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Age and loneliness in 25 European nations
Abstract
The relationship between age and loneliness is intriguing. While loneliness has been widely perceived as a problem of old age, there is evidence suggesting that adolescence is the peak age for experiencing loneliness and there are demonstrable variations between nations in reported rates of loneliness. However, comparative data for examining both the prevalence of loneliness across age groups and across nations are sparse. As the first phase of a larger project, we explore the prevalence of loneliness across different age groups in 25 European nations, with a focus on people of an advanced age. After discussing issues of comparability, we present our empirical findings employing data collected in the third round (2006–07) of the European Social Survey (total sample size 47,099, age range 15–101) which included a ‘self-rating’ loneliness scale. Our results suggest that the prevalence of loneliness does increase with age for the combined sample. However, the nation in which one lives shows a greater impact than age on reported levels of loneliness, with Russia and Eastern European nations having the highest proportions of lonely people (about 10–34% for different age groups) and Northern European nations the lowest (mostly below 6%). Possible explanatory factors are identified and discussed, which provides the groundwork of a subsequent and formal study.
... The link between age and loneliness may depend on the context (i.e., a group of countries) (Hansen and Slagsvold, 2016;Tonković et al., 2021;Yang and Victor, 2011) and it also varies with how loneliness is measured (Nicolaisen and Thorsen, 2014), with sex (Yang and Victor, 2011), and their interplay (von Soest et al., 2018). Nevertheless, the link between age and loneliness is often very weak (e.g., Hajek and König, 2020), and ceases to be statistically significant when other risk factors are considered (e.g., Dahlberg et al., 2021;Hawkley and Kocherginsky, 2018). ...
... The link between age and loneliness may depend on the context (i.e., a group of countries) (Hansen and Slagsvold, 2016;Tonković et al., 2021;Yang and Victor, 2011) and it also varies with how loneliness is measured (Nicolaisen and Thorsen, 2014), with sex (Yang and Victor, 2011), and their interplay (von Soest et al., 2018). Nevertheless, the link between age and loneliness is often very weak (e.g., Hajek and König, 2020), and ceases to be statistically significant when other risk factors are considered (e.g., Dahlberg et al., 2021;Hawkley and Kocherginsky, 2018). ...
... Some studies just report cross-country differences and mention contextual factors as a potential explanation. Such studies from Europe consistently find a North-West vs South-East divide in loneliness in some form, with people from the latter group of countries experiencing higher levels of loneliness, on average (D'Hombres et al., 2018;Fokkema et al., 2012;Hansen and Slagsvold, 2016;Sundström et al., 2009;Yang and Victor, 2011). In line with the above (Dykstra, 2009), we explore the empirical evidence for the three possible explanations of this divide. ...
Rationale:
Increasingly, loneliness is being recognised as a serious problem with detrimental effects on health, as well as on social cohesion and community trust. To effectively tackle this complex issue, a clear understanding of the phenomenon and its main drivers is needed. Over years of scientific research on loneliness, many potential risk factors have emerged and been tested empirically.
Objective:
This narrative review of 109 studies provides a concise summary of empirical evidence on the main potential risk factors for loneliness and presents an additional section dedicated to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Method:
Given the very large number of existing studies, emphasis is placed on recent meta-analyses and systematic literature reviews as well as longitudinal studies. Similarly, given the large number of possible risk factors for loneliness, which may differ based on the geographical and cultural context, this review focuses on studies from Europe and North America.
Results:
The results show that demographic factors often correlate with loneliness, but in many cases the link becomes negligible when controlling for other factors. Often, physical and mental health problems are found to be associated with loneliness, and so are some psychological factors, such as neuroticism or extroversion. Loneliness also depends on the environment in which one lives, and possibly the broader socio-economic and socio-cultural contexts. Nevertheless, the review shows that ultimately everything comes down to the quantity and quality of social relationships. In particular, marital status, living arrangements and the characteristics of one's personal social network are quite consistently found to be among the strongest predictors of loneliness. These main findings about the risk factors for loneliness remained valid also during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Policy implications:
The findings of this review have implications for policy, as understanding who the most vulnerable groups are is key for designing targeted policy solutions that tackle loneliness.
... Loneliness and social isolation are sometimes equated with old age, but empirical studies from multiple countries indicate that this relationship is much more complex. On the one hand, social contact frequency does indeed decrease with increasing age (Sander et al., 2017) and loneliness levels are often highest among the oldest old (Yang and Victor, 2011;Luhmann and Hawkley, 2016;and Hawkley et al., 2020). On the other hand, loneliness levels among younger older adults (approximately 60-75 years) are often lower than those among younger age groups (Luhmann and Hawkley, 2016;Hawkley et al., 2019;and Hawkley et al., 2020). ...
... Moreover, a recent meta-analysis of longitudinal studies found that loneliness levels are, on average, quite stable across the lifespan (e.g., a recent meta-analysis by Mund et al., 2020). Finally, cross-national studies found substantial national differences in the relationship between age and loneliness (Yang and Victor, 2011). Together, these studies suggest that it is not age per se but rather the physical and social changes that are associated with aging (e.g., increasing health issues, shrinking social networks) that explain the increasing levels of loneliness and social isolation among the very old (for reviews, see Qualter et al., 2015;Cohen-Mansfield et al., 2016;and Dahlberg et al., 2022). ...
... Most cross-national studies on loneliness among older adults come from European countries. They consistently find that loneliness levels are higher in Southern and Eastern European countries than in Northern and Western European countries (Yang and Victor, 2011;Hansen and Slagsvold, 2016;and Chawla et al., 2021). Theoretical explanations for these crossnational differences have focused on national differences in the quality of living conditions, the demographic composition of a particular population, and differences in cultural norms and values (de Jong Gierveld and Tesch-Römer, 2012;Fiori et al., 2020;and Heu et al., 2021). ...
... Loneliness prevalence seems to present a U-shape distribution among adults, with the younger and the older presenting higher levels of these feelings [19][20][21][22][23][24]. Differently, some found an increase after middle age or after 74 years [25,26], somewhat consistent with those who found a linear relationship in which "the older, the lonelier" [24,[27][28][29][30][31][32]. However, an inverted Ushaped relationship [24,33,34] and a linear decrease [35,36] were also found. ...
... Besides age, which is the leading factor [30,54], several sociodemographic factors are significantly associated with loneliness. Regarding sex, a meta-analysis has shown mixed results [55]. ...
... Regarding other investigated variables, T-ILS scores varied based on several sociodemographicvariables with mixed support signaling signal cultural aspects not assessed in this study. Our findings showed that females and males presented similar scores in the T-ILS, per the results of a few studies[8,22], but not others[24,33,35,36].J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o fOlder individuals reported more loneliness, a finding supported by previous research indicating an increase with age[24,[27][28][29][30][31][32]. But it is not supported by all the other studies that show different non-linear age-related changes[19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][33][34][35][36].We found that divorced/separated and widowed individuals and those living in a household of one person reported more loneliness. ...
Loneliness is a prevalent set of negative feelings associated with unsatisfactory and reduced social interactions, inadequate social support, poor satisfaction with life and health, negative emotions, and economic burden. Thus, its measurement is of foremost importance. Therefore, this study aimed (i) to devise the Portuguese version of the three-Item Loneliness Scale (TILS), which is ideal for epidemiological studies, and (ii) to evaluate its psychometric properties. Three hundred forty-five community-dwelling Portuguese adults with a mean age of 54.6 ± 19.5 years, 61.7% women, recruited door-to-door, were assessed with the Portuguese versions of T-ILS, Satisfaction With Life Scale-SWLS, Lubben Social Network Scale 6-items-LSNS6, a question regarding Happiness/Unhappiness, and a sociodemographic questionnaire.
The T-ILS showed good psychometric properties and correlated moderately with SWLS and LSNS-6, and happiness, and weakly with the number of people in the household. The Portuguese version of the T-ILS proved to be a valid and reliable instrument, easy and quick to administer. It proved to be a valuable tool in screening loneliness in Portugal, being potentially useful to the identification of lonelier people in need of intervention.
... Studies from various countries examined the prevalence of loneliness and their demographic correlates among older adults, mainly including relationship status and socio-economic resources (e.g., educational background and monthly income) (Gao et al., 2021;Ong et al., 2016;Yang and Victor, 2011). The intricate interplay between chronic health conditions and psychosocial well-being among those living with HIV underscores the potential compounding effect of loneliness, which might exacerbate the impact of aging-related stressors and health conditions, drawing insights from theoretical frameworks such as the psychosocial stress model and the social cognitive theory (Mazonson et al., 2021). ...
... Some demographic variables are associated with loneliness, including living areas and intergenerational relationships. We found that participants living in urban areas in our study were more likely to report loneliness symptoms, similar to previous research among PLHIV (Domènech-Abella et al., 2017;Yang and Victor, 2011). There was no N = 680). ...
Background:
With the aging among people living with HIV, it is critical to understand the health needs of older adults (aged 50 years and above) living with HIV (OALHIV). Loneliness, as the next critical public health issue, was rarely mentioned among OALHIV.
Methods:
A multicenter cross-sectional study was conducted between April 2021 and April 2022. Participants were recruited from infectious diseases hospitals that provide HIV care in four cities in China. The associations with loneliness symptoms (measured by a three-item UCLA Loneliness Scale) were analyzed by logistic regression models.
Results:
A total of 680 OALHIV (500 male, 180 female, mean age 60.3 ± 7.8 years) were included in the analysis. About one-fifth (18.1 %) of OALHIV reported loneliness symptoms. Living in urban areas (aOR 3.50, 95 % CI 1.76-6.95), having children without close intergenerational relationships (2.85, 1.15-7.07), higher self-perceptions of aging (1.10, 1.06-1.15), being heterosexual (0.26, 0.13-0.52) or bisexual (0.37, 0.16-0.82), having children with whom they kept close intergenerational relationships (0.36, 0.14-0.98), and reporting life satisfaction (0.40, 0.24-0.66), were associated with loneliness symptoms.
Limitations:
This study is a cross-sectional study and only included OALHIV who participated in ART treatment for >18 months, which is not widely representative.
Conclusions:
Loneliness was prevalent among OALHIV. Living in urban areas, being homosexual, having children with whom they kept fragile intergenerational relationships, being dissatisfied with life, and having higher self-perceptions of aging were independent risk factors for loneliness. Routine health management needs to incorporate the assessment of aging perceptions and loneliness.
