the results showed significant redactor of hormonal activity and level of immunologic resistance, as well as high percentage of identification of pathology of reproductive system at girls and young women in Curlen district of Khoresm province that confirms ecologically unfavorable situation in this region of Uzbekistan.
... The prevalence of loneliness is known to vary with age and place. Several studies have shown that the highest prevalence of loneliness occurs in the youngest (< 30) and oldest (> 75) age groups [9,10]; others find a linear decrease in loneliness with age worldwide [11]; others indicate that age differences in the prevalence of loneliness depend on the country or culture in which people live [9,12,13]. The factors consistently found to be associated with loneliness are partner status and widowhood, social network size, depression, self-perceived health, and social activities [14]. ...
... The prevalence of loneliness is known to vary with age and place. Several studies have shown that the highest prevalence of loneliness occurs in the youngest (< 30) and oldest (> 75) age groups [9,10]; others find a linear decrease in loneliness with age worldwide [11]; others indicate that age differences in the prevalence of loneliness depend on the country or culture in which people live [9,12,13]. The factors consistently found to be associated with loneliness are partner status and widowhood, social network size, depression, self-perceived health, and social activities [14]. ...
Background
Later life loneliness has become a significant public health concern worldwide. Research has focused on the prevalence, risk factors and consequences of loneliness in different age groups. This study aimed to advance the understanding of the impact of early-life circumstances on later life loneliness by examining the associations between adversities in childhood and youth and loneliness trajectories in Finnish older adults.
Methods
The data were derived from the 10-year follow-up survey study Good Aging in the Lahti Region (n = 1552, mean age 64.89 years). The baseline study was conducted in 2002 with a regionally and locally stratified random sample of older persons living in the Lahti Region located in southern Finland. The follow-up surveys were carried out in 2005, 2008 and 2012. Loneliness was measured using a single question at the three follow-ups. Childhood conditions were retrospectively assessed at baseline with questions regarding the death of parents, household affection, relocation, and fear of a family member. Latent class growth analysis with time invariant covariates was used to identify loneliness trajectories and to examine the associations between loneliness trajectories and adverse circumstances in childhood and youth.
Results
The results identified three distinct loneliness trajectories: low, moderate, and severe, including 36%, 50% and 14%, respectively, of the study population. The non-significant slopes of the three trajectories indicate that trajectories were stable during the seven years of follow-up. Being afraid of a family member, having a cold childhood, and death of a father or mother in childhood or youth significantly increased the odds of having a severe loneliness trajectory as compared to low loneliness trajectory. None of the early-life circumstances differentiated between severe and moderate levels of loneliness.
Conclusions
The findings suggest that some adverse early-life circumstances increase the odds of an unfavorable loneliness trajectory in later life. The results highlight the need to recognize the role of diverse life-course adversities in loneliness research and interventions. The study also underscores the importance of identifying individuals who are at risk of long-term and severe loneliness and providing them with appropriate support to decrease and/or prevent the negative health consequences of loneliness in old age.
... Research has estimated prevalences of oldage loneliness ranging between 10% (Dahlberg et al. 2018) and 50% (Gerst-Emerson and Jayawardhana 2015). A European study by Yang and Victor (2011), who investigated loneliness prevalence across various European countries, found that in every geographic region the experienced loneliness in the 60 + population increased with age, with prevalences reaching up to 34% in the oldest age groups (Yang and Victor 2011). ...
... Research has estimated prevalences of oldage loneliness ranging between 10% (Dahlberg et al. 2018) and 50% (Gerst-Emerson and Jayawardhana 2015). A European study by Yang and Victor (2011), who investigated loneliness prevalence across various European countries, found that in every geographic region the experienced loneliness in the 60 + population increased with age, with prevalences reaching up to 34% in the oldest age groups (Yang and Victor 2011). ...
Objectives: Loneliness has been found to be associated with an increased probability of depressive symptoms in various research studies. Yet, the relationship is complex, and it remains unclear whether loneliness is a cause for depressive symptomatology. This study aims to investigate the possible causal effect of loneliness in the loneliness-depressive symptoms relationship among 65+ older adults in Europe.
Method: This study analyzed two waves of observational data (2015–2017) from the Study of Health, Aging and Retirement Europe (SHARE) (n = 6808 individuals) and tried to identify a causal effect of direct and indirect loneliness on depressive symptomatology by accounting for confounding of potential unmeasured factors underlying the relationship using an endogenous treatment-effects model.
Results: This study showed that there was a substantial positive association between loneliness in 2015 and new depressive symptoms in 2017 in the sample. However, there was no support for the hypothesis that loneliness in 2015 was a cause of depressive symptoms among those adults in 2017. In addition, there was limited evidence for unmeasured factors confounding the relationship.
Discussion: Loneliness may not be a cause for depressive symptoms. This suggests that there might be other reasons why lonely individuals are at an increased risk of depressive symptoms. Therefore, a shift in focus when aiming to reduce depressive symptoms among lonely older adults may be warranted.
... Although there is no global estimate of the proportion of elderly individuals who experience loneliness and social isolation in their communities, the prevalence is assumed to range from 5 to 50 %, depending on the country and population being studied, the design of the studies, and the definition of the concepts [12,13]. For instance, in European countries and within the age range of 60 and 80 years, the prevalence of frequently feeling lonely is shown to be between 5 and 10 %. ...
... For instance, in European countries and within the age range of 60 and 80 years, the prevalence of frequently feeling lonely is shown to be between 5 and 10 %. The prevalence dramatically increases in advanced age (i.e., 80+), with studies stating that between 40 and 50 % report often feeling lonely [12,13]. Other studies indicated a prevalence of loneliness ranging from 25 to 29 % in the USA [14], 25 to 32 % in Latin America [15], 18 to 44 % in India [15,16], and 3.8 to 29.6 % in China [15,17]. ...
Background
Recognizing the escalating public health concerns of loneliness and social isolation in aging populations, this study seeks to comprehensively explore the potential of information and communication technology (ICT)-based interventions to address these issues among older adults. This scoping review of reviews aims to map and synthesize existing evidence on the effectiveness and scope of ICT interventions targeting loneliness and social isolation in community-dwelling older adults, elucidating types of technology, impacts, facilitators, barriers, and research gaps.
Methods
Following the Joanna Briggs Institute framework, we systematically searched eight diverse databases identifying relevant published reviews. We included English-written, peer-reviewed reviews of all types, with no limits regarding time of publication about ICTs targeting loneliness and/or social isolation for community-dwelling older adults. Eligible reviews were analysed and summarized, offering a holistic narrative of the reported types of ICTs and their impact, the identified facilitators and barriers influencing the implementation and adoption of ICT interventions, and the research gaps identified in the literature.
Results
The review included 39 publications published between 2012 and 2024, spanning systematic, scoping, and reviews of reviews. Various ICTs were reported, primarily social media virtual communities, followed by video-mediated friendly visits, conversational agents, social robots, exergames and online gameplay. Predominantly positive impacts on mitigating social isolation and loneliness were evident for these ICTs, although methodological diversity and contradictory findings complicated definite conclusions. Facilitators and barriers encompassed individual competencies, access and usage, and intervention design and implementation. Research gaps involved targeting specific subgroups, exploring innovative technologies, incorporating diverse study designs, improving research methodologies, and addressing usability and accessibility. Future research should focus on identifying elderly individuals who can benefit the most from ICT use, exploring novel technologies, using a wider range of study designs, and enhancing usability and accessibility considerations.
Conclusions
This review sheds light on the diverse range of ICTs, their impact, and the facilitators and barriers associated with their use. Future investigations should prioritize refining outcome measures, addressing gender differences, and enhancing the usability and accessibility of interventions. The involvement of older adults in the design process and the exploration of technological training interventions hold promise in overcoming barriers.
... In Europe alone, before SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, over 75 million European adults reported meeting with family and friends at most once per month and 30 million European adults frequently felt lonely (Yang and Victor 2011). Moreover, loneliness is most prevalent in Eastern and Southern Europe and affects all age groups (Yang andVictor 2011, d'Hombres et al. 2019). ...
... In Europe alone, before SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, over 75 million European adults reported meeting with family and friends at most once per month and 30 million European adults frequently felt lonely (Yang and Victor 2011). Moreover, loneliness is most prevalent in Eastern and Southern Europe and affects all age groups (Yang andVictor 2011, d'Hombres et al. 2019). In the United Kingdom, the Office of National Health Statistics found that around 25% of the population sometimes, often or always felt lonely (Figueira et al. 2022). ...
... In an assessment of the prevalence of loneliness across various age groups in 25 European nations, findings showed that the prevalence of loneliness increased with age and that Russia and Eastern European nations, considered more collectivistic cultures, had the highest proportion of lonely older adults (Yang & Victor, 2011). A previous study examined loneliness as a function of dominant cultural values in European societies and found that levels of loneliness were higher in collectivistic societies compared to individualistic societies and that in collectivistic societies, the lack of familial interactions was more closely linked with loneliness (Lykes & Kemmelmeier, 2014). ...
Loneliness among older adults is a well-known public health issue that became significantly apparent in the post-Covid-19 era. Our qualitative study examined and compared the perspectives of thirty-one older adults toward the factors that intensified or reduced loneliness. Five themes emerged from the analysis: emotional vs. social loneliness; the impact of health conditions on loneliness; the effect of socioeconomic status on loneliness; the role of family links; and the role of social networks. Findings show that effectively reducing loneliness requires a better understanding of how social networks differ based on sociodemographic elements and dominant cultural values.
... Furthermore, the age distribution of loneliness also differed between countries (K. Yang & Victor, 2011), and evidence suggests that these patterns may be driven by cultural differences along the individualistic-collectivistic continuum (Barreto et al., 2021;Lykes & Kemmelmeier, 2014). We also considered study design as a potential moderator given that longitudinal studies involve repeated measures and may thus paint a different view of the relation between loneliness and ER compared to cross-sectional studies. ...
Chronic loneliness has been associated with increased risk for multiple mental disorders. Multiple lines of evidence suggest that problems with emotion regulation (ER) may underlie the course and costs of loneliness, but evidence on the associations between loneliness and ER has not been systematically analyzed until now. The present meta-analysis examined the relations between loneliness and multiple dimensions of ER including the habitual use of common strategies (i.e., rumination, cognitive reappraisal, expressive suppression, distraction), ER difficulties, and ER abilities. A systematic search across four databases returned 4,454 articles, out of which 61 articles (total N = 40,641) were eligible for inclusion. The analyses indicated that there were consistent positive relations between loneliness and rumination (r = 0.38), suppression (r = 0.31), and ER difficulties (r = 0.49). Loneliness was also negatively associated with reappraisal (r = −0.23), distraction (r = −0.21), and ER abilities (r = −0.28). The latter two effects were significantly larger in studies on adults compared to adolescents, as indicated by subgroup analyses, and corroborated by metaregressions. Furthermore, the percentage of women in the sample was a negative predictor of the association between loneliness and ER difficulties, and the country cultural individualism was a positive predictor of the association between loneliness and suppression. There was evidence of publication bias in all analyses, but the effect sizes remained significant after imputing for missing studies. Overall, the present results support consistent associations between loneliness and ER and highlight potential targets for future interventions.