... Although feelings of loneliness can occur at all ages, they tend to be more prevalent in people aged 60 and older. A study conducted by Yang and Victor [7] in 14 European countries observed that, in Portugal, loneliness increases with age, with a prevalence of 14.9% in people aged over 60 years. This is higher than in Nordic countries where the increase is not so pronounced with aging, perhaps due to both the existence of active aging policies and the greater integration and participation of older people in society. ...
... This is higher than in Nordic countries where the increase is not so pronounced with aging, perhaps due to both the existence of active aging policies and the greater integration and participation of older people in society. Of the 14 countries studied, in all but one the prevalence of loneliness is higher in people aged 60 and over compared with the two lower age groups (under 30 and between 30 and 59) [7]. ...
Background:
Loneliness in older people seems to have emerged as an increasingly prevalent social problem.
Objective:
To apply a machine learning (ML) algorithm to the task of understanding the influence of sociodemographic variables, physical fitness, physical activity levels (PAL), and sedentary behavior (SB) on the loneliness feelings of physically trained older people.
Materials and methods:
The UCLA loneliness scale was used to evaluate loneliness, the Functional Fitness Test Battery was used to evaluate the correlation of sociodemographic variables, physical fitness, PAL, and SB in the loneliness feelings scores of 23 trained older people (19 women and 4 men). For this purpose, a naive Bayes ML algorithm was applied.
Results:
After analysis, we inferred that aerobic fitness (AF), hand grip strength (HG), and upper limb strength (ULS) comprised the most relevant variables panel to cause high participant loneliness with 100% accuracy and F-1 score.
Conclusions:
The naive Bayes algorithm with leave-one-out cross-validation (LOOCV) predicted loneliness in trained older with a high precision. In addition, AF was the most potent variable in reducing loneliness risk.
... There is evidence that some factors, such as physical mobility, marriage, or living together are protective against loneliness, but the effects of culture are not entirely clear, despite the fact that the levels of loneliness reported in older adults vary according to the context in which the person develops (Yang, & Victor, 2011). Establishing measurement invariance of the UCLA-LS-3 among culturally different countries is even more important if we have in mind that loneliness feeling evolve not only from individual experiences but also in a cultural context of values, norms and practices (Rokach et al., 2002). ...
... These differences may be the product of the theoretical and methodological complexity inherent in cross-cultural comparisons (Barreto et al., 2021). Furthermore, it is suggested that there are different patterns of loneliness associated with age among cultures that attribute different values to social relationships (Jopling & Sserwanja, 2016;Liu et al., 2015;Victor et al., 2005;Yang & Victor, 2011). ...
The objectives of this study are to evaluate the measurement invariance of the University of California Los Angeles Loneliness Scale (UCLA-LS) three-item version (UCLA-LS-3) in older adults in Peru and Spain, to compare the latent means of loneliness, and to evaluate the psychometric properties of the scale with Item Response Theory (IRT) models, and evaluate the possible moderating effects of the country on loneliness-health relationships. Peruvian sample was composed of 235 old adults from the city of Lima. The Spanish sample was composed of 443 old adults. The three-factor structure of RUCLA-3 anchored to the health measure fitted the data reasonably well in Spain and Peru. The R-UCLA-3 may be considered invariant for these two samples. The latent means of loneliness are different, the Peruvian average of loneliness being greater than that of Spain. The R-UCLA-3 is an invariant measure in older adults in Peru and Spain, with adequate psychometric properties through IRT models.
... Furthermore, age is a major factor in the chance to live in solitude. A large body of Western crosssectional and longitudinal studies have explored associations between age and loneliness (Dykstra, 2009;Pinquart and Sörensen, 2001;Yang and Victor, 2011). Loneliness is shown to be quite stable between the age of 25 and 80 but to increase rapidly above age 80. ...
... In young old age (age 60-80), the percentage that reports frequently feeling lonely is 5-10 percent, while an additional 20-40 percent report occasional feelings of loneliness. In advanced old age (80+), about 40 to 50 percent often feel lonely (Dykstra, 2009;Yang and Victor, 2011). In older adults and the elderly, the proportion who is living alone or in institutions such as an old people's home rather than with family is higher, so this also something that increases the risk of loneliness as one gets older (Dykstra, 2009). ...
... This downward trajectory of old age is particularly a risk in industrialised countries such as Germany or Austria. According to two pre-Covid studies, the prevalence of loneliness among home-dwelling older persons in Germany ranged from 7.0 (Yang & Victor, 2011) to 8.4% (Sundström et al., 2009) and in Austria from 10.2 (Sundström et al., 2009) to 10.4% (Yang & Victor, 2011). For Germany, a recent study (Forsa, 2021) paints an even worse picture, with one in five home-dwelling older people suffering from loneliness and social isolation. ...
... This downward trajectory of old age is particularly a risk in industrialised countries such as Germany or Austria. According to two pre-Covid studies, the prevalence of loneliness among home-dwelling older persons in Germany ranged from 7.0 (Yang & Victor, 2011) to 8.4% (Sundström et al., 2009) and in Austria from 10.2 (Sundström et al., 2009) to 10.4% (Yang & Victor, 2011). For Germany, a recent study (Forsa, 2021) paints an even worse picture, with one in five home-dwelling older people suffering from loneliness and social isolation. ...
Background:
Social support can help older persons to cope with stressful situations. Sheltered housing facilities in German speaking countries therefore aim to promote social support for their residents. The MSPSS is a brief instrument to measure perceived social support, but its psychometric properties have not yet been investigated in a sample of German speaking older persons.
Objectives:
To determine the psychometric properties of the German version of the MSPSS for older persons METHODS: In a cross-sectional study, residents of sheltered housing in Austria were asked to complete the MSPSS and to indicate the frequency of contacts to family and friends. Validity of the scale was investigated by exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis as well as by their correlations with frequency of contacts to family and friends. Reliability was determined by Cronbach's Alpha and intraclass correlations for repeated measurements.
Results:
Exploratory factor analysis yielded a three-factor solution for the MSPSS, which was, however, only partially supported by confirmatory factor analysis. Correlations with frequency of contact to family and friends partly confirmed the assumptions about the relationships between these factors and the corresponding groups of persons. Cronbach's Alpha was high, and intraclass correlations for most items ranged from fair to good.
Conclusions:
The incomplete congruence between the theoretical assumptions regarding the scale and the results of the factor analysis is presumably due to overlapping content between the dimensions of the MSPSS, which can be remedied by reformulating some items.
Implications for practice:
A slightly modified version of the MSPSS should be used to assess social support in sheltered housing.
... Albeit being relatively abstract and uctuating over time, loneliness has been evaluated with the single-item question drawn from the Centre for Epidemiologic Studies Depression (CES-D) [10], and much comprehensively with self-reported questionnaires such as the three-item or 20-item UCLA Loneliness Scales [11,12]. The prevalence of loneliness in community-dwelling older adults ranged from 19.3-34% worldwide [13,14]. It is important to note that the varying rates of loneliness depend on the studied populations, sample sizes, and measurements of loneliness [15]. ...
... To put it into perspective, the rates of living alone were also comparatively higher in North America (26%) and Europe (28%) [40]. Coincidentally, the rate of loneliness was also as high as 19.3% among US community-dwelling older adults [13] and 20.1-34% across 25 European countries [14]. ...
Purpose
This study examined two related but distinct features of social isolation – living alone and loneliness – concerning their unique and joint effects on predicting health-related quality of life (HRQoL). In addition, we examined the moderating and mediating role of loneliness in the associations between living alone and HRQoL.
Method
Analyses were with a nationally representative sample of 5,012 community-residing adults aged 55 and older (Mage = 59.3, SD = 8.1) and with their follow-up data 3.2 years later.
Results
At baseline, 9% (n = 508) reported living alone, and 10.3% (n = 586) reported feeling lonely. 2.5% (n = 130) reported both living alone and feeling lonely. A series of regression showed that loneliness was consistently associated with lower physical (PCS) and mental (MCS) components of HRQoL, concurrently and longitudinally, whereas living alone was only associated with lower PCS 3.2 years later. Moderation analysis showed compounded effects of loneliness and living alone in predicting lower MCS. Mediation analyses revealed a cascading effect where living alone was associated with concurrent and subsequent loneliness, which, in turn, was associated with lower PCS and MCS 3.2 years later.
Conclusion
Loneliness appeared to be a more potent predictor of lower HRQoL in later life. Nevertheless, living alone could indirectly worsen adults’ HRQoL by either exacerbating the negative impacts of loneliness or triggering a sense of prolonged loneliness predicting lower HRQoL. For practice, programs and policies to improve adults’ HRQoL should pay special attention to older adults who report loneliness, especially those who live alone.
... Twelve to nineteen percent of Canadians over the age of 65 years [4] and 24% of American community-dwelling adults aged 65 and older [5] experienced social isolation. Similarly, 43% of Americans aged 60 and older [5] and 20-34% of older adults in 25 European countries [6] reported being lonely. ...
Background
The aim is to investigate whether social isolation and loneliness are associated with changes in grip strength, gait speed, BMD, and fractures.
Methods
Canadian Longitudinal Study on Aging (CLSA) Comprehensive Cohort participants aged 65 years and older at baseline (2012–2015) who completed the three-year follow-up interview (2015–2018) were included in this analysis (n = 11,344). Social isolation and loneliness were measured using the CLSA social isolation index (CLSA-SII, range 0–10). We calculated absolute and percent change in grip strength (kg) and gait speed (m/s) and annualized absolute (g/cm ² ) and percent change in femoral neck and total hip BMD during the three-year follow-up. Self-reported incident fractures of all skeletal sites in the previous 12 months were measured at three-year follow-up. Multivariable analyses were conducted. Odd ratio (OR) and 95% confidence interval (CI) are reported.
Results
The mean age (standard deviation [SD]) was 72.9 (5.6) years and 49.9% were female. The mean (SD) of CLSA-SII at baseline was 3.5 (1.4). Mean absolute and percentage change (SD) in grip strength (kg) and gait speed (m/s) were -1.33 (4.60), -3.02% (16.65), and -0.05 (0.17), -3.06% (19.28) during the three-year follow-up, respectively. Mean annualized absolute (g/cm ² ) and percentage change (SD) in femoral neck and total hip BMD were -0.004 (0.010), -0.47% (1.43) and -0.005 (0.009), -0.57% (1.09), respectively. 345 (3.1%) participants had incident fractures. As CLSA-SII increased (per one unit change), participants had 1.13 (adjusted OR 1.13, 95% CI 1.01–1.27) times greater odds for incident fractures. The interaction term between the CLSA-SII and centre for epidemiology studies depression 9 scale (CES-D 9) for self-reported incident fractures was shown (interaction OR 1.02, 95% CI 1.00–1.04).