... While we controlled for several individual-level third variables and stratified by gender, macro-level factors may further explain differences in findings between national studies. For example, studies on loneliness consistently find that loneliness is highest in countries were living alone is most prevalent [e.g., (39)(40)(41)(42)(43)(44)], suggesting a differential impact of living alone on loneliness in different countries. Interpretations of these findings vary from structural differences (e.g., welfare state provisions, living standards) to cultural (e.g., familistic vs. individualistic cultures, differences in interpersonal trust). ...
Introduction
This study investigates the individual and combined impacts of loneliness and social isolation on 20-year mortality risks among older men and women.
Methods
Utilizing data from the Norwegian Life Course, Ageing, and Generation study (NorLAG) carried out in 2002, 2007 and 2017, we assessed loneliness via direct and indirect questions, and social isolation through factors like partnership status and contact frequency with family and friends. Yearly information on mortality was derived from the national registries and was available until November 2022. Gender-stratified Cox regression models adjusted for age and other risk factors were employed.
Results
Of the 11,028 unique respondents, 9,952 participants were included in the study sample, 1,008 (19.8%) women and 1,295 (26.6%) men died. In the fully adjusted models including indirectly assessed loneliness, social isolation increased the 20-year mortality risk by 16% (HR = 1.16, 95% CI 1.09–1.24) for women and 15% (HR = 1.15, 95% CI 1.09–1.21) for men. This effect was primarily driven by the absence of a partner and little contact with children for both genders. Loneliness measured with indirect questions lost its significant association with mortality after adjusting for social isolation and other factors in both genders. However, for men, reporting loneliness via a direct question was associated with a higher mortality risk, even in the fully controlled models (HR = 1.20, 96% CI 1.06–1.36). Interactions between loneliness and social isolation were not, or only borderline significantly, associated with mortality risks in the fully controlled models.
Discussion
Social isolation, but not loneliness measured with indirect questions are associated with a 15–16% higher mortality risk in both men and women. However, loneliness assessed with a direct question is associated with increased mortality in men, even after controlling for social isolation and other relevant factors, which might suggest that men may deny loneliness, unless it is (very) severe. These findings emphasize the importance of methodological precision in the measurement of loneliness and social isolation.
... In response, the Romanian government instituted multiple preventive measures, from travel bans, school closures, bans on public gatherings, and finally, a military curfew (Dascalu, 2020). Even before the COVID-19 pandemic, loneliness had been described as an epidemic occurring in the developed world (Williams & Braun, 2019;Jeste et al., 2020), particularly in former Soviet countries (Yang & Victor, 2011). Our study explored the pivotal role of loneliness during the first wave of the pandemic in Romania, its relationship with social distancing and intimacy, and its effect on social media usage and psychological distress. ...
During the spring of 2020, Romania entered its first lockdown in response to the growing Covid-19 pandemic. The pandemic’s impact on mental health was thus superimposed on an already epidemic risk of loneliness in developed countries. The purpose of this article was thus to measure the impact of perceived social isolation during the national lockdown on emotional distress among the general population, while also considering potential risk or buffering factors like social media usage, and romantic relationships. Featuring a cross-sectional design, data was collected from 180 participants, aged 20 – 60 years using an online questionnaire which included the DASS-21 scale, the UCLA Loneliness Scale and the Intimate Relationships Scale. Our results indicated that loneliness significantly predicted depressive, anxious and stress symptoms even when correcting for gender and age. Distancing measures had no significant effect on couples, though differences in depression and loneliness were found between those with no partner, and those who described minimal impact of social distancing measures. Number of social media sites used predicted greater depressive and anxious symptoms, even when correcting for age and gender, whereas partner intimacy presented as a protective factor for loneliness. Given the many public, individual and dyadic factors involved in mental health during a pandemic, the implications for further studies are discussed.
... The possible range of scores is 5-35, with a score of 20 representing a neutral point on the scale. Cutoff scores are low (5)(6)(7)(8)(9)(10)(11)(12)(13)(14)(15)(16)(17), medium (18)(19)(20)(21)(22)(23), satisfied (26)(27)(28)(29)(30), and high (24)(25)(26)(27)(28)(29)(30)(31)(32)(33)(34)(35). In this study, the internal consistency coefficient for the satisfaction with life scale was very high with a Cronbach's Alpha score of 0.872. ...
Introduction
The negative effects of post-COVID-19 restrictions have been detected in students’ mental well-being due to internet addiction, changing habits, despair and uncertainty. Students’ academic success is expected to be affected by social media addiction, loneliness, depression, life satisfaction, problem solving skills and academic self-efficacy factors. This study aimed to determine the level of social media addiction and the effects of these factors on the academic success of university students and define their interactions with each other.
Methods
Four hundred nineteen questionnaires were collected between October–December 2022 at Bingöl University, Türkiye. Descriptive statistics, independent t-test, One-Way ANOVA, correlation and multiple linear regression methods were used to analyze data with the help of the SPSS 22 software.
Results
Middle level grade (GPA) average (71,17 ± 9,69 out of 100), low level social support from friends and family members (34,6%), spending more than 4 h on social media (42,5%), middle level social media addiction, moderate depression level (51,31%-PHQ > 10), mild loneliness and slight dissatisfaction with life were found among students. Furthermore, high academic self-efficacy, moderate agreement with academic performance and good problem-solving skills were indicated in the survey results. Significant differences, such as higher life satisfaction among males and higher depression among females, were measured. Academic self-efficacy scale, problem solving skills and satisfaction with life had a negative correlation with social media addiction and depression, while a positive correlation with academic performance measures. Problem solving skills, satisfaction with life, fourth class vs. others and living alone vs. others were positive predictors of the academic self-efficacy. Meanwhile, loneliness was a negative predictor of the academic self-efficacy, while higher problem-solving skills and being female were positive factors leading to a higher GPA.
Discussion
The fact that the participants were only students from Bingöl University limits the ability to generalize the results. Policymakers could implement social and problem-solving skills training to develop better academic programs and cognitive-behavioral therapy for students’ academic success.
... While older people's satisfaction via support is crucial, loneliness in young people seems to be more in uenced by the amount of supportive peers within their network (Kafetsios and Sideridis, 2006). According to earlier studies, loneliness is also prevalent in young people; in early adulthood, 15-30% of people report feeling lonely to some extent, while loneliness is less common in middle age (Yang & Victor, 2011). Bai et al., (2021) in their research to investigate the relationship in Anhui Province, China, between social capital along with loneliness, results demonstrate the relationship between loneliness within older adults and social capital. ...
This study emphasizes how crucial social capital to decrease the deaths of despair among Rust Belt counties. From the year 2015 the social theory of “deaths of despair” became a matter of curiosity among researchers: rising despair and unemployment in regions like the Rust Belt were the common cause of rising death rates among white Americans. Suicide, alcoholic liver disease, and drug overdose are the three categories of disease. The Appalachian region of the United States, particularly Pennsylvania, West Virginia, along with Delaware, has a high rate of diseases of despair and the deaths that follow. Numerous things, such as hopelessness, loneliness, loss, or a lack of direction or purpose in life, can contribute to despair. When researchers test the validity of this hypothesis, mixed results have been found in this regard.
Findings from 140 counties from the Rust Belt region revealed that social capital can be an effective policy instrument to decrease the deaths of despair. Therefore federal, state, county, academia and community leaders should implement policies to increase the social capital levels among US citizens.
JEL Codes: H10, H75, I15, I18
... Although currently there are no global estimates of its prevalence among older adults, the World Health Organization (2021) suggests that they are widespread. For instance, 25-29 per cent of older adults in the United States of America (USA) (Ong et al., 2016), 31 per cent in England (Age UK, 2018) and 20-34 per cent in 25 European countries (Yang and Victor, 2011) reported being lonely at least some of the time. Loneliness and social isolation have been associated with many negative health and wellbeing outcomes, including physical health problems such as elevated blood pressure, cardiovascular disease, diminished immune functioning (Holt-Lunstad, 2017), poor mental health (Cacioppo et al., 2006), lower cognitive health (Barnes et al., 2004;Ellwardt et al., 2013), increased morbidity and mortality (Holt-Lunstad et al., 2015) and diminished quality of life (Jakobsson and Hallberg, 2005). ...
Loneliness and social isolation among older adults are emerging public health concerns. Older adults from ethnic minority communities or with immigration backgrounds may be particularly vulnerable when encountering loneliness and social isolation due to the double jeopardy of their old age and minority status. The goal of this study is to conduct a scoping review of published journal articles on ethnic minority/immigrant older adults' loneliness and social isolation experiences to show the extent, range and nature of empirical studies in this area across several high-income countries ( i.e. European countries, United States of America (USA), Canada, Australia and New Zealand). This review uses Arksey and O'Malley's five-state framework, a well-established scoping review method. We identify and analyse 76 articles published between 1983 and 2021. This evidence base is largely US-focused (54%) with the vast majority (76%) having a quantitative design. We summarise and map factors of loneliness and social isolation into a multi-dimensional socio-ecological model. By doing so, we show how ethnicity/immigration-specific factors and general factors intersect in multiple dimensions across places and time, shaping ethnic minority/immigrant older adults' heterogeneous experiences of loneliness and social isolation. Several critical gaps that should be at the forefront of future research are highlighted and discussed.
... Loneliness is a pervasive phenomenon [38] and evidence indicates that 20 %-40 % of the elderly have reported that suffering from loneliness [39]. This undesired experience is reported to be between 19.6 % and 34 % among people aged 65 years and over in the United States of America [40]. Indeed loneliness is an essential index of mental health and quality of life in the elderly that widely increases the probability of physical and mental diseases during old ages [41]. ...
The current study aims to investigate the meaning of life, psychological well-being, self-care, and social capital, with depression and death anxiety in the elderly living in nursing homes through the mediating role of loneliness. The statistical population included all the elderly aged at least 60 years living in Tehran, Qazvin and Zanjan, Iran in 2020, among whom 489 (273 men and 216 women) were selected using convenience sampling method. Participants filled out Steger's Meaning of Life, Ryff and Singer's Psychological Well-Being Scale, Söderhamn et al.’s Self-Care Ability, Nahapiet and Ghoshal's Social capital, Beck's depression, Templer's Death Anxiety, Russell et al.’s Loneliness questionnaires. The results indicated that meaning of life, psychological well-being, self-care, and social capital are negatively associated with loneliness, which in turn, is positively associated to depression. Furthermore, meaning of life, psychological well-being, self-care, and social capital are negatively associated with loneliness, which in turn, is positively associated to death anxiety. Moreover, the results of path analysis revealed that the hypothesized model of the current study has an excellent fit in the study sample. That is, meaning of life, psychological well-being, self-care, and social capital are related to depression and death anxiety through mediating role of loneliness.
... The emergence and rapid spread throughout Romania in the spring of 2020 has led to multiple preventive measures, from travel 86/Bulletin of Integrative Psychiatry New Series March 2024 Year XXX No. 1 (100) bans to school closures, ban on public gatherings and finally a military curfew (Dascalu S, 2020). Even before the pandemic, loneliness has been described as a pandemic affecting the developed world (Williams SE & Braun B, 2019), with Eastern European countries presenting greater incidences compared to Western European ones (Yang K & Victor C, 2011). Loneliness has been defined as the subjective, aversive state that arises from the perceived discrepancy between one's obtained, and desires social relationships (Perlman D & Peplau LA, 1982), and has been identified as a risk factor for somatic illness (e.g. ...