Conclusions
Socially isolated and lonely older adults were more likely to have had incident fractures, but social isolation was not associated with the three-year changes in grip strength, gait speed, or BMD.
... To our knowledge, this is the first study to use nationally representative data to provide research evidence on loneliness in Chinese older adults with functional limitations and to investigate the association between HCBS use and loneliness among this population in the home setting. In our study, 46% of Chinese older adults with functional limitations reported feeling lonely, which is higher than the prevalence of loneliness among both older adults aged 65 years or older in Europe (20-34%) [45] and older adults aged 70 years in the United States (25-29%) [46], and much higher than the prevalence of loneliness among Chinese older adults (65 years and older) in the general population (4-24%) [47]. The possible reasons for this are that older adults with functional limitations are more likely to have risk factors, such as low quality of social relationships, poor mental health, cognitive deficits, and communication difficulties, that may lead to or exacerbate loneliness [48]. ...
Background
Loneliness is one of the major health problems among older adults. Among this population, home and community-based services (HCBS) have become increasingly popular. Despite its health benefits, little is known about the relationship between HCBS use and loneliness in older people with functional limitations. We aim to explore the characteristics of loneliness among older people with functional limitations and examine the association between HCBS use and loneliness in China.
Methods
We used a cross-sectional data from the 2018 China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study, which includes a nationally representative sample of Chinese residents aged 65 and older with functional limitations. Logistic regression models were used to examine the associations between HCBS use and loneliness, and we further used propensity score matching to address potential sample selection bias.
Result
In China, 46% of older people with functional limitations felt lonely and only 22% of older people with functional limitations reported using HCBS in 2018. Compared with participants who did not receive HCBS, those who received HCBS were less likely to report loneliness (OR = 0.81, 95% CI = 0.63, 0.99, p = 0.048), and the results remained significant after addressing sample selection bias using propensity score matching.
Conclusion
Our results showed that loneliness was common among Chinese older people with functional limitations, and the proportion of HCBS use was low. There was robust evidence to support that among older people with functional limitations, HCBS use was associated with decreased loneliness. Further policies should promote the development of broader HCBS use for older people with functional limitations to reduce their loneliness.
... According to a meta-analysis by Surkalim et al. (2022), more than one-third of middle-aged people and more than two-thirds of the elderly expressed feeling lonely, which is consistent with earlier studies that also found this age group to be more likely to experience loneliness. Similarly, Yang and Victor (2011) found that around one-third of Eastern European nations experience loneliness. In middle-aged and older people, loneliness increases the likelihood of mental health issues like anxiety and depression as well as cognitive decline Hawkley & Cacioppo, 2010). ...
In order to investigate how physical activity impacts loneliness, the primary objective of the study was to examine the link between physical exercise and loneliness in middle-aged and older persons. 400 people from Lahore, both men and women took contribution to the cross-sectional study. The International Physical Activity Questionnaire (SV), the UCLA 3-item loneliness scale, and demographic questionnaires were used in order to collect the data. The results of the study indicated a significant negative relationship between exercise and loneliness. According to the data analysis, both age groups who engaged in more physical activity indicated lower feelings of loneliness. The results suggested that physical activity has a significant effect on reducing loneliness in later life. The results of this study have significant importance for the community's encouragement of physical activity
... Loneliness was assessed solely among participants aged 65 and above due to the widely recognized correlation between age and loneliness. This association implies that the older adult population is particularly vulnerable to feelings of isolation (Ong et al., 2016;Yang and Victor, 2011). See Appendix A, Part D. ...
... Specifically, the prevalence of social meeting with friends, relatives, or colleagues less than once a month or never, not working, and not being in education, was higher in Central and Eastern Europe than in Northern Europe. This point thus to the potential role of socio-economic country-level factors that make individual residents more at risk of severe social isolation as previously hypothesized about loneliness [47][48][49]. It should be considered that much more previous research analysed differences in loneliness rather than in social isolation across European countries. ...
The main aim of the present study was to estimate the prevalence of people in severe social isolation as a proxy for high risk of hikikomori using data from 29 European countries. The relationship between the presence/absence of severe social isolation and demographic and psychosocial variables was also investigated. Publicly available data from the European Social Survey (ESS) round 9 collected between August 2018 and January 2020 were used. Data from the ESS round 1 (September 2002 –December 2003) and round 10 (September 2020 –May 2022) were also examined to investigate changes in the prevalence of severe social isolation over time. Analyses were restricted to the working-age population (15–64 years). A complex sampling design to obtain weighted prevalence and results was used. The study protocol was preregistered online on the Open Science Framework (https://osf.io/6a7br/). The weighted prevalence of severe social isolation was 2.01% for the sample from the ESS 1, 1.77% for the sample from the ESS 9, and 1.71% for the sample from the ESS 10, indicating a decrease over time, mainly in males. Logistic regression models showed that different sociodemographic factors (e.g., being retired, being permanently sick or disabled, doing housework, living in Central and Eastern Europe, living uncomfortably on household income, having no income) were associated with severe social isolation. Further, feeling unsafe when walking alone in the neighbourhood after dark, low social trust, and support, decreased happiness and lack of future planning correlated with severe social isolation after adjustment for the effect of sociodemographic factors was made. In this study, the prevalence of severe social isolation as a proxy for hikikomori in European countries is in line with that found by previous representative studies conducted in Asian countries. The novelty of the findings as well as implications for hikikomori research are discussed according to recent scientific literature.
... It has been identified as a risk factor for somatic illness [15,20,21], neurodegenerative symptoms [22], and psychiatric disorders [15,17]. A comparative analysis of loneliness throughout Europe found that former Soviet countries had an even higher incidence of loneliness than the rest of Europe in all age brackets [23]. This is important because the pandemic came superimposed on prior risk factors [24]. ...
Pandemic restrictions and reduced social opportunities led to increased loneliness in affected countries. Considering that stressful situations activate the attachment system and engage various coping strategies, the present study explored the role of attachment dimensions and coping styles in perceived social isolation and the subsequent effect on emotional distress. Data were collected using an online survey between the third and fourth waves in Romania during the second year of the pandemic. Correlational analyses presented significant relationships between all variables measured. Regression analysis showed that attachment insecurity could predict up to half of the variance in loneliness and one-third of emotional distress. Coping styles that predicted both loneliness and emotional distress were problem-focused and socially supported coping, though the effect was minimal. Emotion-focused coping presented a protective role against loneliness. Finally, mediation analysis revealed how loneliness fully mediated the relationship between insecure attachment styles and emotional distress. Further implications for research on loneliness and pandemic resilience are discussed.
... This experience is subjective, which sets it apart from the objective conditions of social isolation and living alone (Victor et al. 2000). Traditionally, research on loneliness has focused on conventional sociodemographic correlates such as age, gender, and marital status (Delaruelle et al. 2023;Dykstra and de Jong Gierveld 2004;Yang and Victor 2011). However, recent studies have shifted towards examining the role of migration background, as evidenced by a special issue published in this journal (Fokkema and Ciobanu 2021). ...
This study aims to contribute to the growing interest in the consequences of migration for loneliness by investigating the role of generational status across various age groups in countries with differing integration policies and attitudes towards immigrants. Using data from rounds 5, 6 and 7 of the European Social Survey, I conducted logistic multilevel models on a sample of 121,835 respondents aged 18 years and older, residing in 26 countries. Loneliness was assessed based on a single-item item question from the Center for Epidemiologic Studies of Depression scale. The findings suggest that individuals with a migration background are more likely to experience loneliness than those without. Within this group, I found that first-generation immigrants who arrived after the age of 18 are more vulnerable to loneliness than those who arrived earlier, although the latter still reported more loneliness than second-generation immigrants. Furthermore, migration-related inequalities in loneliness were greater among the youngest age group (18–34 years) and in countries with a more positive public stance towards immigrants. In sum, this study highlights the persistent challenges that migration poses for loneliness across generations and age groups, and emphasizes the need to extend research in this area beyond older adults. Moreover, it suggests that promoting a welcoming culture towards immigrants may have unintended consequences for loneliness gaps, but further research is needed to explain this observation.
... It has been identified as a risk factor for somatic illness [11,16,17], neurodegenerative symptoms [18] and psychiatric disorders [11,13]. A comparative analysis of loneliness throughout Europe found that 2 former Soviet Countries had an even higher incidence of loneliness than the rest of Europe in all age brackets [19]. This is important because the pandemic came superimposed on prior risk factors [20]. ...
Pandemic restrictions and reduced social opportunities led to increased loneliness throughout affected countries. Considering that stressful situations activate the attachment system and engage various coping strategies, the present study explored the role of attachment dimensions and coping styles in perceived social isolation and the subsequent effect on emotional distress. Data was collected using an online survey between the third and fourth waves in Romania during the second year of the pandemic. Correlational analyses presented significant relationships between all variables measured. Regression analysis showed that attachment insecurity could predict up to half of the variance in loneliness and one-third of emotional distress. Coping styles that predicted both loneliness and emotional distress were problem-focused and socially supported coping, though the effect was minimal. Emotion-focused coping presented a protective role against loneliness. Finally, moderation analysis revealed how loneliness fully mediated the relationship between insecure attachment styles and emotional distress. Further implications for research on loneliness, and pandemic resilience are discussed.
... A breakdown of age categories was performed for later sensitivity analysis. The categorization was based on theoretical considerations regarding major developmental stages, namely Erikson's (1950) psychosocial development theory and Arnett's (2015) theory of emerging adulthood, and alignment with related research (Luhmann & Hawkley, 2016, Rokach, 2000, Victor & Yang, 2012, Yang & Victor, 2011. Five studies included only children (0-15 years; Berguno et al., 2004, Karnick, 2008, Kirova-Petrova, 2000, Kristensen, 1995, Martin et al., 2014, two studies included only young adults (16-29 years;Firmin et al., 2014, Rönkä et al., 2018, and eleven studies included only older adults (60 years and older; Graneheim & Lundman, 2010, Heravi-Karimooi et al., 2010, Kwegyir Tsiboe, 2021, McInnis & White, 2001, Morgan & Burholt, 2020, Ojembe & Ebe Kalu, 2018, Park et al., 2019, Smith, 2012, Sullivan et al., 2016, Tiilikainen & Seppänen, 2017, Wright-St Clair & Nayar, 2020. ...