... Variables that are frequently considered in the analysis of LN and DS are age and sex or gender. 1 Research not only indicates that levels of LN and DS peak among the oldest old, but also reveals a substantial disparity in levels and growth across time between men and women (Chui et al., 2015;Luhmann & Hawkley, 2016;Luo et al., 2023;Yang & Victor, 2011). ...
... Demographic and clinical variables that have previously been associated with loneliness and/or health behaviours were included as covariates [16,[65][66][67][68][69][70][71]. This included age, sex, level of education, marital status, and living arrangements. ...
Background
A cancer diagnosis and its treatment may be an especially isolating experience. Despite evidence that positive health behaviours can improve outcomes for people living with and beyond cancer (LWBC), no studies have examined associations between loneliness and different health behaviours in this population. This study aimed to describe the prevalence of loneliness in a large sample of UK adults LWBC and to explore whether loneliness was associated with multiple health behaviours.
Methods
Participants were adults (aged ≥ 18 years) diagnosed with breast, prostate or colorectal cancer who completed the Health and Lifestyle After Cancer Survey. Loneliness was reported using the UCLA loneliness score, dichotomised into higher (≥ 6) versus lower (< 6) loneliness. Engagement in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, dietary intake, smoking status, alcohol use, and self-reported height and weight were recorded. Behaviours were coded to reflect meeting or not meeting the World Cancer Research Fund recommendations for people LWBC. Logistic regression analyses explored associations between loneliness and health behaviours. Covariates were age, sex, ethnicity, education, marital status, living situation, cancer type, spread and treatment, time since treatment, time since diagnosis and number of comorbid conditions. Multiple imputation was used to account for missing data.
Results
5835 participants, mean age 67.4 (standard deviation = 11.8) years, completed the survey. 56% were female (n = 3266) and 44% (n = 2553) male, and 48% (n = 2786) were living with or beyond breast cancer, 32% (n = 1839) prostate, and 21% (n = 1210) colorectal. Of 5485 who completed the loneliness scale, 81% (n = 4423) of participants reported lower and 19% (n = 1035) higher loneliness. After adjustment for confounders, those reporting higher levels of loneliness had lower odds of meeting the WCRF recommendations for moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (Odds Ratio [OR] 0.78, 95% Confidence Internal [CI], 0.67, 0.97, p =.028), fruit and vegetable intake (OR 0.81, CI 0.67, 1.00, p =.046), and smoking (OR 0.62, 0.46, 0.84, p =.003). No association was observed between loneliness and the other dietary behaviours, alcohol, or body mass index.
Conclusions
Loneliness is relatively common in people LWBC and may represent an unmet need. People LWBC who experience higher levels of loneliness may need additional support to improve their health behaviours.
... In the present study, about two-thirds (66.4%) had loneliness. The available literature from different countries has reported "the prevalence of loneliness to vary from 11.5% to 77.3%." 15,28,29 The present study's finding of the prevalence of loneliness is also in the reported range of 55-77.3% in the clinic population in India. 15,20 In terms of specific features of loneliness, 64.8% reported a "lack of companionship," 45.2% "being left out in life," and 52.8% "being isolated from others." ...
Background
Loneliness in the elderly is of public health importance as it is a risk factor for adverse consequences. There is lack of data on loneliness among the elderly population of India, especially those residing in a rural community.
Aim
To estimate loneliness and its association with depression and caregiver abuse.
Materials and Methodology
A cross-sectional study was conducted in a rural health clinic in North India. 125 elderly persons were evaluated on the UCLA Loneliness Scale, Patient Health Questionnaire-15, Geriatric Depression Rating Scale‑30 (GDS), and Caregiver Abuse Screening (CASE) scale.
Results
67.6 years was the mean age of the study’s subjects, with a mean number of years of education of 2.9. Most were female, married, and from lower socioeconomic status and belonged to a non-nuclear family. The prevalence of loneliness was 66.4%. Regarding specific features, subjects reported a lack of companionship (64.8%), being left out in life (45.2%), and being isolated from others (52.8%). The severity of depression, somatization, psychological and physical abuse, neglect abuse, and caregiver abuse had a significant positive association with loneliness. Those with a presence of loneliness scored higher on GDS and CASE than those without. Those who were single at the time of the study reported significantly more loneliness than married ones. Those from nuclear families and middle socioeconomic status reported a significantly higher level of loneliness.
Conclusion
Loneliness among the elderly rural population is significantly high. The severity of loneliness is associated with higher severity of depression, somatization, and caregiver abuse.
... In terms of age, those ≥ 70 years are more likely to be in the moderate emotional loneliness and high loneliness groups. Studies have shown that loneliness in older adults tends to increase with age to varying degrees and peaks at age 80 and above [34]. Loneliness in older adults can be attributed to several reasons. ...
Background
Loneliness is a negative emotional state that can lead to physical and mental health problems. This study’s objective was to acquire an in-depth understanding of the heterogeneity and the predictors of loneliness among older adults in rural China and provide valuable references for practical interventions.
Methods
Older rural adults in China (N = 680) were recruited between January and April 2023. Latent profile analysis (LPA) was employed to identify subgroups of loneliness among participants. Single-factor and multinomial logistic regression analyses were conducted to investigate predictors of loneliness.
Results
The loneliness of rural older adults could be divided into three subgroups: low interaction loneliness group (55.0%), moderate emotional loneliness group (31.8%), and high loneliness group (13.2%). The subgroup predictors included age, gender, religious beliefs, marital status, living alone, number of chronic diseases, and smartphone use (P < 0.05).
Conclusion
This study identified a classification pattern for loneliness among older adults in rural areas of China, revealed the characteristics of different demographic variables in loneliness categories, and highlighted the heterogeneity of loneliness in this population. It serves as a theoretical reference for formulating intervention plans aimed at addressing various loneliness categories for local rural older adults.
Clinical trial registration
ChiCTR2300071591.
... [18][19][20] Research has shown that these problems are experienced not only by older adults but also by young people with vision loss. 21 Moreover, visual impairment is not only a problem for the individual but also a global public health problem that leads to a variety of social and economic problems. 22 Following the methodology described by Selb et al. 23 and used in other Core Set developments, the aim of the present study was to perform a systematic review to identify and quantify variables commonly addressed in published studies focussing on the functioning and disability of persons with vision loss. ...
Aim
As a first step in developing an International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) Core Set for adults with vision loss, this systematic review sought to identify the researchers' perspective by identifying the most often used outcome measures and research topics obtained from studies on adults with vision loss.
Methods
PubMed, Embase, CINAHL, APA PsycINFO and Web of Science were searched for studies on vision loss. Meaningful outcome measures and research topics were linked to the ICF components: environmental factors, body functions, body structures and the Activities and Participation life domains.
Results
After deduplication, 7219 records remained, of which 2328 articles were eligible for further review. For feasibility reasons, approximately 20% were randomly chosen from every publication year, resulting in 446 included articles. After full-text reading, 349 articles remained, describing 753 outcome measures based on questionnaires and 2771 additional research topics that could be linked to the ICF. Most were linked to the component Activities and Participation, with a focus on recreation and leisure activities (ICF code d920, 70%), reading (d166, 34%) and driving (d475, 27%). For the component body function, seeing functions (b210, 83%) were most often reported. Outcome measures and research topics were least often linked to the body structure component and environmental factors.
Conclusion
The broad range of ICF categories identified in this systematic review represents the variety of functioning typical for adults with vision loss. These results reflect the focus of researchers over the past 21 years by using various vision-related outcomes. In our next steps to develop the ICF Core Set for Vision Loss, we will include perspectives of experts and lived experience.
... Markers and experiences in our lives, such as retirement, bereavement, illness, disability or caring responsibilities, can be triggers to loneliness. With this in mind, the COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated loneliness and social isolation amongst society, not only amongst older populations (Drennan et al., 2008;Ejlskov et al., 2020;Marston & Morgan, 2020;Yang & Victor, 2011), but also younger cohorts (Ejlskov et al., 2020), young disabled adults (Morris, 2001), men (Ratcliffe et al. (2019 and childless adults who in/voluntary experience childlessness (Hadley, 2020;Hadley, 2018a;Hadley, 2018b;Hadley, 2019). Hadley (2018b) argues, "While many age related issues such as isolation, loneliness and dementia have recently gathered extensive attention (and funding) people ageing without children is a subject that remains unreported, under-researched and under-represented at all levels" (Hadley, 2018b, p. 76-77). ...
Video games are often thought of as trite activities for younger generations. However, research in game studies over the last few decades have revealed that games can be valuable tools for growth and connection, particularly among older generations. Exploring the ways digital games can be used as tools for connection has gained increased attention in recent months with global quarantines as a result of COVID-19. This article reviews the research that has examined the utility of digital games for older adults, focusing specifically on the ways in which games can be tools for social connectedness and psychological healing for older adults and intergenerationally. Special focus will be placed on the role games can play for post-traumatic stress among first responders.
... While loneliness is a relatively abstract and fluctuating concept, it has been assessed using various approaches, including a single-item question derived from the Centre for Epidemiologic Studies Depression (CES-D) scale [10], as well as more comprehensive self-reported questionnaires such as the three-item or 20-item UCLA Loneliness Scales [11,12]. Prevalence rates of loneliness among community-dwelling older adults worldwide have ranged from 19.3 to 34% [13,14]. It is important to acknowledge that the reported rates of loneliness may vary depending on the specific populations studied and measurement instruments utilized [15]. ...
Purpose
This study aimed to investigate the distinct yet interconnected aspects of social isolation, namely living alone and loneliness, and their individual and combined effects on predicting health-related quality of life (HRQoL).
Methods
A comprehensive analysis, encompassing both cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches, was conducted using a nationally representative sample of 5644 community-dwelling adults aged 55 and older from the Healthy Aging Longitudinal Study in Taiwan (HALST).
Results
Baseline data revealed that 9% of the sample reported living alone, while 10.3% reported experiencing loneliness, with 2.5% reporting both living alone and feeling lonely. Regression analyses consistently demonstrated that loneliness was significantly associated with concurrent and subsequent lower physical (PCS) and mental (MCS) component of HRQoL. Conversely, additional analyses indicated that living alone could indirectly exacerbate the adverse effects of loneliness or contribute to prolonged feelings of loneliness, subsequently predicting lower HRQoL after 3.2 year.
Conclusion
In terms of practical implications, interventions and policies aiming to enhance HRQoL in older adults should give particular attention to those who report feelings of loneliness, especially individuals living alone.
... Older adults, especially those above 75, are disproportionately affected by loneliness. Studies highlight a significant increase in self-reported loneliness in this age group [8][9][10]. Research in Amsterdam shows a positive correlation between age and loneliness, with 40-50% of those over 80 experiencing moderate to severe loneliness [11]. ...
Background: Loneliness in older adults is a critical issue that negatively affects their well-being. The potential of personal voice assistant (PVA) devices like Amazon’s Alexa Echo in reducing loneliness is an emerging area of interest, but it remains under-researched. Objective: this study aims to investigate the effect of interaction time and verbal engagement with PVA devices on reducing loneliness among older adults living alone. Method: In this experiment, individuals aged 75 and older (n = 15), living alone, were provided with Amazon Alexa Echo devices. They were instructed to interact with the device at least five times a day for a duration of four weeks. The study measured participants’ loneliness levels using the UCLA loneliness scale both before and after the study. Additionally, the interaction time and verbal engagement with the device were measured by the total time of use and the total number of intentional commands spoken to Alexa during the four-week period. Results: The findings revealed that the total time spent interacting with Alexa was a significant predictor of loneliness reduction. A mediation analysis indicated an indirect effect, showing that the number of intentional commands spoken to Alexa contributed to loneliness reduction indirectly by increasing the total time spent with the device (verbal engagement → interaction time → loneliness reduction). Conclusions: This study suggests that the key to reducing loneliness among older adults through PVA devices is not just initiating verbal interaction, but the overall time devoted to these interactions. While speaking to Alexa is a starting point, it is the duration of engagement that primarily drives loneliness alleviation.
... Commonly used loneliness scales conceptualise the phenomenon within dimensions (Bodford, 2017). Empirical studies found that both men and women experience loneliness in old age (Yang & Victor, 2011), with impending death a contributing factor to loneliness (Sand & Strang, 2006). ...
Today, the practice of religion is strongly influenced by digitalisation, in not only everyday life but also liminal situations such as dying. Apps, social networks, and virtual church services offer believers opportunities for participation when their mobility is impaired due to ageing and severe illness. This short-term ethnography explores Bible (e-)reading and (religious) encounters in a palliative care unit of a Swiss hospital, drawing on in-depth interviews, participant observation, and documentary photography. Using the case of a devout Protestant, who was chosen as a case study from a sample of 12 terminally ill patients, I will investigate 1) the existential issues involved in the dying process, 2) how Bible (e-)reading alleviates these issues, and 3) the networks and encounters with which the practice is connected. The results show that anticipation of death in conjunction with personality and social issues bestow a complex emotional tone on the Christian’s end-of-life journey. Bible reading, performed both through mobile mediation and face-to-face with companions, is an avenue through which to gain strength and hope in this difficult situation. Another important finding is that the devotional practice involves an exchange of gifts, which transposes the practice into a moral economy of compassion and care.
Background
Loneliness among older adults, is a subjective experience and a public health issue in aging societies. Psychometrically sound and culturally sensitive measures are needed for developing precisely targeted interventions in culturally distinct groups. This study tested the Short‐Form UCLA Loneliness Scale (ULS‐8) among Chinese older adults.
Method
Confirmatory factor analysis, internal consistency, and the correlation with the single question of loneliness were conducted with a sample of Chinese older adults. Rasch analyses assessed the unidimensionality, response category functioning, item difficulty, and targeting of the ULS‐8 for older Chinese adults.
Results
Data from 347 Chinese older adults (mean age 71.36 ± 9.51 years) were analyzed; 74.64% of the participants were female. The ULS‐8 showed acceptable internal consistency and criterion validity in Classical Test Theory. Confirmatory factor analysis and Rasch analysis indicated that the ULS‐8 did not demonstrate a unidimensional structure. Additionally, Rasch analysis revealed (1) a misfit in item 3, indicating a problem with construct validity; (2) the need to combine response categories; and (3) that Chinese older adults are less likely to endorse a high level of loneliness when using the ULS‐8.
Conclusions
To ascertain the adequacy of the loneliness measure, it is crucial to customize a new short version of the loneliness scale for Chinese older adults through Rasch analysis.
Objective: The primary aim of this study was to identify and understand the factors contributing to loneliness among individuals aged 65 and above receiving home care services. Methods: This research adopted a cross-sectional descriptive design to investigate the factors influencing loneliness in the elderly population. The study's population comprised individuals aged 65 and above receiving home care services from a municipality in Istanbul. The sample, determined through the convenience sampling method, consisted of 285 older participants who volunteered to take part in the study and were actively receiving home care. Data were collected using three main instruments: The Personal Information Form, The Loneliness Scale for the Elderly, and The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. Results: The loneliness level among single elderly individuals was significantly higher than that of their married counterparts, with being single explaining 33% of the variation in loneliness (R² = 33). The engagement in social activities emerged as a crucial factor, as the loneliness levels of socially active elderly individuals were notably lower, contributing to 25% of the variation in loneliness (R² = 25). The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale revealed that as the self-esteem of older adults increased, their loneliness levels decreased, explaining 26% of the variation (R² = 26). Marital status, social activity, and self-esteem variables collectively explained 23% of the variation in the level of loneliness. Conclusion: The study's key findings indicate that the level of self-esteem among elderly individuals receiving home care services was moderate. Additionally, single elderly individuals experienced higher levels of loneliness compared to their married counterparts. Socially active older adults exhibited lower loneliness levels, and increased self-esteem corresponded to decreased loneliness. Notably, variables such as age, gender, educational status, and the presence of chronic diseases showed no significant impact on the level of loneliness among the elderly.
Reducing loneliness amongst older people is an international public health and policy priority, with signs of decreasing importance in the UK. A growing body of research on tackling loneliness indicates it is a complex challenge. Most interventions imply they address loneliness, when in fact they offer social connectedness to address social isolation and can inadvertently responsibilise the individual for the causes and solutions for loneliness. This article presents research that explored loneliness in an underprivileged community in South Wales through interviews and focus groups with nineteen older people and eighteen local service providers. Their perspective supports a growing body of evidence that loneliness amongst older people is driven by wider structural and socio-cultural exclusion. Interventions to build social connections will be more effective if coupled with policies that reverse the reduction in public services (including transport and healthcare), and challenge socio-cultural norms, including a culture of self-reliance and ageism.
Background: Globally, loneliness is a growing public health concern associated with poor mental and physical health among older adults. Therefore, we performed a meta-analysis to explore the prevalence of loneliness and associated risk factors among older adults across siX continents.
Methods: Web of Science, PubMed, Embase, CINAHL, Cochrane Library, and references lists were comprehen- sively searched until April 2024. Data analysis was performed using Logit Transformation model in R-Software for pooled prevalence and DerSimonian-Lard random-effects model in Comprehensive Meta-Analysis for asso- ciated factors of loneliness. Heterogeneity was quantified by I2 and τ2 statistics. The funnel plot and Egger’s regression test assessed publication bias.
Results: A total of 70 studies with 462,083 older adults were included. The pooled prevalence of loneliness was 26% (95 %CI, 23 %–30 %) with 38 % for North America, 34 % for Africa, 32 % for Asia and South America, 23 % for Europe, and 13 % for Oceania. Cognitive impairment (2.98; 95 %CI, 1.30–6.81), poor health (2.35; 95 %CI, 1.59–3.45), female (1.92; 95 %CI, 1.53–2.41), depression (1.74; 95 %CI, 1.40–2.16), widowed (1.67; 95 %CI, 1.13–2.48), single (1.51; 95 %CI, 1.06–2.17), institutionalization (2.95; 95 %CI, 1.48–5.88), rural residency (1.18; 95 %CI, 1.04–1.34) were associated with increased risk of loneliness. Being married (0.51; 95 %CI, 0.31–0.82), male (0.55; 95 %CI, 0.43–0.70), and non-institutionalization (0.34; 95 %CI, 0.17–0.68) were asso- ciated with lower risk of loneliness.
Conclusion: ApproXimately, three among ten older adults aged ≥ 60 years are lonely worldwide. Early detection, prevention, and management of loneliness among older adults should consider diverse needs using gender- specific approaches.
Introduction:
Loneliness, social inactivity, and social isolation are intertwined concepts. When assessed separately, they indicate poor well-being, adverse health effects, and increased mortality. Studies exploring overlapping and comparing the prognosis of these concepts are scarce. We investigated (1) overlapping of concepts of loneliness, social inactivity, and social isolation, (2) characteristics of groups: group 0 (not lonely, socially inactive, or socially isolated), group 1 (lonely), group 2 (not lonely but socially inactive and/or socially isolated), and (3) the health-related quality of life (HRQoL), psychological well-being (PWB), and 3.6-year mortality of these groups.
Methods:
The home-dwelling older adults (n = 989; 75 y+) of the Helsinki Aging Study in 2019-2022 completing all required questionnaires were assessed. Group 0 included 494, group 1 included 280, and group 2 included 215 participants. Variables studied were demographics, diagnoses, mobility, physical functioning (Barthel index), and cognition (Mini-Mental State Examination). Outcomes were HRQoL (15D) and PWB. Mortality was retrieved from central registers.
Results:
Half of the sample was lonely, socially inactive, or socially isolated, but only 2% were simultaneously lonely, socially inactive, and socially isolated. Of lonely participants, 38% were also socially inactive and/or socially isolated. The lonely participants were significantly more often widowed or lived alone and had the lowest HRQoL and poorest PWB compared with the other groups. After adjustments (age, sex, Charlson Comorbidity Index), mortality did not statistically differ between the groups.
Conclusion:
Loneliness is an independent determinant of poor HRQoL and PWB, and it should be considered separately from social inactivity and social isolation.
With the global increase in world population and the extension of life expectancy come new challenges. For example, we face the question of how to ensure that an ageing population lives healthy, happy and productive lives. The EU has responded to this situation by supporting the SHAPES project to understand ageing in Europe and to create a platform and system to support independent and healthy ageing in Europe. In order to create a platform and system design that would support older people, the needs of SHAPES users needed to be analysed. The aim of this study was therefore to create personas that detail the characteristics, attitudes, behaviours, needs and characteristics of the target SHAPES user groups. The study used a combination of literature review and qualitative methods to create 12 distinct personas of older adults. These personas range from active, healthy seniors to those struggling with chronic illness, social isolation and the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. The personas created offer valuable insights into the lives of older Europeans and serve as a basis for creating effective support systems.
Sosyal medya kullanımı ve psikolojik iyi oluş göstergeleri etrafında yoğunlaşan son dönem iletişim araştırmalarına, bir katkı sunmayı amaçlayan bu çalışmada, Konya’da 18 yaş ve üzeri 694 kişiyle çevrim içi anket çalışması yapılmıştır. Anket formunda; katılımcıların yalnızlık düzeyi, olumlu olumsuz deneyim düzeyi, sosyal medya kullanımı ve bireysel nitelikleri belirlemeye yönelik ölçeklere yer verilmiştir. Katılımcıların %53,5’i kadın (N=371), %46,5’i erkektir (N=323). Katılımcılar düşük düzeyde yalnızlık hissetmektedir ( =2,0542). Katılımcılar yüksek düzeyde olumlu ( =3,5843) ve orta düzeyde olumsuz deneyim düzeyine ( =2,7015) sahiptir. Katılımcılar günlük ortalama 41,27 dakika sosyal medya kullanmaktadır. Katılımcıların olumlu deneyim düzeyi ile yalnızlık düzeyi arasında negatif ilişki görülmektedir. Katılımcıların olumsuz deneyim düzeyi ile yalnızlık düzeyleri arasında pozitif korelasyon bulunmaktadır. Twitter, YouTube ve Instagram kullanımı olumlu deneyim düzeyi ile negatif, olumsuz deneyim düzeyiyle pozitif ilişkilidir. YouTube kullanımı ile yalnızlık düzeyi arasında pozitif korelasyon vardır. Arkadaşlar kurma ve oyun oynama amacıyla sosyal medya kullanımı ile yalnızlık düzeyi arasında pozitif korelasyon bulunmaktadır. Katılımcıların eğitim düzeyleri arttıkça olumlu duyguları azalmakta, olumsuz duyguları artmaktadır. Lisans ve lisansüstü eğitim seviyesinde olumlu deneyim düzeyi düşük, olumsuz deneyim düzeyi diğer eğitim seviyelerine göre yüksektir. Öğrencilerin yalnızlık düzeyi anlamlı bir şekilde diğer mesleklere göre daha yüksektir. Diğer yandan öğrencilerin olumlu deneyim düzeyi diğer meslek gruplarına göre düşükken, öğrencilerin olumsuz deneyim düzeyi ise diğer meslek grupların göre daha yüksektir.