Purpose:
Loneliness is a fundamentally subjective experience that is common at various life stages. Studies have qualitatively explored loneliness, but a comprehensive overview is lacking. This research therefore provides a fine-grained review of studies on loneliness experiences across the lifespan.
Methods:
A systematic review and thematic synthesis were performed on studies that qualitatively investigated experiences of loneliness in people of any age from non-clinical populations. Sensitivity analysis assessed the impact of lower-quality studies and specific age groups on the findings.
Results:
Twenty-nine studies of 1,321 participants aged between 7 and 103 were included. Fifteen descriptive themes and three overarching analytical themes were developed: (1) Loneliness is both psychological and contextual, (2) Loneliness centres on feelings of meaningful connection and painful disconnection, and (3) Loneliness can exist in a general, pervasive sense or can relate to specific other people or relationship types. Some features were particularly pertinent to children, younger adults, and older adults, respectively.
Conclusions:
Loneliness involves a primarily aversive psychological experience of perceived disconnection which is linked to physical, personal, and socio-political contexts and can be pervasive or relate to specific relationships or relationship types. An awareness of context, life stage, and personal experiences is essential to understand loneliness.
... Loneliness has been found to significantly mediate the association between multimorbidity and QoL above and beyond depressive symptoms among individuals aged 66y-80y. A potential explanation for this finding is that, on the one hand, in this age bracket (third age) many sudden Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/innovateage/advance-article/doi/10.1093/geroni/igad047/7190165 by guest on 09 June 2023 A c c e p t e d M a n u s c r i p t changes linked to loneliness happen, such as retirement (loss of social contacts at work) and losing friends and family members to death (Segel-Karpas et al., 2018;Yang & Victor, 2011). On the other hand, people often enter a phase of being active with many social activities after retirement (Henning et al., 2016). ...
Background and Objectives
The ubiquity of multimorbidity makes it crucial to examine the intermediary factors linking it with quality of life (QoL). The objective was to examine to what extent the association between multimorbidity and QoL was mediated by functional and emotional/mental health and how these mediation pathways differed by sociodemographic factors (age, gender, education, financial strain).
Research Design and Methods
Data from waves 4 to 8 of 36,908 individuals from the Survey of Health, Aging and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) were included. Multimorbidity (exposure) was defined as having two or more chronic conditions. Mediators included limitations with (instrumental) activities of daily living (ADL and IADL), loneliness, and depressive symptoms. QoL (outcome) was assessed with the CASP-12 scale. Longitudinal model-based causal mediation analyses were performed to decompose the total association between multimorbidity and QoL into direct and indirect effects. Moderated mediation analyses tested for differences in mediation pathways by sociodemographic factors.
Results
Multimorbidity was significantly associated with lower QoL (direct effect: b = -0.66). This association was mediated by ADL limitations (percentage mediated 0.97%), IADL limitations (3.24%), and depressive symptoms (16.70%), but not by loneliness. The mediation pathways were moderated by age, education, financial strain, and gender.
Discussion and Implications
ADL, IADL, and depressive symptoms are crucial intermediary factors between multimorbidity and QoL in older European adults, with changing importance according to age, education, financial strain, and gender. The findings may help to increase the QoL of individuals with multimorbidity and redirect care efforts to these factors.
... While there is a wide range of variation in the measurements of social isolation and loneliness across studies, there appears to be a broad consensus that although social isolation and loneliness are separate constructs, they, at least, partially can share features (De Koning et al., 2017). Gaining a better understanding of the constructs of these concepts is crucial as they it informs us about their emergence and prevalence in a population (De Koning et al., 2017;Newall & Menec, 2019a;Smith & Victor, 2019;Yang & Victor, 2011), their impact on psychological and emotional well-being, identification of individuals potentially at risk, guidance of policy decisions and prevention programs (Cattan et al., 2005;Johnstone et al., 2021). ...
Objectives:
In view of the fallout of the COVID-19 pandemic, psychologists face a challenge to document the pandemic-related change in emotional well-being of individuals and groups and evaluate the emotional response to this fallout over time.
Methodsp:
We contribute to this goal by analyzing the new CoSoWELL corpus (version 2.0), an 1.8 million-word collection of narratives written by over 1,300 older adults (55+ y.o.) in eight sessions before, during and after the global lockdown. In the narratives, we examined a range of linguistic variables traditionally associated with emotional well-being and observed signs of distress, i.e., lower positivity and heightened levels of fear, anger, and disgust.
Results:
In most variables, we observed a characteristic timeline of change, i.e., a delayed (by 4 months) and abrupt drop in optimism and increase in negative emotions that reached its peak about 7 months after the lockdown and returned to pre-pandemic levels one year after. Our examination of risk factors showed that higher levels of self-reported loneliness came with elevated levels of negative emotions but did not change the timeline of emotional response to the pandemic.
Conclusions:
We discuss implications of the findings for theories of emotion regulation.
... In cross-sectional and longitudinal research, a large number of variables have been identified as correlates or risk factors of loneliness. Among adults over 50 years of age, higher prevalence of loneliness has been found with advancing age (Yang and Victor, 2011). Lower education level, migrant status, and living in a nursing home or a rural rather than an urban area have also been associated with higher levels of loneliness (Cohen-Mansfield et al., 2016;Vozikaki et al., 2018;Lim et al., 2020), and a larger incidence of loneliness has been found among individuals suffering from physical and mental conditions (Cacioppo and Hawkley, 2009;Kim et al., 2020;Park et al., 2020), including alcohol abuse (Åkerlind and Hörnquist, 1992). ...
Objectives
Loneliness is a major public health concern. Duration of loneliness is associated with severity of health outcomes, and further research is needed to direct interventions and social policy. This study aimed to identify predictors of the onset vs. the maintenance of loneliness in older adults before and during the pandemic using longitudinal data from the Survey of Health, Age, and Retirement in Europe (SHARE).
Methods
Groupings of persistent, situational, and no loneliness were based on self-reports from an ordinary pre-pandemic SHARE wave and a peri-pandemic telephone interview. Predictors were identified and compared in three hierarchical binary regression analyses, with independent variables added in blocks of geographic region, demographics, pre-pandemic social network, pre-pandemic health, pandemic-related individual, and country level variables.
Results
Self-reported loneliness levels for the persistent, situational, and no loneliness groups were stable and distinct through 7 years preceding the pre-pandemic baseline measure. Shared predictors were chronic diseases, female sex, depression, and no cohabitant partner. Persistent loneliness was uniquely predicted by low network satisfaction (OR: 2.04), functional limitations (OR: 1.40), and a longer country-level isolation period for older adults (OR: 1.24).
Conclusion
Interventions may target persons with depression, functional limitations, chronic health issues, and no cohabitant partner. The added burden of the length of isolation on those who are already lonely should be taken into account when employing social policies that target older adults. Further research should distinguish between situational and persistent loneliness, and seek to identify predictors of chronic loneliness onset.
... A másokhoz való kötődés ugyanolyan alapvető szükséglet, mint az evés vagy az ivás. Nem véletlenül alakult úgy a történelem során, hogy a legsúlyosabb tettek büntetése a társadalomtól való elszigetelés (Yang-Victor, 2011). A történelem során már korán felismerték a jelentőségét, de annak kapcsán csak igen későn, a 20. ...
A tanyán élők helyzete mindig is meglehetősen deprivált volt, hiszen rengeteg hátráltató körülménnyel kell nap mint nap megküzdeniük, amit az állandóan leküzdendő távolságokon túl tovább nehezít az, hogy társadalmi kapcsolataik száma jellemzően alacsony, ami az életkor előrehaladtával, majd árnyoldalainak megjelenésével sok esetben tovább redukálódik, minek következtében létrejöhet egy speciális jellemzőkkel rendelkező szociális izoláció. Vizsgálatom elsődleges célja a Hajdú-Bihar megyében található tanyán lakók szociális elszigeteltségének felmérése volt, másodsorban arra kerestem a választ, hogy milyen szociodemográfiai tényezők vannak hatással erre az objektív állapotra. A kutatás alapját a megye összes járásában felvételezett survey adta, melynek összesített adataiból általánosítani lehet a tanyalakók elszigeteltségének mértékére. A vizsgálat eredményei azt mutatják, hogy a vizsgált populációban minden ötödik tanyalakó valamilyen szinten szociálisan elszigeteltnek tekinthető.
... We aim to explore trends in the presence of loneliness in the high-risk population aged 50 and over between the early (2020) and late (2021) stages of the COVID-19 outbreak. In addition, given the fast-growing evidence showing that loneliness may be a risk factor for higher rates of depression, anxiety, or nervousness (Killgore et al., 2020;Losada-Baltar et al., 2021;Park et al., 2021), we sought to identify the main determinants of loneliness in the Czech Republic, a nation which is one of the European countries with the highest proportion of lonely people (Yang & Victor, 2011). ...
The unpredictable spread of the COVID-19 pandemic, national lockdowns, and public health measures implemented in the Czech Republic had a negative effect on older adults’ mental health and loneliness. The 2,631 older adults in 2020 and 2,083 older adults in 2021 used in this study formed a nationally representative sample of the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE). Almost every third older adult experienced feelings of loneliness in both stages of the COVID-19 outbreak. Loneliness increased in 2021 in those individuals who reported their physical health as poor, who felt nervous, sad or depressed, and who had ever left their home since the outbreak. According to age-related drivers of loneliness, feelings of loneliness were prevalent (40% vs. 45%) among younger retirees in both waves. In both data sets, declared feelings of sadness or depression were the strongest sustainable predictor of loneliness (2020 and 2021 models, OR = 3.69; 95% CI [2.90, 4.69] and OR = 2.55; [1.97, 3.30]). Being a woman and feeling nervous equated with a higher likelihood of feeling lonely compared to counterparts. Policy makers should therefore aim to carefully improve psychosocial and health-related consequences faced by this vulnerable population during the pandemic and beyond.
... A US study found that 43% of older adults experienced loneliness (2). A research found that approximately 19.6-34.0% of older adults in Europe experienced loneliness (3). Data from the Chinese Longitudinal Healthy Longevity Survey (CLHLS) showed that about 53.5% of older adults suffered from a feeling of loneliness (4). ...
Background
Loneliness is an important problem afflicting the health of older adults, and has been proven to be associated with social capital. Previous research in China rarely investigated the differences of social capital and loneliness between older adults living in community dwellings and nursing homes. This study aims to examine the status of social capital and loneliness among older adults living in community dwellings and nursing homes, and analyze the relationship between them.
Methods
A total of 1,278 older adults were recruited for the study from the cities of Hangzhou, Huzhou, and Lishui in Zhejiang Province of China from July to October 2021 by using multi-stage stratified random sampling. Questionnaires were used to collect data on the participants’ sociodemographic characteristics, social capital, and loneliness. Hierarchical multiple regression was used to examine the relationship between social capital and loneliness. The interaction of social capital and institutionalization on loneliness was also explored.
Results
Compared with community-dwelling older adults, institutionalized older adults had higher levels of loneliness and lower degrees of social support, social connection, trust, cohesion, and reciprocity. A further analysis of the social capital showed that low levels of social support, trust, and cohesion were related to high levels of loneliness among adults in both community dwellings and nursing homes. Social connection was negatively correlated with loneliness among older adults living in community dwellings. Institutionalization itself demonstrated a strong effect on loneliness.
Conclusion
Health-related policies should help older adults gain more social support, trust and cohesion to alleviate their loneliness. This is particularly crucial for older adults living in nursing homes, as they have higher levels of loneliness and lower levels of social capital than noninstitutionalized older adults.
... The term social isolation should be distinguished from loneliness. Social isolation is understood as the objective state of being alone or having few social contacts [3,22]. Social isolation is not synonymous with loneliness [5,23]. ...
Background The phenomenon of loneliness is increasing worldwide. Caring relatives (CRs) are at high risk of suffering from loneliness. Although some studies have already investigated the issue of loneliness among CRs, there is a lack of evidence to help understand the experience of loneliness in depth. The aim of this study is to record
and analyse the experience of loneliness among CRs of chronically ill people. Specifically, the aim is to develop a conceptual model based on the concepts of social, emotional, and existential loneliness.
Methodology A qualitative-descriptive research design with narrative semistructured interviews was chosen. Thirteen CRs—three daughters, six wives and four husbands—participated in the study. The participants were an average of 62.5 years old. The interviews took place from September 2020 to January 2021 and lasted an average of 54 min. The data were analysed inductively using coding. The analysis was carried out in the following three coding phases: initial open coding, axial coding, and selective coding. The central phenomenon was abductively generated from the main categories.
Results A chronic illness gradually changes the participants’ normal lives over time. A feeling of social loneliness
is experienced, as their quality of social contacts no longer meets their needs. Thoughts about the future and
the question of why are omnipresent can create a feeling of existential loneliness. Lack of communication in the partnership or in the family relationship, the changed personality of the ill person as well as the resulting role shift
are stressful. Moments of closeness and tenderness become rare, and a change in togetherness takes place. In such moments, there is a strong feeling of emotional loneliness. Personal needs rapidly fade into the background. One’s own life comes to a standstill. Accordingly, loneliness is perceived by the participants to be a stagnant life and is experienced as monotonous and painful. Feelings such as helplessness, powerlessness, frustration, anger, and sadness accompany this loneliness.
Conclusion The study results show that the feeling of loneliness is present and experienced in a similar way by CRs, regardless of age and relationship to an ill person and that a need for action must derive from this. With the conceptual model, it is possible to offer versatile starting points for nursing practice, such as sensitization, to foster further research into the topic.
... -Dentro del grupo de personas mayores, son las de más edad las que suelen estar y sentirse solas con mayor frecuencia (Heikkinen & Kauppinen, 2011;Losada et al., 2012;Yang & Victor, 2011), especialmente más allá de los 80 años (Dykstra et al., 2005;García et al., 2021;Pinquart & Sörensen, 2001). Factores como la mayor esperanza de vida hacen que el número de personas que viven solas sea cada vez mayor, especialmente las que superan los 80 años (López y Díaz, 2021) y que, además, estas tengan menos salud y recursos personales para hacer frente a la soledad (De Gierveld et al., 2015) por lo que pueden sentirse solas con mayor frecuencia, confirmando que la edad es un factor de riesgo (Cohen-Mansfield et al., 2016). ...
... The survey asks individuals, "How often do you feel lonely?" with the following responses: (1) Often/Always, (2) Some of the Time, (3) Occasionally, (4) Hardly Ever, and (5) Never. This is a measure of the frequency of loneliness and has been widely used in UK (Victor & Yang, 2012) and European studies (Yang & Victor, 2011). However, the measure could under-report actual levels of loneliness due to stigma (Pinquart & Sorensen, 2001). ...
Social participation is defined as an individual's involvement in activities that provide connections with others in society. Past research has demonstrated links between social participation, improved health and well‐being, and reduced social isolation, but has been restricted to older people and has not investigated heterogeneity. Using cross‐sectional data from the UK's Community Life Survey (2013–2019; N = 50,006), we estimated returns to social participation in the adult population. We included availability of community assets as instruments in a marginal treatment effects model, which allows treatment effects to be heterogeneous and examines whether the effects vary by propensity to participate. Social participation was linked to reduced loneliness and improved health (−0.96 and 0.40 points respectively on 1–5 scales) and increased life satisfaction and happiness (2.17 and 2.03 points respectively on 0–10 scales). These effects were larger for those on low income, with lower education attainment, and who live alone or with no children. We also found negative selection, indicating those less likely to participate have higher health and well‐being returns. Future interventions could focus on increasing community asset infrastructure and encouraging social participation for those with lower socio‐economic status.
... Social isolation and loneliness are more prevalent in the older adult population due to a shrinking social network, decline in mobility, and children moving away. A review done by Yang and Victor (2011) revealed that 20-34% of older people suffered from loneliness in 25 European countries. A study by Gardiner et al. (2020) indicated that nursing home residents experienced significant amounts of moderate to severe loneliness. ...
Older people are more prone to viral infections, and often have worse outcomes. This was well demonstrated during the COVID-19 pandemic, where a disproportionate number of deaths occurred in the oldest and frailest people. The assessment of the older person with a viral infection is complicated by the high prevalence of multiple comorbidities and sensory or cognitive impairment. They often present with common geriatric syndromes such as falls or delirium, rather than the more typical features of a viral illness in younger people. Comprehensive geriatric assessment by a specialist multidisciplinary team is the gold standard of management, as viral illness is unlikely to present in isolation of other healthcare needs. We discuss the presentation, diagnosis, prevention, and management of common viral infections—respiratory syncytial virus, coronavirus, norovirus, influenza, hepatitis, herpes, and dengue viruses—with special consideration of infections in the older patient.KeywordsAgeingCoronavirusCOVID-19DiagnosisHepatitisInfectionInfluenzaNorovirusSenescenceTreatmentVirology
... Gorczynski and Fasoli [55] note how 7% (~30 million) of Europeans feel lonely. The European Social Survey found there was a greater feeling of loneliness experienced by those people with poor health, who live alone, who are widowed, who earn a low income or who were unemployed, and who either live in Eastern or Southern Europe [56][57][58]. ...
Existing research surrounding dating apps has primarily focused on younger people with few studies exploring usage of such apps by middle aged and older adults. The worldwide COVID-19 pandemic challenged social behaviours and forced people to adapt intimacy and wider relationship conduct. The objective of this study was to examine how older adults utilized dating apps during the lockdowns of the UK pandemic (December 2020-May 2021). Findings presented here focus on qualitative data collected from an online survey and eight online, one-to-one interviews with adults aged 40-54 years. The online survey targeted adults across the UK while interviewees were located across England. Employing interpretative phenomenological analysis, findings identified three key themes: 1. Morality, health, and law breaking and COVID-19; 2. Self-surveillance and moral signalling; 3. Loneliness and social isolation. Qualitative findings show engaging with apps was a proxy which alleviated feelings of loneliness and social isolation. Some users used the premise of their social bubble as a way of meeting other people. Using the same premise, others justified breaking the law to engage in physical and sexual intimacy to mitigate their loneliness. The work presented here contributes to the fields of social sciences, gerontology, and human computer interaction. The inter-and multidisciplinary impact of this study intersects across those fields and offers a cross-sectional insight into behaviours and engagement with technology during one of the most extraordinary global events.
... Second, this study was conducted with undergraduate students and thus findings cannot be generalized to other age groups. Some previous findings report age effects on loneliness and mindfulness (Shook et al., 2017;Yang & Victor, 2011). Future studies could test whether the same tested model and results hold for noncollege-aged samples. ...
Humans function based on secure social connections. Loneliness is an important factor that puts individuals at higher risks for poor well-being but explicating potential mediating and moderating factors that may link loneliness to poor well-being has been limited. Based on Hawkley and Cacioppo’s model of loneliness, this study tested whether loneliness is associated with a sense of meaning and purpose in life and explored possible mediating (self-compassion) and moderating (interpersonal mindfulness) effects of this association. A total of 410 university students completed measures of loneliness, self-compassion, meaning in life, interpersonal mindfulness, and trait mindfulness. A moderated mediation model result found that loneliness interferes with showing a healthy attitude toward oneself, linked to a low sense of meaning in life. This effect was exacerbated for those who are less interpersonally mindful. Findings suggest that loneliness stemming essentially from an interpersonal experience gets extended to creating unkind self-attitudes, which then is linked to meaning in life. Moreover, being judgmental and reactive during interpersonal interactions exacerbates this association.
... Loneliness is likely a universal phenomenon, experienced by all individuals during their lifespan, but certain contexts and characteristics make it more likely [1,2]. While age itself is not likely to be the main causal factor in predicting loneliness [3,4], age brings with it events which can increase the likelihood of loneliness. ...
Background
the transition to nursing home care has previously been linked to negative outcomes for spousal caregivers of persons with dementia (PwD). However, little is known about the experience or trajectory of loneliness in spousal caregivers during this time.
Objectives
to explore experiences of loneliness in caregivers during the nursing home admission of their spouse or partner with dementia.
Methods
semi-structured interviews were conducted with 11 individuals living in Ireland between Oct 2020 and June 2021, who were married to/partnered with a PwD who had, in the past 7 years, moved to full-time nursing home care. Data were collected and analysed using a deductive qualitative analytic strategy in the grounded theory tradition.
Results
data were interpreted in the context of Weiss’ typology of social and emotional loneliness and indicated that social loneliness increased for many at the point of diagnosis, decreasing somewhat after the transition, while emotional loneliness increased across the transition. Data were used to refine an existing synthesised model of loneliness, providing an updated model of the causes and contexts of loneliness.