Objectives
We investigate global differences in psychosocial well-being between older adult age groups.
Methods
Using multinomial logistic regression, we analyzed 2018 data ( n = 93,663) from 9 countries/regions in the Health and Retirement Study international family of studies to compare age group differences in depression, loneliness, and happiness.
Results
Compared to the young old, the old-old reported more depression in Southern Europe, while the oldest old had higher risk in India and Southern Europe but lower risk in the United States. The old-old reported less loneliness in the United States but more in Southern Europe, while the oldest old had greater risk in Southern Europe. The old-old reported less happiness in Korea, while the oldest old had lower reports in Korea but higher reports in the United States.
Discussion
The psychosocial well-being of the oldest old is exceptionally good in the United States but exceptionally poor in Southern Europe.
Background: Age has been identified as a prominent predictor of loneliness, although the findings about the relationship between age and loneliness are inconclusive. This study examines the relationship between age and loneliness in the context of China, with a focus on residential and gender differences. Methods: Data were from the Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS) of 2017. A total of 3899 respondents were included. Loneliness was measured using a three-item Short Loneliness Scale. Age, squared terms of age, residential type, gender, and other socio-demographic characteristics were included in the study. Regression analyses were conducted among the total sample and subgroups of different gender and residential type subgroups, to investigate the association between age and loneliness. Results: There is a reverse U-shaped tendency between age and loneliness that peaks at the age of 47. This tendency is true of the male subgroup, that peaks at the age of 55, while the female respondents do not share that tendency. The inverted U-shaped distribution holds true for urban but not for rural residents. The female respondents reported a higher level of loneliness than the male. The rural respondents reported higher loneliness than their counterparts. Conclusions: This study demonstrates that an inverted U-shaped tendency between age and loneliness existed for the entire group, and the male and urban subgroups. Implications for service and practice are proposed based on the empirical findings.
Background
Social isolation and loneliness can occur in all age groups, and they are linked to increased mortality and poorer health outcomes. There is a growing body of research indicating inconsistent findings on the effectiveness of interventions aiming to alleviate social isolation and loneliness. Hence the need to facilitate the discoverability of research on these interventions.
Objectives
To map available evidence on the effects of in‐person interventions aimed at mitigating social isolation and/or loneliness across all age groups and settings.
Search Methods
The following databases were searched from inception up to 17 February 2022 with no language restrictions: Ovid MEDLINE, Embase, EBM Reviews—Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, APA PsycInfo via Ovid, CINAHL via EBSCO, EBSCO (all databases except CINAHL), Global Index Medicus, ProQuest (all databases), ProQuest ERIC, Web of Science, Korean Citation Index, Russian Science Citation Index, and SciELO Citation Index via Clarivate, and Elsevier Scopus.
Selection Criteria
Titles, abstracts, and full texts of potentially eligible articles identified were screened independently by two reviewers for inclusion following the outlined eligibility criteria.
Data Collection and Analysis
We developed and pilot tested a data extraction code set in Eppi‐Reviewer. Data was individually extracted and coded. We used the AMSTAR2 tool to assess the quality of reviews. However, the quality of the primary studies was not assessed.
Main Results
A total of 513 articles (421 primary studies and 92 systematic reviews) were included in this evidence and gap map which assessed the effectiveness of in‐person interventions to reduce social isolation and loneliness. Most (68%) of the reviews were classified as critically low quality, while less than 5% were classified as high or moderate quality. Most reviews looked at interpersonal delivery and community‐based delivery interventions, especially interventions for changing cognition led by a health professional and group activities, respectively. Loneliness, wellbeing, and depression/anxiety were the most assessed outcomes. Most research was conducted in high‐income countries, concentrated in the United States, United Kingdom, and Australia, with none from low‐income countries. Major gaps were identified in societal level and community‐based delivery interventions that address policies and community structures, respectively. Less than 5% of included reviews assessed process indicators or implementation outcomes. Similar patterns of evidence and gaps were found in primary studies. All age groups were represented but more reviews and primary studies focused on older adults (≥60 years, 63%) compared to young people (≤24 years, 34%). Two thirds described how at‐risk populations were identified and even fewer assessed differences in effect across equity factors for populations experiencing inequities.
Authors’ Conclusions
There is growing evidence that social isolation and loneliness are public health concerns. This evidence and gap map shows the available evidence, at the time of the search, on the effectiveness of in‐person interventions at reducing social isolation and loneliness across all ages and settings. Despite a large body of research, with much of it published in more recent years, it is unevenly distributed geographically and across types of interventions and outcomes. Most of the systematic reviews are of critically low quality, indicating the need for high quality reviews. This map can guide funders and researchers to consider the areas in which the evidence is lacking and to address these gaps as future research priorities.
Loneliness was predicted for women in three ethnocultural groups in Israel: native Jews, Israeli Arabs, and Former Soviet Union (FSU) immigrants. The study was based on Lund et al.’s (2018) conceptualization of social determinant domains of mental health disorders, as in the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. Social determinants were demographic, economic, social–cultural, and neighborhood factors. We examined whether ethnocultural disparities in loneliness persist when controlling for social determinants in these four domains or whether ethnic disparities are related to other forms of inequality among the three study groups, as reflected in these four domains. Next, we explored associations between the co-occurrence of key social determinants with loneliness. We used cross-sectional representative data of working-age women from the Israeli Social Survey (N = 5,600). Hierarchical logistic regression analyses indicated a higher risk for loneliness among FSU immigrants and Israeli Arabs than among native Jews. Economic risk factors significantly increased the risk of loneliness. Social and cultural factors decreased the risk of loneliness, while discrimination increased it. Improved neighborhood conditions decreased the risk of loneliness. Ethnocultural disparities in loneliness diminished when economic determinants were controlled. Co-occurrence of risk factors greatly increased the risk for loneliness, demonstrating a stepped relationship. Developing supportive networks for women, mainly from minority groups, to increase trust and fight discrimination against any background is necessary. Moreover, significant efforts must be made to combat poverty and narrow socioeconomic inequalities.
Ricca Edmondson addresses the significance of wisdom for dealing with challenges and adversity in later life and highlights contributions that wisdom traditions may offer to understand later life as a focus of meaning, insight, and creativity for individuals and society. She observes that contemporary understandings of wisdom frequently stress personal characteristics connected with wise behavior, whereas classical traditions emphasize intricacies of deliberation and virtue. In addition, essayistic and literary accounts emphasize how wisdom features in people’s experiences of their lifetimes. These traditions illuminate how values and commitments can evolve throughout human life in connection with ethics and caring for others. Edmondson pleads for “transactional “wisdom, which depends on forms of give-and-take between people and is associated with human interdependence and interpersonal commitments to others during the course of life. Transactional wisdom is an “inter-human” project demonstrating how older people can resist declining pressures. Thus conceived, wisdom can contribute to debates on loneliness, isolation, the communication of value, and hope.
Joachim Duyndam aims to understand the situation of older adults by exploring the human condition of being fundamentally “isolated” in one’s self-experience and the supportive and liberating effect of empathy in breaking this self-isolation. Based on contemporary theories of emotions, he develops an understanding of empathy related to the inner experiential side of emotions. According to his reception of these theories, emotions have a “rational” publicly perceptible “outer side” and an intra-subjective “inner side”, whereby the latter makes people isolated in their self-experience. Using Michel Tournier’s philosophical recounting of the classical story of Robinson Crusoe, Duyndam argues that empathy directed at the inner side of someone’s experiences provides some form of recognition, that is, completion of one’s unique self, which is a prerequisite for experiencing meaning in life. Duyndam reveals an underlying structure of social isolation and loneliness and the vital role of empathy for all dimensions of meaning in life. This is particularly relevant since existential loneliness and social isolation are significant later-life risks.
Cultural factors, such as country or continent, influence the relationship between loneliness and mental health. However, less is known about how cultural dimensions moderate this relationship during adolescence and younger adulthood, even if these dimensions manifest as country or continent differences. This study aims to examine the potential influence of Hofstede’s cultural dimensions on this relationship using a three-level meta-analysis approach. A total of 292 studies with 291,946 participants aged 10 to 24 were included in this study. The results indicate that cultural dimensions, such as individualism vs. collectivism, indulgence vs. restraint, power distance, and long-term vs. short-term orientation, moderated the associations between loneliness and social anxiety, stress, Internet overuse, and negative affect. The association between loneliness and mental health was not moderated by cultural dimensions, such as masculinity and uncertainty avoidance. These findings suggest that culture’s influence on the association between loneliness and mental health is based on a domain-specific mechanism.
This paper presents some findings from the IN-AGE (“Inclusive ageing in place”) study, which the authors carried out in 2019 in Italy. It explores the available social support resources for frail older people with functional limitations ageing in place alone, and possible links between their social isolation and perceived loneliness. The authors conducted qualitative/semi-structured interviews involving 120 participants aged 65 years and over, and used a mixed-methods analysis (quantitative/qualitative). The main results show the family as the main help resource for daily activities, but also for intimate confidences against social isolation, especially when said relatives live close. Family confidants are less present when seniors are supported by friends/neighbours or/and public services. Moreover, the family is valuable for decreasing loneliness, although not always. However, some older people feel particularly alone when they are supported by public services. Such a complex context draws attention on the need of support for frail seniors living alone and could provide insights for policymakers on adequate policies for preventing and managing loneliness and social isolation in later life. This is especially relevant when family (and other) resources are not available or scarce, also considering the opportunities offered by technology, which can help seniors remain socially connected to relatives, friends and their overall community.
Resumen La soledad es un fenómeno complejo que en los últimos años ha ido adquiriendo mayor relevancia a nivel social y académico. Esta nueva y creciente realidad social plantea retos a diferentes niveles (sanitario, laboral, legal, administrativo, etc.) y constituye un importante desafío para la administración. Las relaciones sociales de calidad destacan como estrategia para reducir la soledad y el aislamiento social, y forman parte de las propuestas de la OMS para la promoción del envejecimiento activo y saludable. Para afrontar este desafío es necesario conocer qué es la soledad y qué impacto tiene en la salud, qué características suelen tener las personas que la experimentan y cuáles son las posibilidades de intervención. El propósito de este trabajo es revisar y resumir la literatura científica reciente sobre estas cuestiones, con especial referencia al contexto español. PalabRas clave Soledad; personas mayores; salud; intervenciones.
Objectives: The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis is to assess the prevalence of loneliness in many countries worldwide which have different ways of assessing it.
Design: Systematic review and meta-analysis.
Setting: We searched seven electronic databases for English peer-reviewed studies published between 1992 and 2021.
Participants: We selected English-language peer-reviewed articles, with data from non-clinical populations of community-dwelling older adults (>60 years), and with "loneliness" or "lonely" in the title.
Measurements: A multilevel random-effects meta-analysis was used to estimate the prevalence of loneliness across studies and to pool prevalence rates for different measurement instruments, data collection methods, and countries.