Conclusions
the transition to nursing home care differentially affects loneliness subtypes. Results have implications for other transitions, which should be assessed in terms of various subtypes of loneliness. Our refined theoretical synthesis model of loneliness also warrants further evaluation.
... Loneliness is known as the subjective feeling of social isolation resulting from a mismatch between desired and actual social relationships. 1 It is common in older adults and patients with chronic diseases with odds ratios ranging from 2.2 to 10.6 compared to young and healthy individuals. 2,3 Loneliness is linked to poor mental, physical and social health outcomes 4 and is associated with premature mortality at a risk reported as being equal to the health risks associated with smoking, drinking, physical inactivity and obesity. 5,6 Loneliness has been noted to increase mortality by 40% in patients with stroke 7 and by 123% in patients with chronic heart disease. ...
BACKGROUND
The psychometric properties of loneliness measures have not been reported in individuals with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). This study aimed to assess the validity and reliability of the University of California and Los Angeles Loneliness Scale (UCLA-LS) version 3 for use in this population.
METHODS
The UCLA-LS was administered at baseline and again after 1 to 2 weeks for test-retest reliability assessment. Intraclass Correlation Coefficient (ICC) was used to assess reliability and estimate minimal detectable change (MDC). Construct validity was established by assessing known groups, and convergent and divergent validity.
RESULTS
Of the 47 individuals included in this study, 40 persons (87%) reported moderate to high loneliness levels. The UCLA-LS discriminated (p < 0.03) between groups based on marital status, with higher loneliness levels for single (mean difference [MD] = 8 points) and widowed (MD = 7 points) compared to married individuals. The scale had moderate to strong associations with measures of depression (ρ = 0.69-0.72; p < 0.001), anxiety (ρ = 0.46-0.52; p < 0.03), and quality of life (Chronic respiratory questionnaire [CRQ]-Fatigue: ρ = −0.51-−0.53; CRQ-Emotional function: ρ = −0.59-−0.57; CRQ-Mastery: ρ = −0.43-−0.46; p < 0.003). The UCLA-LS showed excellent test-retest reliability with ICC values of 0.96. To detect a change in version 3 UCLA-LS, the MDC score should equal or exceed 7.8 points.
CONCLUSION
UCLA-LS demonstrated excellent known groups, convergent and divergent validity, and test-retest reliability. These findings may help improve the interpretability of loneliness levels in individuals with COPD.
... Having reached adolescence, 15-year-olds enter a peak period of loneliness. Studies have also shown that loneliness increases with age (Yang and Victor, 2011;Luhmann and Hawkley, 2016). Moderated mediation analysis showed that self-esteem partially mediated the association between relative deprivation and loneliness, and this effect was stronger for migrant children with a high BJW. ...
Given the increase in the number of internal migrant children, the mental health problems (e.g., loneliness) of this population have received widespread attention. Relative deprivation is considered to be related to migrant children’s loneliness. However, the underlying mechanisms of this relationship remain unclear. Therefore, the present study tested the possible mediating role of self-esteem and the moderating role of belief in a just world in the association between relative deprivation and loneliness of migrant children. A total of 1,261 Chinese rural-to-urban migrant children (10–15 years old, Mage = 12.34 years, SD = 1.67; 52.0% males, 48.0% females; 23.55% fourth grade students, 16.49% fifth grade students, 19.59% sixth grade students, 15.54% seventh grade students, 13.80% eighth grade students, and 10.86% ninth grade students) were recruited to complete measures of relative deprivation, self-esteem, belief in a just world, loneliness, and demographic variables. Relative deprivation was significantly and positively correlated with migrant children’s loneliness, and this connection could be mediated by self-esteem. Moreover, the first part of the indirect effect of self-esteem on this link was moderated by belief in a just world. These effects were stronger for migrant children with higher levels of belief in a just world. This study reveals the potential mechanisms of relative deprivation affecting loneliness, while also providing insights into how to better help migrant children alleviate loneliness and improve their mental health.
Loneliness can be a transient experience that lasts only a short amount of time. Likewise, the intensity of loneliness can change quickly. The research questions of this study are 'is loneliness susceptible to change over a short period of time?' and 'does loneliness differ over days of the week and time of the day?'. Data were collected among a sample of 44 participants (range 18-74 years) using Experience Sampling Method software. Loneliness was monitored 21 days, three times a week, at random times of the day. Results show that the majority of respondents showed more or less stable loneliness trajectories. Eleven respondents showed a fluctuating loneliness trajectory over the 21 day time period. Eight respondents were sometimes lonely, sometimes not lonely. Three respondents were sometimes severely lonely, sometimes mildly lonely. No statistical differences were found between different days of the week or times of the day. This study contributes to the current knowledge about loneliness by showing that feelings of loneliness can fluctuate from day to day. This knowledge is relevant for how we interpret loneliness scores in population studies.
This study examined social problem solving as a hypothesized mediator of the association between loneliness and psychological ill-being (viz., depressive symptoms & hopelessness) in American and Chinese adults.
A total of 320 (229 female & 91 male) American adults and 357 (194 male & 163 female) Chinese adults participated in the present study.
Mediation testing for social problem solving as a hypothesized mechanism accounting for the positive association between loneliness and psychological ill-being identified differences between Americans and Chinese. For Americans, the presence of a negative problem orientation was consistently found to partially mediate the association between loneliness and psychological ill-being. In contrast, for Chinese, the absence of a positive problem orientation was consistently found to partially mediate the association between loneliness and psychological ill-being. For both groups, no evidence was found for the importance of any of the problem-solving styles in accounting for psychological ill-being.
These findings not only indicate that how adults perceive problems matters more than how they approach solving them, but also point to important cultural differences regarding which problem orientation is most involved for understanding the positive association between loneliness and psychological ill-being in Easterners, compared to Westerners.
Objectives
Loneliness may influence aging biomarkers related to cognitive functioning, for example, through accelerated DNA methylation (DNAm) aging.
Method
In the present study we tested whether six common DNAm age acceleration measures mediated effects of baseline loneliness and five different longitudinal loneliness trajectories on general cognitive ability, immediate memory recall, delayed memory recall, and processing speed in 1,814 older adults in the Health and Retirement Study.
Results
We found that baseline loneliness and individuals who belong to the highest loneliness trajectories had poorer general cognitive ability and memory scores. Only DNAm age acceleration measures that index physiological comorbidities, unhealthy lifestyle factors (e.g., smoking) and mortality risk mediated effects of baseline loneliness on general cognitive ability and memory functioning but not processing speed. These same DNAm measures mediated effects of the latent class with a moderate-but-declining level of loneliness on cognitive functioning. Additionally, immediate and delayed memory scores were mediated by GrimAge Accel in the lowest and two highest loneliness latent classes. Yet, total and mediated effects of loneliness on cognitive functioning outcomes mainly were accounted for by demographic, social, psychological, and physiological covariates, most notably self-rated health, depressive symptomatology, objective social isolation, and body mass index.
Discussion
Current findings suggest that DNAm biomarkers of aging, particularly GrimAge, have promise for explaining the prospective association between loneliness and cognitive functioning outcomes.
Despite the well-established association between loneliness and all-cause mortality in older adults, it remains unknown whether this association holds for older adults of different sex and whether it is influenced by different samples and study characteristics. Thus, this meta-analysis aims to examine moderators of the association between loneliness and all-cause mortality in older adults. To this end, relevant literature was retrieved from the PubMed, Embase, PsycINFO, Web of Science, Chinese National Knowledge Infrastructure, Weipu, and Wanfang databases (inception to May 2023) and was processed in the Comprehensive Meta-Analysis 3.3 software. Moreover, subgroup analysis was performed to explore the sources of heterogeneity and further explore potential moderators. Funnel plots, Begg's test, and Egger's linear regression test were used to examine the publication bias, and sensitivity analysis was used to test the robustness of the results. Thirty-six studies involving 128,927 older adults were included in this meta-analysis. In general, loneliness was related to an increase in all-cause mortality in older adults (HR = 1.09, 95% CI = 1.06-1.12, I2 = 63.31%, p < 0.001). The overall effect size for older men was 1.18 (95% CI = 1.04-1.33, p = 0.010). The association between loneliness and all-cause mortality was found to be significantly influenced by the source country of the data, follow-up length, and covariates for chronic disease as moderators. In conclusion, loneliness among older adults deserves more attention, and services are needed to improve their mental health.
Evidence suggests that in old age, women are lonelier than men. Gender differences in loneliness are often explained by gender differences in longevity, social status and loss, health, and mobility-well-established predictors that may influence loneliness differently in "younger" (40-59 years) and "older" (60-80 years) groups of men and women in the second part of life. This study explores loneliness in men and women ages 40 to 80 years at baseline over a 15-year period using panel data from three waves of the Norwegian Life Course, Ageing and Generation Study (N = 2,315). Our analyses show that women were more lonely than men also in adjusted analyses. Logistic regression analyses indicated that loss of a partner and poor mental health are prospectively related to loneliness among men and women, whereas other factors like becoming a partner, stable singlehood, and poor physical health were related to loneliness among women but not men.
Background:
Pandemic fatigue emerged early during the COVID-19 pandemic and remains a concern as new variants emerge and ongoing public health measures are needed to control them. A wide range of factors can affect pandemic fatigue, but empiric research indicating which may be most important to adherence in specific populations is lacking.
Design & methods:
We conducted a longitudinal study of changes in physical distancing in two cohorts: adults living with children <18 years and adults ≥50 years old. Six types of non-work, non-household contacts were ascertained at six times from April to October 2020. We used generalized estimating equations Poisson regression to estimate the one-week change in contact rate and how this differed based on sociodemographic characteristics.
Results:
The rate of all contact types increased during the middle of the study period and decreased toward the end. Changes in contact rates over time differed according to several sociodemographic characteristics, including age, gender, race/ethnicity, education, household composition, and access to transportation. Furthermore, the factors influencing the rate of change in contact rates differed by the type or setting of the contact, for example contacts as a result of visiting another person's home versus during a retail outing.
Conclusions:
These results provide evidence for potential mechanisms by which pandemic fatigue has resulted in lower physical distancing adherence.