Results: Our initial search identified 2,021 studies of which 45 (k = 101 prevalence rates) were included in the final meta-analysis. The estimated pooled prevalence rate was 31.6% (n = 168,473). Measurement instrument was a statistically significant moderator of the overall prevalence of loneliness. Loneliness prevalence was lowest for single-item questions and highest for the 20-item University of California-Los Angeles Loneliness Scale. Also, differences between modes of data collection were significant: the loneliness prevalence was significantly the highest for face-to-face data collection and the lowest for telephone and CATI data collection. Our moderator analysis to look at the country effect indicated that four of the six dimensions of Hofstede also caused a significant increase (Power Distance Index, Uncertainty Avoidance Index, Indulgence) or decrease (Individualism) in loneliness prevalence.
Conclusions: This study suggests that there is high variability in loneliness prevalence rates among community-dwelling older adults, influenced by measurement instrument used, mode of data collection, and country.
This article presents a model of loneliness that incorporates characteristics of the social network, background variables, personality characteristics, and evaluative aspects. The most salient aspect of this approach is its emphasis on cognitive processes that mediate between characteristics of the social network and the experience of loneliness. A total of 554 adult men and women served as respondents. The program LISREL, a causal modelling approach, was used to analyze the data. The LISREL program includes a goodness-of-fit test that indicates the degree of fit between a particular model and the data. The hypothesized model made a valuable contribution to the understanding of loneliness: It accounted for 52.3% of the variance in the data set. One of the model's major advantages is its ability to disentangle both the direct and the indirect causal influences of the various factors on loneliness.
Previous research on loneliness has often neglected the role of marriage ana family ties, comparative analysis, and cohabitation. It is not clear if the married/parent - loneliness relationship is consistent across nations, is stronger than a cohabitant-loneliness relationship, and applies to both genders. The present study addresses these issues. Data are from 17 nations in the World Values Survey. The results of multiple regression analyses determined that (1) Marriage is associated with substantially less loneliness, but parenthood is not (2) being married was considerably more predictive of loneliness than cohabitation, indicating that companionship alone does not account for the protective nature of marriage (3) both marriage and parental status were associated with lower levels of loneliness among men than women, (4) marriage is associated with decreased loneliness independent of two intervening processes: marriage's association with both health and financial satisfaction, (5) the strength of the marriage-loneliness relationship is constant across 16 of the 17 nations. Theoretically, the results are consistent with a social causation hypothesis on marriage and well-being, but also suggest possible support for a social selection thesis. The findings provide wide sweeping, strong, and largely consistent support for the married-loneliness thesis, but only weak support for a relationship between parenting and loneliness.
The paper describes and reviews concepts and studies in the area of social relations and health, with special emphasis on loneliness. Related concepts such as social networks and social support are also considered. The fundamental distinction between the objective manifestation of being alone and the subjective manifestation of experiencing loneliness is emphasized. The second part of the paper consists of a description of various network interventions followed by an overview and discussion of loneliness interventions.
Compared with the many studies in western countries, research on the prevalence of and risk factors for loneliness amongst older people in China is sparse. This paper reviews the current cross-national literature on loneliness and, using data from two national surveys undertaken in 1992 and 2000, assesses the prevalence of loneliness amongst older people in China and explores the factors that raise their vulnerability to the negative feeling. The reported prevalence of loneliness was 15.6 per cent in 1992 and 29.6 per cent in 2000. We suggest that part of the differential is accounted for by the differences in the methodologies of the two surveys and in the questions used to assess loneliness. The evidence from both surveys suggests that loneliness was relatively prevalent among those aged 65 or more years, females and those living in rural areas, and that these variations had greater amplitude in 2000. As in western countries, increased age, being widowed or divorced, and poor self-rated health were significantly associated with old-age loneliness in China at the two dates. Two factors positively related to loneliness were found that are specific to the Chinese context, however: living in a rural (as opposed to urban) area, and thinking that one's children are not filial. To develop our understanding of loneliness among older people in China and other non-western countries, it will be necessary to construct more rigorous and comparable measurements of loneliness and to undertake longitudinal studies of social relationships.
The main argument of this paper is that the subjective experience of loneliness among older people must be analyzed in relation to the overall value system of society or the subcultural values of particular segments of society. Cultural or subcultural value systems are contrasted in terms of whether they give priority to individualistic values or to collective values such as family or community bonds. These differences in value systems result in important differences in people's social contacts and socioemotional bonding experiences as well as their level of satisfaction with a given level of social relationships. It is suggested that these differences must be looked at in relation to basic human needs for social bonding as well as needs for individuation. The concept of the loneliness threshold is introduced to identify the level of social contacts that individuals desire to avoid the experience of loneliness or emotional isolation.
Comparative ageing research is a flourishing field, partly because of European funding in this area. Comparing different societies and cultures seems especially fruitful for the analysis of societal and cultural factors in development over the life course. From a nomothetic perspective, the aim of comparisons is the search for similarities and communalities in different societies and cultures; from an idiographic perspective, researchers are looking for societal and cultural specificity and distinctiveness. However, the potentials of comparative ageing research are not fully realized for the time being. In many cases, there is little theorizing as to whether there should be differences (or similarities) in ageing processes across countries, societies, or cultures. This paper discusses theoretical aims and ambitions of comparative ageing research in general. Comparative theories are sketched which could serve as a basis for comparative ageing research, and ageing theories are discussed which could be modified to be used in comparative research. The rationale of comparative ageing research is described and illustrated through empirical examples. Epistemological and methodological pitfalls (problems of conceptual, operational, functional, and measurement equivalence) are a substantial obstacle to comparative ageing research. Hence, merits and limitations of comparative designs and sampling procedures are considered.
The quality and quantity of individuals' social relationships has been linked not only to mental health but also to both morbidity and mortality.
This meta-analytic review was conducted to determine the extent to which social relationships influence risk for mortality, which aspects of social relationships are most highly predictive, and which factors may moderate the risk.
Data were extracted on several participant characteristics, including cause of mortality, initial health status, and pre-existing health conditions, as well as on study characteristics, including length of follow-up and type of assessment of social relationships.
Across 148 studies (308,849 participants), the random effects weighted average effect size was OR = 1.50 (95% CI 1.42 to 1.59), indicating a 50% increased likelihood of survival for participants with stronger social relationships. This finding remained consistent across age, sex, initial health status, cause of death, and follow-up period. Significant differences were found across the type of social measurement evaluated (p<0.001); the association was strongest for complex measures of social integration (OR = 1.91; 95% CI 1.63 to 2.23) and lowest for binary indicators of residential status (living alone versus with others) (OR = 1.19; 95% CI 0.99 to 1.44).
The influence of social relationships on risk for mortality is comparable with well-established risk factors for mortality. Please see later in the article for the Editors' Summary.
As a social species, humans rely on a safe, secure social surround to survive and thrive. Perceptions of social isolation, or loneliness, increase vigilance for threat and heighten feelings of vulnerability while also raising the desire to reconnect. Implicit hypervigilance for social threat alters psychological processes that influence physiological functioning, diminish sleep quality, and increase morbidity and mortality. The purpose of this paper is to review the features and consequences of loneliness within a comprehensive theoretical framework that informs interventions to reduce loneliness. We review physical and mental health consequences of loneliness, mechanisms for its effects, and effectiveness of extant interventions. Features of a loneliness regulatory loop are employed to explain cognitive, behavioral, and physiological consequences of loneliness and to discuss interventions to reduce loneliness. Loneliness is not simply being alone. Interventions to reduce loneliness and its health consequences may need to take into account its attentional, confirmatory, and memorial biases as well as its social and behavioral effects.
To investigate (i) whether loneliness increases in old age, and if so, whether it relates to ageing itself, to time trends or to cohort effects and (ii) the relationship between changes in institutionalization, partner status and health and loneliness.
939 men born between 1900 and 1920 completed the De Jong-Gierveld Loneliness Scale, and answered questions about their partner status, health and institutionalization in 1985, 1990 and 1995.
For the oldest group (born between 1900 and 1910) loneliness scores increased, but not for the younger groups. The increase in loneliness was attributable to ageing. No birth cohort or time effects were found. Loneliness was related to changes in institutionalization, partner status and subjective health but not to limitations in activities of daily living or cognitive function.
the increased loneliness experienced by very old men is influenced by loss of a partner, moving into a care home or not feeling healthy.
to examine the associations between domains of chronic diseases, social, psychological and environmental factors and long-standing and limiting long-standing illness among older people.
cross sectional survey.
national sample living in private households.
999 adults aged 65 years and over, mean age 73.2 years.
self-reports of long-standing illness and limiting long-standing illness.
the prevalence of long-standing illness was 61.8% (95% CI 58.8, 64.9) and that for limiting long-standing illness was 40.0 (95% CI 38.0, 43.0). Strong associations between long-standing illness and circulatory disease, odds ratio: 2.23 (95% CI 1.63, 3.05) and musculoskeletal disorders, odds ratio: 3.21 (95% CI 2.35, 4.39) were found. In addition associations with other domains were observed. For example, feelings of vulnerability, odds ratio: 1.79 (95% CI, 1.28, 2.51) from the psychological domain and, having close relatives living close by, odds ratio: 1.52 (95% CI 1.11, 2.09) from the social domain.
the importance of considering a wide range of domains of human experience in the causation of limitations in society is emphasised. The currently dominant disease oriented view is insufficient to explain people's reported long-standing illness and limiting long-standing illness.
Loneliness is experienced in many cultures. To properly assess cross-cultural differences, attention should be paid to the level, determinants, and measurement of loneliness. However, cross-cultural studies have rarely taken into account more than one of these. Differences in the level of loneliness were hypothesized on the basis of national differences in partnership, kinship, and friendship, which were assumed to be related to cultural standards within a society. Differences were examined among married and widowed older adults aged 70 to 89 years living independently in The Netherlands (N = 1,847), Tuscany, Italy (N = 562), and Manitoba, Canada (N = 1,134). Loneliness was measured with an 11-item scale. The Manitobans were high on emotional loneliness and the Tuscans were high on social loneliness. Partner status excepted, the determinants were nearly the same across the three locations. Differential item functioning (DIF) related to the three locations was observed for most items. Interactions with gender and the availability of a partner relationship were observed.
Social isolation in old age has been associated with risk of developing dementia, but the risk associated with perceived isolation, or loneliness, is not well understood.
To test the hypothesis that loneliness is associated with increased risk of Alzheimer disease (AD).
Longitudinal clinicopathologic cohort study with up to 4 years of annual in-home follow-up.
A total of 823 older persons free of dementia at enrollment were recruited from senior citizen facilities in and around Chicago, Ill. Loneliness was assessed with a 5-item scale at baseline (mean +/- SD, 2.3 +/- 0.6) and annually thereafter. At death, a uniform postmortem examination of the brain was conducted to quantify AD pathology in multiple brain regions and the presence of cerebral infarctions.
Clinical diagnosis of AD and change in previously established composite measures of global cognition and specific cognitive functions.
During follow-up, 76 subjects developed clinical AD. Risk of AD was more than doubled in lonely persons (score 3.2, 90th percentile) compared with persons who were not lonely (score 1.4, 10th percentile), and controlling for indicators of social isolation did not affect the finding. Loneliness was associated with lower level of cognition at baseline and with more rapid cognitive decline during follow-up. There was no significant change in loneliness, and mean degree of loneliness during the study was robustly associated with cognitive decline and development of AD. In 90 participants who died and in whom autopsy of the brain was performed, loneliness was unrelated to summary measures of AD pathology or to cerebral infarction.
Loneliness is associated with an increased risk of late-life dementia but not with its leading causes.
The relationship between social and community ties and mortality was assessed using the 1965 Human Population Laboratory survey of a random sample of 6928 adults in Alameda County, California and a subsequent nine-year mortality follow-up. The findings show that people who lacked social and community ties were more likely to die in the follow-up period than those with more extensive contacts. The age-adjusted relative risks for those most Isolated when compared to those with the most social contacts were 2.3 for men and 2.8 for women. The association between social ties and mortality was found to be independent of self-reported physical health status at the time of the 1965 survey, year of death, socioeconomic status, and health practices such as smoking, alcoholic beverage consumption, obesity, physical activity, and utilization of preventive health services as well as a cumulative index of health practices.
This study examines the changes in loneliness and social contacts among older rural adults over a 13-year period (67 to 80 years of age) and how the experience of loneliness is related to living conditions, health and personality during this period. The results showed a relatively stable pattern in loneliness and a low frequency of loneliness during the 13-year period. This stability in loneliness was found even if there had been considerable changes in social circumstances such as social contacts, marital status, and living conditions. Comparing loneliness among survivors and those who were going to die before the end of the survey, there were no statistically significant differences. Over the study period, contact frequencies with children decreased, while the total contacts outside the household increased. Feelings of loneliness and social contacts over time only corresponded partly with each other. Bivariate analyses showed that the onset of widowhood, as well as living alone, feelings that time passes more slowly these days, and general adjustment were significantly related to feelings of loneliness during the study period.
Aim: to investigate (i) whether loneliness increases in old age, and if so, whether it relates to ageing itself, to time trends or to cohort effects and (ii) the relationship between changes in institutionalization, partner status and health and loneliness. Methods: 939 men born between 1900 and 1920 completed the De Jong-Gierveld Loneliness Scale, and answered questions about their partner status, health and institutionalization in 1985, 1990 and 1995. Results: for the oldest group (born between 1900 and 1910) loneliness scores increased, but not for the younger groups. The increase in loneliness was attributable to ageing. No birth cohort or time effects were found. Loneliness was related to changes in institutionalization, partner status and subjective health but not to limitations in activities of daily living or cognitive function. Conclusions: the increased loneliness experienced by very old men is influenced by loss of a partner, moving into a care home or not feeling healthy.
82 female and 62 male college students judged the psychosocial functioning and acceptability of hypothetical peers that depicted 2 Levels of Loneliness (Lonely versus Nonlonely) x 2 Domains of Loneliness (Social versus Intimacy). Analysis indicated the students stigmatized both social and intimacy loneliness; they ascribed lower psychosocial functioning to and were less accepting of the lonely than nonlonely peer for both the social and intimacy domains of loneliness. The students, however, displayed greater differentiation in the ascription of psychosocial functioning between the lonely and nonlonely peers for the intimacy than the social domain of loneliness.
Features the essential methodologies and statistical tools for developing reliable and valid survey questionnaires Modern survey design requires the consideration of many variables that will ultimately impact the quality of the collected data. Design, Evaluation, and Analysis of Questionnaires for Survey Research outlines the important decisions that researchers need to make throughout the survey design process and provides the statistical knowledge and innovative tools that are essential when approaching these choices. Over fifteen years of survey design research has been referenced in order to conduct a meta-analysis that not only unveils the relationship between individual question characteristics and overall questionnaire quality, but also assists the reader in constructing a questionnaire of the highest relevance and accuracy. Among the book's most outstanding features is its introduction of Survey Quality Prediction (SQP), a computer program that predicts the validity and accuracy of questionnaires based on findings from the meta-analysis. Co-developed by the authors, this one-of-a-kind software is available via the book's related Web site and provides a valuable resource that allows researchers to estimate a questionnaire's level of quality before its distribution. In addition to carefully outlining the criteria for high quality survey questions, this book also: Defines a three-step procedure for generating questions that measure, with high certainty, the concept defined by the researcher Analyzes and details the results of studies that used Multitrait-Multimethod (MTMM) experiments to estimate the reliability and validity of questions Provides information to correct measurement error in survey results, with a chapter focusing specifically on cross-cultural research Features practical examples that illustrate the pitfalls of traditional questionnaire design Includes exercises that both demonstrate the methodology and help readers master the presented techniques Design, Evaluation, and Analysis of Questionnaires for Survey Research succeeds in illustrating how questionnaire design influences the overall quality of empirical research. With an emphasis on a deliberate and scientific approach to developing questionnaires, this book is an excellent text for upper-level undergraduate or beginning graduate-level survey research courses in business and the social sciences, and it also serves as a self-contained reference for survey researchers in any field.
The advancement of social theory requires an analytical approach that systematically seeks to explicate the social mechanisms that generate and explain observed associations between events. These essays, written by prominent social scientists, advance criticisms of current trends in social theory and suggest alternative approaches. The mechanism approach calls attention to an intermediary level of analysis in between pure description and story-telling, on the one hand, and grand theorizing and universal social laws, on the other. For social theory to be of use for the working social scientist, it must attain a high level of precision and provide a toolbox from which middle range theories can be constructed.
in recognition of the diversity of causes and manifestations of loneliness, researchers have increasingly urged a shift away from a global, undifferentiated view of loneliness towards a more differentiated view
reviews work on this newer focus, emphasizing variations in the duration of loneliness, specific interpersonal deficits, motivational and behavioral causes of loneliness, and the manner of coping with loneliness
implications for further research and clinical interventions are highlighted (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This paper considers the processes and circumstances that create vulnerability among older people, specifically to a very poor quality of life or an untimely or degrading death. Models of ageing processes are used to define vulnerable older people as those whose reserve capacity falls below the threshold needed to cope successfully with the challenges they face. Compensatory supports may intervene to mitigate the effects of challenges and to rebuild reserve. The dimensions of reserve, challenges and compensation are discussed, with emphasis on demographic and other influences on the availability of family and social support. Policy initiatives to reduce vulnerability can focus on each part of the dynamic process that creates vulnerability, namely, ensuring that people reach later life with ‘reserve’, reducing the challenges they face in later life, and providing adequate compensatory supports. The promotion through the lifecourse of healthy lifestyles and the acquisition of coping skills, strong family and social ties, active interests, and savings and assets, will develop reserves and ensure that they are strong in later life. Some of the physical and psychological challenges that people may face as they age cannot be modified, but others can. Interventions to develop compensatory supports include access to good acute care and rehabilitation when needed, substitute professional social and psychological help in times of crisis, long-term help and income support. Our knowledge of which interventions are most effective is however limited by the paucity of rigorous evaluation studies.
The well-being of older adults in general, and their loneliness in particular, are important themes in recent discussions in the Western world. The social integration and participation of older adults in society are seen as indicators of productive aging, and the alleviation of loneliness forms part of policies aimed at achieving the goal of ‘successful’ aging. Discussions about loneliness date back to ancient times, when they were led by philosophers. They wrote primarily about ‘positive’ loneliness. This positive type of loneliness - as indicated in the concept of ‘Einsamkeit’ used in German literature until 1945 - is perceived to be related to the voluntary withdrawal from the daily hassles of life and oriented towards higher goals, such as reflection, meditation and communication with God.
Data from six European regions participating in the Eleven Country Study on Health Care of the Elderly suggested that feelings of loneliness were more prevalent in areas where living alone was rarest and where community bonds were strongest. Individual variables describing life-situation did not explain the differences. The article examines loneliness as an historical and cultural phenomenon. It is argued that loneliness reflects, through complex mediations, the mutual relationship between the individual and the community and the extent to which the ideology of individualism prevails in society. In attempts to understand the differences between the study areas, the article looks more closely into the role of the community and the family in two selected areas: the industrial town Tampere in Finland and rural Greece.
Loneliness has been consistently identified as one of the specific ‘social problems’ which accompanies old age and growing older: 90 per cent of the general population of Britain feel that loneliness is a problem associated with old age. There is a widespread presumption that loneliness and isolation have become more prevalent in Britain in the period since the Second World War as a result of the decline in multi-generation households and changes in family structure. This paper examines the accuracy of this stereotype and considers if current cohorts of older people are more likely to report experiencing loneliness than previous generations of elders, through a comparative analysis of historical and contemporary data. Historical data are provided by three ‘classic’ social surveys undertaken in England between 1945 and 1960. Contemporary data are from a postal survey of 245 people aged 65–74 living in South London in 1999. The questions used in all four surveys were comparable, in that respondents self-rated their degree of loneliness on scales ranging from never to always. The overall prevalence of reports of loneliness ranged from five to nine per cent and showed no increase. Loneliness rates for specific age or gender sub-groups were also stable. Reported loneliness amongst those living alone decreased from 32 per cent in 1945 to 14 per cent in 1999, while the percentages decreased for both those reporting that they were never lonely and that they were ‘sometimes’ lonely.
Preventing and alleviating social isolation and loneliness among older people is an important area for policy and practice, but the effectiveness of many interventions has been questioned because of the lack of evidence. A systematic review was conducted to determine the effectiveness of health promotion interventions that target social isolation and loneliness among older people. Quantitative outcome studies between 1970 and 2002 in any language were included. Articles were identified by searching electronic databases, journals and abstracts, and contact-ing key informants. Information was extracted and synthesised using a standard form. Thirty studies were identified and categorised as 'group ' (n=17) ; ' one-to-one ' (n=10) ; 'service provision' (n=3) ; and ' community development ' (n=1). Most were conducted in the USA and Canada, and their design, methods, quality and transferability varied considerably. Nine of the 10 effective interventions were group activities with an educational or support input. Six of the eight ineffective interventions provided one-to-one social support, advice and information, or health-needs assessment. The review suggests that educational and social activity group interventions that target specific groups can alleviate social isolation and loneliness among older people. The effectiveness of home visiting and befriending schemes remains unclear.
Creating anti-oppressive practices in service provision that successfully remove barriers to the social inclusion of older lesbians, gay men, bisexuals and transgendered (LGBT) citizens has proven thus far tremendously difficult. The White Paper, Better Care, Higher Standards: A Charter for Long Term Care, addresses the development of non-discriminatory services that treat users with dignity and respect, taking account of sexual orientation. Such government social policy holds out the hope that services will be designed to support senior LGBT people. This paper examines the unique oppression and marginalization faced by older lesbian, gay men, bisexual and transgendered citizens in homophobic and ageist societies, which often fail to acknowledge their existence. The research findings highlight strategies being created through social policy that aim to successfully achieve the inclusion of this group in the planning and delivery of their services.
Purpose:
This study aims to explore the concept of loneliness using Walker and Avant's concept analysis framework. In addition, the overlap and potential confusion of the factors related to the nursing diagnoses Social Isolation and Risk for Loneliness were noted and discussed.
Data sources:
A literature review was conducted by searching Google, CINAHL, PsychINFO, and MEDLINE databases using the keywords "loneliness,"concept analysis," and "loneliness concept analysis" in the title. Only those sources that directly addressed loneliness were used (27).
Data synthesis:
Dictionary definitions, various uses, and critical attributes were identified; model, borderline, related, and contrary cases were developed; and antecedents, consequences, and empirical referents were determined. Data were evaluated and summarized to reach conclusions and recommendations.
Conclusions:
The authors concluded with a recommendation that Loneliness replace Social Isolation as the primary nursing diagnosis in the NANDA International taxonomy.