Both loneliness and intersectionality have become well established areas of academic research since the 1970s and 1980s. Nevertheless, only very recently some meaningful connections were made between the two, although researchers have paid attention to the interactive effects of two or more socio-demographic attributes on loneliness. For intersectionality, much of academic research is invested in establishing it as a theoretical approach in tackling social injustice, whilst how it should be studied empirically remains a major challenge. In contrast, research on loneliness has been predominantly empirical, and the small number of studies on loneliness from the intersectional perspective have adopted different research methodologies. This paper proposes and illustrates an approach loyal to the fundamental principles of intersectionality and simple to conduct in empirical investigations at the same time. First, it focuses exclusively on intersectional cross-classifications rather than both the main and the interactional effects; second, it demands a rationale of starting from one attribute and then moving on to include an additional attribute at a time; third, it examines the intersectional cross-classifications and their relationships with the interested outcome systematically without transforming the data in set memberships. The approach is illustrated with analyses of the data collected in Great Britain in the seventh round (2014/15) of European Social Survey. Young people (under 30) of ethnic minority and born inside Great Britain suffered from the highest percentage of frequent loneliness (15%), whilst their counterparts born outside the country enjoyed the lowest rate. Among the middle-aged, ethnicity determined how vulnerable they were to frequent loneliness. For older people (60+) born outside Great Britain, regardless of ethnicity, the percentage of frequent loneliness was 10%.
Background:
Most risk factors for cardiovascular disease (CVD) are modifiable, suggesting that the burden of CVD could be substantially reduced through cardiovascular screening and healthier lifestyle. People who have social support are more likely to adhere to cardiovascular prevention recommendations, but it is not clear whether the benefit of social support is equal for men and women.
Purpose:
We investigated whether sex moderates the relationship between social support and adherence to cardiovascular prevention recommendations in a nationally representative sample.
Methods:
Participants were 17,287 adults (n = 10,264 middle-aged adults 40-64 years old and n = 7,023 older adults ≥ 65 years old) who participated in the National Health Survey of Spain in 2017. Social support was measured with the Functional Social Support Questionnaire of Duke-UNC. Adherence to cardiovascular screening recommendations was assessed based on self-reported testing of cholesterol, blood pressure, and blood sugar by a health professional in the past 12 months. Adherence to recommended health-related behaviors was assessed based on the guidelines of the European Society of Cardiology regarding diet, alcohol consumption, smoking, and physical activity.
Results:
Multiple regression models adjusted for socio-demographic and cardiovascular history and risk variables showed that social support was more strongly associated with adherence to cardiovascular prevention recommendations in men than in women. In particular, low social support levels were especially detrimental for both middle-aged men (screening: B = 0.13, 95% CI [0.06-0.20], p < .001; behaviors: B = 0.33 [0.26-0.41], p < .001) and older men (screening: B = 0.10 [0.04-0.17], p = .001; behaviors: B = 0.16 [0.08-0.25], p < .001), whereas older women had comparatively high adherence, which was unrelated to social support (screening: B = 0.02 [-0.03 to 0.08], p = .433; behaviors: B = 0.03 [-0.03 to 0.10], p = .342).
Conclusions:
Social support is more strongly associated with cardiovascular prevention in men than in women, such that men who lack social support have the lowest adherence to cardiovascular screening and lifestyle recommendations.
Loneliness is associated with poor mental and physical health in the general population. It is thought to be prevalent among international students, but few studies have investigated this. To capture what loneliness means in the everyday lives of international students we analysed data from 521 international students aged 16–40 years who participated online in the 2018 British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) Loneliness Experiment. Using the approach of thematic analysis of free‐text responses to a question probing the perceived meaning of loneliness, we identified six main themes: (1) Negative psychological and social aspects of loneliness; (2) The distressing experience of being alone; (3) Disrupted ability to make meaningful connections; (4) Sense of entrapment in a state of loneliness; (5) Awareness of others’ stigmatizing perceptions of oneself as lonely; (6) Perceptions of positive aspects of loneliness. These findings identified a range of negative social and psychological dimensions of loneliness in international students in relation to their well-being, emotional health, and social functioning, hampering the benefits to be gained from their overseas study. Higher education teaching staff, pastoral staff, and mental health professionals need to be more aware of the prevalence and impacts of loneliness and should tackle it in culturally appropriate ways.
Background:
Loneliness and social isolation usually increase the risk of mental disorders. However, this association among Chinese medical residents during the COVID-19 pandemic remains unclear.
Methods:
This study was conducted in September 2022; 1,338 medical residents from three hospitals in Northeastern China were included in the final analysis. The data were collected via online self-administered questionnaires. Adjusted odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals were determined for adjusting for potential confounders by binary logistic regression.
Results:
Among the 1,338 participants, 12.93% (173), 9.94% (133), and 9.72% (130) had experienced major depression, major anxiety, and suicidal ideation, respectively. Further, 24.40% (327) and 44.50% (596) of the total participants had experienced loneliness and social isolation. Loneliness increased the risk of major depression, major anxiety, and suicidal ideation (all p<0.001); Compared with the lowest quartile, the odds ratios of the highest quartile were 4.81, 4.63, and 5.34. The same result was obtained in relation to social isolation (all p<0.001).
Conclusions:
The findings of this study revealed a considerable prevalence of loneliness, social isolation, and mental disorders among Chinese medical residents during the COVID-19 pandemic. Both loneliness and social isolation increased the risk of major depression, major anxiety, and suicidal ideation.
This study aims to contribute to the growing interest in the consequences of migration for loneliness by investigating the role of generational status across various age groups in countries with differing integration policies and attitudes towards immigrants, Using data from rounds 5, 6 and 7 of the European Social Survey, I conducted logistic multilevel models on a sample of 121,835 respondents aged 18 years and older, residing in 26 countries. Loneliness was assessed based on a single-item item question from the Center for Epidemiologic Studies of Depression scale. The findings suggest that individuals with a migration background are more likely to experience loneliness than those without. Within this group, I found that first-generation immigrants who arrived after the age of 18 are more vulnerable to loneliness than those who arrived earlier, although the latter still reported more loneliness than second-generation immigrants. Furthermore, migration-related inequalities in loneliness were greater among the youngest age group (18–34 years) and in countries with a more positive public stance towards immigrants. In sum, this study highlights the persistent challenges that migration poses for loneliness across generations and age groups, and emphasizes the need to extend research in this area beyond older adults. Moreover, it suggests that promoting a welcoming culture towards immigrants may have unintended consequences for loneliness gaps.
The present study explores characteristics of the top 100 most-cited articles on loneliness. A systematic search was carried out using the Thomson Reuters Web of Science Core Collection to collect studies on loneliness from inception to June 1, 2022. The initial search resulted in 6,250 search results, which included articles, book chapters, conference proceedings, editorials, and letters. Two authors independently screened the literature and extracted the data. The study supervisor removed any discrepancies. Top 100 papers (articles and reviews) on loneliness published in English were extracted. Data analysis and visualization were performed on Excel, Web of Science (WoS) Data Analyzer, and VOSviewer 1.6.16. The total number of citations of the 100 top-cited articles was 42,044, ranging from 203 to 2,201 per article. All of the studies were published from 1989 to 2021, and the years with the highest number of top-cited articles published were 2003 and 2008. Most publications were from the following journals: Computers in Human Behavior, Developmental Psychology, Psychological Science, Psychology, and Aging (n=4 each). The most cited article was titled “UCLA Loneliness Scale (Version 3): Reliability, validity, and factor structure” by Russell, DW, in the Journal of Personality Assessment. The most productive institute was the University of Chicago. The two most productive authors were Cacioppo, JT, and Hawkley, LC. Of the 100 top-cited publications, 87 were original articles and 13 were reviews. The top three WoS categories were psychology multidisciplinary, gerontology, and psychiatry. In total, 37 author keywords were elicited and further clubbed into eight distinct clusters. The study provides new insight into loneliness research, which may help doctors, researchers, and stakeholders achieve a more comprehensive understanding of trends and influential contributions to the field and highlight under-researched areas, which could be the basis for future investigation.
Background:
Loneliness and social isolation are elevated in older adults and associated with a range of detrimental outcomes. Despite this, there has been little research on these phenomena or on similarities and differences in their occurrence or combination in older Japanese adults. The current study aims to (i) determine what factors are associated with social isolation and loneliness among older adults in Japan; and (ii) describe the characteristics of individuals who are socially isolated but not lonely, as well as those who feel lonely but are not socially isolated.
Methods:
Data were analysed from 13 766 adults aged ≥65 years who participated in the 2019 wave of the Japan Gerontological Evaluation Study. Poisson regression analysis was used to examine associations.
Results:
Among older Japanese adults, the attributes of higher age, male gender, lower socioeconomic status, being a welfare recipient, and having depressive symptoms were associated with social isolation, while lower socioeconomic status, unemployment, welfare receipt, and poor physical and mental health were associated with loneliness. In addition, better educated, and mentally and physically healthy people were less likely to feel lonely even when socially isolated, while people who were not working and who had mental or physical health problems were more likely to feel lonely even if they were not socially isolated.
Discussion:
Our results indicate that in order to reduce unwanted social isolation and loneliness among older Japanese adults, in the first instance the focus should be on those individuals who are socioeconomically disadvantaged and unhealthy.
This article presents a model of loneliness that incorporates characteristics of the social network, background variables, personality characteristics, and evaluative aspects. The most salient aspect of this approach is its emphasis on cognitive processes that mediate between characteristics of the social network and the experience of loneliness. A total of 554 adult men and women served as respondents. The program LISREL, a causal modelling approach, was used to analyze the data. The LISREL program includes a goodness-of-fit test that indicates the degree of fit between a particular model and the data. The hypothesized model made a valuable contribution to the understanding of loneliness: It accounted for 52.3% of the variance in the data set. One of the model's major advantages is its ability to disentangle both the direct and the indirect causal influences of the various factors on loneliness.
Previous research on loneliness has often neglected the role of marriage ana family ties, comparative analysis, and cohabitation. It is not clear if the married/parent - loneliness relationship is consistent across nations, is stronger than a cohabitant-loneliness relationship, and applies to both genders. The present study addresses these issues. Data are from 17 nations in the World Values Survey. The results of multiple regression analyses determined that (1) Marriage is associated with substantially less loneliness, but parenthood is not (2) being married was considerably more predictive of loneliness than cohabitation, indicating that companionship alone does not account for the protective nature of marriage (3) both marriage and parental status were associated with lower levels of loneliness among men than women, (4) marriage is associated with decreased loneliness independent of two intervening processes: marriage's association with both health and financial satisfaction, (5) the strength of the marriage-loneliness relationship is constant across 16 of the 17 nations. Theoretically, the results are consistent with a social causation hypothesis on marriage and well-being, but also suggest possible support for a social selection thesis. The findings provide wide sweeping, strong, and largely consistent support for the married-loneliness thesis, but only weak support for a relationship between parenting and loneliness.