Past studies in the UK and the Netherlands indicate that loneliness varies significantly according to characteristics of older
people’s residential environment. This raises questions regarding potential neighbourhood influences on individuals’ social
relationships in later life. This article examines neighbourhood influences on loneliness, using multiple classification analysis
on comparable empirical data collected in the UK and the Netherlands. UK data arise from a survey of 501 people aged 60+ in
deprived neighbourhoods of three English cities. Netherlands data derive from the NESTOR Living Arrangements and Social Network
survey, with a sub-sample of 3,508 people aged 60+ drawn from a nationally representative sample of older people, living in
11 municipalities. Both surveys incorporated the 11-item De Jong Gierveld Loneliness Scale. In addition to neighbourhood characteristics
and indicators of health and social embeddedness, a typology of eight groups of persons was developed that accounted for individuals’
age, sex, and partner status. While 13% of participants in the UK were severely lonely, the proportion in the Netherlands
was just four per cent. Mean loneliness scores in the UK varied significantly between the neighbourhoods under investigation.
Additionally, the evaluated quality of the residential neighbourhood accounted for a relatively large degree of variance in
loneliness in both countries.
This paper introduces the ‘Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe’ (SHARE) to researchers on ageing. SHARE provides
an infrastructure to help researchers better understand the individual and population ageing process: where we are, where
we are heading to, and how we can influence the quality of life as we age, both as individuals and as societies. The baseline
wave in 2004 provides data on the life circumstances of some 27,000 persons aged 50 and over in 11 European countries, ranging
from Scandinavia across Western and Central Europe to the Mediterranean. SHARE has made great efforts to deliver truly comparable
data, so we can reliably study how differences in cultures, living conditions and policy approaches shape the life of Europeans
just before and after retirement. The paper first describes the SHARE data. In order to demonstrate its value, it then presents
highlights from the three main research areas covered by SHARE, namely economics, sociology, and health.
More than two decades of research has consistently indicated that feelings of loneliness among older people are more common
in southern Europe than in its northern parts, with the lowest rates in Denmark and Sweden. Our analyses based on analysis
of 2004–2006 data from 8,787 individuals aged 65years or older in the SHARE project replicate, update, and extend these findings.
We found, similar to previous studies, that the prevalence of feelings of loneliness was more common in the Mediterranean
countries than in Northern Europe. Living together with a spouse/partner was consistently associated with the lower prevalence
of loneliness across countries. The combination of living alone and having bad health was associated with 10times higher
odds of feeling lonely as compared with living together with someone and having good health. With regard to gender and health,
we found signs of differences between countries in how these factors were related to loneliness. Our results indicate the
importance of both contextual features and cultural expectations in interpreting reported loneliness, that is, loneliness
across Europe has both nomothetic and idiographic features.
Loneliness is a complex set of feelings encompassing reactions to the absence of intimate and social needs. Although transient for some individuals, loneliness can be a chronic state for others. We review the developmental, social, personality, clinical, and counseling psychology literatures on loneliness with an emphasis on recent empirical findings. Chronic feelings of loneliness appear to have roots in childhood and early attachment processes. Chronically lonely individuals are more likely to be high in negative affectivity, act in a socially withdrawn fashion, lack trust in self and others, feel little control over success or failure, and generally be dissatisfied with their relationships compared to nonlonely individuals. Loneliness has also been associated with a variety of individual differences including depression, hostility, pessimism, social withdrawal, alienation, shyness, and low positive affect; loneliness is also a concomitant of more severe disorders, such as clinical depression, borderline personality, and schizophrenia. Although loneliness affects a large number of individuals and is associated with numerous negative outcomes, relatively few investigations have examined the efficacy of treatments aimed at alleviating or preventing loneliness. Several investigations raise the possibility of treating loneliness, but the absence of appropriate comparison groups casts doubt on the efficacy of many of these treatments. Correlational studies also suggest that one close friend or romantic partner may be sufficient to buffer those at risk for loneliness. Research on causal processes is sparse, however, and more research is needed to delineate which factors are antecedents and which are consequences of loneliness.
We report the results of several randomized survey experiments designed to evaluate two intended improvements to anchoring
vignettes, an increasingly common technique used to improve interpersonal comparability in survey research. This technique
asks for respondent self-assessments followed by assessments of hypothetical people described in vignettes. Variation in assessments
of the vignettes across respondents reveals interpersonal incomparability, allowing researchers to improve comparability by
rescaling self-assessments relative to vignette responses. Our experiments show, first, that switching the question order
so that self-assessments follow the vignettes primes respondents to define the response scale in a common way. In this case,
priming is not a bias to avoid but a means of better communicating the question’s meaning. Second, we demonstrate that combining
vignettes and self-assessments in a single direct comparison induces inconsistent and considerably less informative responses.
Since similar combined strategies are widely employed for related purposes, our results suggest that anchoring vignettes could
reduce measurement error in many applications where they are not currently used. Data for our experiments come from a national
telephone survey and a separate online survey.
We investigated the prospective impact of self-reported loneliness on all-cause mortality, mortality from ischemic disease and mortality from other cardiovascular diseases. We tested these effects through GEE binomial regression models applied to longitudinal data from the Alameda County Study of persons aged 21 and over arranged into person-years. Controlling for age and gender, the chances of all-cause mortality were significantly higher among respondents reporting that they often feel lonely compared to those who report that they never feel lonely. Frequent loneliness was not significantly associated with mortality from ischemic heart disease but more than doubled the odds of mortality from other ailments of the circulatory system in models controlling for age and gender. Subsequent models showed that physical activity and depression may be important mediators of loneliness-mortality associations. Finally, we find support for the contention that chronic loneliness significantly increases risk of mortality but also find reason to believe that relatively recent changes in feelings of loneliness increase risk of mortality as well.
We address two long-standing survey research problems: measuring complicated concepts, such as political freedom and efficacy, that researchers define best with reference to examples; and what to do when respondents interpret identical questions in different ways. Scholars have long addressed these problems with approaches to reduce incomparability, such as writing more concrete questions—with uneven success. Our alternative is to measure directly response category incomparability and to correct for it. We measure incomparability via respondents’ assessments, on the same scale as the self-assessments to be corrected, of hypothetical individuals described in short vignettes. Because the actual (but not necessarily reported) levels of the vignettes are invariant over respondents, variability in vignette answers reveals incomparability. Our corrections require either simple recodes or a statistical model designed to save survey administration costs. With analysis, simulations, and cross-national surveys, we show how response incomparability can drastically mislead survey researchers and how our approach can alleviate this problem. Government Version of Record
Introduction
The context for the review of loneliness and social isolation in later life is that of ‘successful aging’ and ‘quality of life’. The term ‘quality of life‘ includes a broad range of areas of life and there is little agreement about the definition of the term. Models of quality of life range from identification of ‘life satisfaction’ or ‘social wellbeing’ to models based upon concepts of independence, control, and social and cognitive competence. However, regardless of how the concept of quality of life is defined, research has consistently demonstrated the importance of social and family relationships in the definition of a ‘good quality of life’.
The relationship between social and community ties and mortality was assessed using the 1965 Human Population Laboratory survey of a random sample of 6928 adults in Alameda County, California and a subsequent nine-year mortality follow-up. The findings show that people who lacked social and community ties were more likely to die in the follow-up period than those with more extensive contacts. The age-adjusted relative risks for those most isolated when compared to those with the most social contacts were 2.3 for men and 2.8 for women. The association between social ties and mortality was found to be independent of self-reported physical health status at the time of the 1965 survey, year of death, socioeconomic status, and health practices such as smoking, alcoholic beverage consumption, obesity, physical activity, and utilization of preventive health services as well as a cumulative index of health practices.
This article presents a model of loneliness that incorporates characteristics of the social network, background variables, personality characteristics, and evaluative aspects. The most salient aspect of this approach is its emphasis on cognitive processes that mediate between characteristics of the social network and the experience of loneliness. A total of 554 adult men and women served as respondents. The program LISREL, a causal modelling approach, was used to analyze the data. The LISREL program includes a goodness-of-fit test that indicates the degree of fit between a particular model and the data. The hypothesized model made a valuable contribution to the understanding of loneliness: It accounted for 52.3% of the variance in the data set. One of the model's major advantages is its ability to disentangle both the direct and the indirect causal influences of the various factors on loneliness.
82 female and 62 male college students judged the psychosocial functioning and acceptability of hypothetical peers that depicted 2 Levels of Loneliness (Lonely versus Nonlonely) x 2 Domains of Loneliness (Social versus Intimacy). Analysis indicated the students stigmatized both social and intimacy loneliness; they ascribed lower psychosocial functioning to and were less accepting of the lonely than nonlonely peer for both the social and intimacy domains of loneliness. The students, however, displayed greater differentiation in the ascription of psychosocial functioning between the lonely and nonlonely peers for the intimacy than the social domain of loneliness.
The purpose of this study was to examine whether older age is associated with increasing loneliness in people aged 60 and over. Data came from TamELSA, a population-based prospective longitudinal study in Tampere, Finland. The follow-up time was 20 years. Loneliness was measured by a single question--"Do you feel lonely?"--with the possible answers often, sometimes, or never. Cross-sectional analysis showed that the percentage of subjects feeling lonely increased toward older age groups, but in a multivariate analysis, only household composition and social participation were independently associated with loneliness. Longitudinal analysis showed that loneliness increased with higher age. Over a 10-year period, loneliness increased most in those who, at baseline, were married and living alone with their spouse. In conclusion, only a minority of older people continuously suffer from loneliness. Loneliness does increase with age, not because of age per se, but because of increasing disability and decreasing social integration.
With the growth in the number of older people, an increase of mental health problems might be expected. Reducing the amount of suffering and dependence due to poor mental health in old age is a priority requiring a good understanding of the determinants of psychological distress. The objectives were: (a) to measure the prevalence of psychological distress and loneliness in old men and women, living in the community, (b) to clarify the association between psychological distress, health and other explanatory variables and (c) to determine relationship between loneliness and psychological distress. We performed a cross-sectional study of 999 people aged 65+. The variables studied were psychological distress (GHQ-12) and self-reported loneliness. The prevalence of psychological distress was 20%. Illness and disability are related to psychological distress in old age; the feeling of loneliness is the single most important predictor of psychological distress, and not knowing neighbours increases the probability of depression. Attempts to improve detection and management of psychological distress in sick older people, in those who appear isolated and express loneliness should be evaluated.
The intense focus on major psychiatric disorders in both contemporary psychiatric research and clinical practice has resulted in the relative neglect of less definable constructs such as loneliness and how such entities might impact on health outcomes. The purpose of this review is to raise awareness among physicians and psychiatrists of the medical impact and biological effects of loneliness as well as making the argument that loneliness should be a legitimate therapeutic target.
Using Pubmed we searched the literature for research and review papers looking at loneliness as a construct, how it is measured and its health effects. We reviewed the relevant papers and have summarized their main findings.
Loneliness has strong associations with depression and may in fact be an independent risk factor for depression. Furthermore loneliness appears to have a significant impact on physical health being linked detrimentally to higher blood pressure, worse sleep, immune stress responses and worse cognition over time in the elderly. There is a relative deficiency in adequate evidence based treatments for loneliness.
Loneliness is common in older people an is associated with adverse health consequences both from a mental and physical health point of view. There needs to be an increased focus on initiating intervention strategies targeting loneliness to determine if decreasing loneliness can improve quality of life and functioning in the elderly.