The paper describes and reviews concepts and studies in the area of social relations and health, with special emphasis on loneliness. Related concepts such as social networks and social support are also considered. The fundamental distinction between the objective manifestation of being alone and the subjective manifestation of experiencing loneliness is emphasized. The second part of the paper consists of a description of various network interventions followed by an overview and discussion of loneliness interventions.
Compared with the many studies in western countries, research on the prevalence of and risk factors for loneliness amongst older people in China is sparse. This paper reviews the current cross-national literature on loneliness and, using data from two national surveys undertaken in 1992 and 2000, assesses the prevalence of loneliness amongst older people in China and explores the factors that raise their vulnerability to the negative feeling. The reported prevalence of loneliness was 15.6 per cent in 1992 and 29.6 per cent in 2000. We suggest that part of the differential is accounted for by the differences in the methodologies of the two surveys and in the questions used to assess loneliness. The evidence from both surveys suggests that loneliness was relatively prevalent among those aged 65 or more years, females and those living in rural areas, and that these variations had greater amplitude in 2000. As in western countries, increased age, being widowed or divorced, and poor self-rated health were significantly associated with old-age loneliness in China at the two dates. Two factors positively related to loneliness were found that are specific to the Chinese context, however: living in a rural (as opposed to urban) area, and thinking that one's children are not filial. To develop our understanding of loneliness among older people in China and other non-western countries, it will be necessary to construct more rigorous and comparable measurements of loneliness and to undertake longitudinal studies of social relationships.
The main argument of this paper is that the subjective experience of loneliness among older people must be analyzed in relation to the overall value system of society or the subcultural values of particular segments of society. Cultural or subcultural value systems are contrasted in terms of whether they give priority to individualistic values or to collective values such as family or community bonds. These differences in value systems result in important differences in people's social contacts and socioemotional bonding experiences as well as their level of satisfaction with a given level of social relationships. It is suggested that these differences must be looked at in relation to basic human needs for social bonding as well as needs for individuation. The concept of the loneliness threshold is introduced to identify the level of social contacts that individuals desire to avoid the experience of loneliness or emotional isolation.
Comparative ageing research is a flourishing field, partly because of European funding in this area. Comparing different societies and cultures seems especially fruitful for the analysis of societal and cultural factors in development over the life course. From a nomothetic perspective, the aim of comparisons is the search for similarities and communalities in different societies and cultures; from an idiographic perspective, researchers are looking for societal and cultural specificity and distinctiveness. However, the potentials of comparative ageing research are not fully realized for the time being. In many cases, there is little theorizing as to whether there should be differences (or similarities) in ageing processes across countries, societies, or cultures. This paper discusses theoretical aims and ambitions of comparative ageing research in general. Comparative theories are sketched which could serve as a basis for comparative ageing research, and ageing theories are discussed which could be modified to be used in comparative research. The rationale of comparative ageing research is described and illustrated through empirical examples. Epistemological and methodological pitfalls (problems of conceptual, operational, functional, and measurement equivalence) are a substantial obstacle to comparative ageing research. Hence, merits and limitations of comparative designs and sampling procedures are considered.
The quality and quantity of individuals' social relationships has been linked not only to mental health but also to both morbidity and mortality.
This meta-analytic review was conducted to determine the extent to which social relationships influence risk for mortality, which aspects of social relationships are most highly predictive, and which factors may moderate the risk.
Data were extracted on several participant characteristics, including cause of mortality, initial health status, and pre-existing health conditions, as well as on study characteristics, including length of follow-up and type of assessment of social relationships.
Across 148 studies (308,849 participants), the random effects weighted average effect size was OR = 1.50 (95% CI 1.42 to 1.59), indicating a 50% increased likelihood of survival for participants with stronger social relationships. This finding remained consistent across age, sex, initial health status, cause of death, and follow-up period. Significant differences were found across the type of social measurement evaluated (p<0.001); the association was strongest for complex measures of social integration (OR = 1.91; 95% CI 1.63 to 2.23) and lowest for binary indicators of residential status (living alone versus with others) (OR = 1.19; 95% CI 0.99 to 1.44).
The influence of social relationships on risk for mortality is comparable with well-established risk factors for mortality. Please see later in the article for the Editors' Summary.
As a social species, humans rely on a safe, secure social surround to survive and thrive. Perceptions of social isolation, or loneliness, increase vigilance for threat and heighten feelings of vulnerability while also raising the desire to reconnect. Implicit hypervigilance for social threat alters psychological processes that influence physiological functioning, diminish sleep quality, and increase morbidity and mortality. The purpose of this paper is to review the features and consequences of loneliness within a comprehensive theoretical framework that informs interventions to reduce loneliness. We review physical and mental health consequences of loneliness, mechanisms for its effects, and effectiveness of extant interventions. Features of a loneliness regulatory loop are employed to explain cognitive, behavioral, and physiological consequences of loneliness and to discuss interventions to reduce loneliness. Loneliness is not simply being alone. Interventions to reduce loneliness and its health consequences may need to take into account its attentional, confirmatory, and memorial biases as well as its social and behavioral effects.
To investigate (i) whether loneliness increases in old age, and if so, whether it relates to ageing itself, to time trends or to cohort effects and (ii) the relationship between changes in institutionalization, partner status and health and loneliness.
939 men born between 1900 and 1920 completed the De Jong-Gierveld Loneliness Scale, and answered questions about their partner status, health and institutionalization in 1985, 1990 and 1995.
For the oldest group (born between 1900 and 1910) loneliness scores increased, but not for the younger groups. The increase in loneliness was attributable to ageing. No birth cohort or time effects were found. Loneliness was related to changes in institutionalization, partner status and subjective health but not to limitations in activities of daily living or cognitive function.
the increased loneliness experienced by very old men is influenced by loss of a partner, moving into a care home or not feeling healthy.
to examine the associations between domains of chronic diseases, social, psychological and environmental factors and long-standing and limiting long-standing illness among older people.
cross sectional survey.
national sample living in private households.
999 adults aged 65 years and over, mean age 73.2 years.
self-reports of long-standing illness and limiting long-standing illness.
the prevalence of long-standing illness was 61.8% (95% CI 58.8, 64.9) and that for limiting long-standing illness was 40.0 (95% CI 38.0, 43.0). Strong associations between long-standing illness and circulatory disease, odds ratio: 2.23 (95% CI 1.63, 3.05) and musculoskeletal disorders, odds ratio: 3.21 (95% CI 2.35, 4.39) were found. In addition associations with other domains were observed. For example, feelings of vulnerability, odds ratio: 1.79 (95% CI, 1.28, 2.51) from the psychological domain and, having close relatives living close by, odds ratio: 1.52 (95% CI 1.11, 2.09) from the social domain.
the importance of considering a wide range of domains of human experience in the causation of limitations in society is emphasised. The currently dominant disease oriented view is insufficient to explain people's reported long-standing illness and limiting long-standing illness.
Loneliness is experienced in many cultures. To properly assess cross-cultural differences, attention should be paid to the level, determinants, and measurement of loneliness. However, cross-cultural studies have rarely taken into account more than one of these. Differences in the level of loneliness were hypothesized on the basis of national differences in partnership, kinship, and friendship, which were assumed to be related to cultural standards within a society. Differences were examined among married and widowed older adults aged 70 to 89 years living independently in The Netherlands (N = 1,847), Tuscany, Italy (N = 562), and Manitoba, Canada (N = 1,134). Loneliness was measured with an 11-item scale. The Manitobans were high on emotional loneliness and the Tuscans were high on social loneliness. Partner status excepted, the determinants were nearly the same across the three locations. Differential item functioning (DIF) related to the three locations was observed for most items. Interactions with gender and the availability of a partner relationship were observed.
Social isolation in old age has been associated with risk of developing dementia, but the risk associated with perceived isolation, or loneliness, is not well understood.
To test the hypothesis that loneliness is associated with increased risk of Alzheimer disease (AD).
Longitudinal clinicopathologic cohort study with up to 4 years of annual in-home follow-up.
A total of 823 older persons free of dementia at enrollment were recruited from senior citizen facilities in and around Chicago, Ill. Loneliness was assessed with a 5-item scale at baseline (mean +/- SD, 2.3 +/- 0.6) and annually thereafter. At death, a uniform postmortem examination of the brain was conducted to quantify AD pathology in multiple brain regions and the presence of cerebral infarctions.
Clinical diagnosis of AD and change in previously established composite measures of global cognition and specific cognitive functions.
During follow-up, 76 subjects developed clinical AD. Risk of AD was more than doubled in lonely persons (score 3.2, 90th percentile) compared with persons who were not lonely (score 1.4, 10th percentile), and controlling for indicators of social isolation did not affect the finding. Loneliness was associated with lower level of cognition at baseline and with more rapid cognitive decline during follow-up. There was no significant change in loneliness, and mean degree of loneliness during the study was robustly associated with cognitive decline and development of AD. In 90 participants who died and in whom autopsy of the brain was performed, loneliness was unrelated to summary measures of AD pathology or to cerebral infarction.
Loneliness is associated with an increased risk of late-life dementia but not with its leading causes.
The relationship between social and community ties and mortality was assessed using the 1965 Human Population Laboratory survey of a random sample of 6928 adults in Alameda County, California and a subsequent nine-year mortality follow-up. The findings show that people who lacked social and community ties were more likely to die in the follow-up period than those with more extensive contacts. The age-adjusted relative risks for those most Isolated when compared to those with the most social contacts were 2.3 for men and 2.8 for women. The association between social ties and mortality was found to be independent of self-reported physical health status at the time of the 1965 survey, year of death, socioeconomic status, and health practices such as smoking, alcoholic beverage consumption, obesity, physical activity, and utilization of preventive health services as well as a cumulative index of health practices.
This study examines the changes in loneliness and social contacts among older rural adults over a 13-year period (67 to 80 years of age) and how the experience of loneliness is related to living conditions, health and personality during this period. The results showed a relatively stable pattern in loneliness and a low frequency of loneliness during the 13-year period. This stability in loneliness was found even if there had been considerable changes in social circumstances such as social contacts, marital status, and living conditions. Comparing loneliness among survivors and those who were going to die before the end of the survey, there were no statistically significant differences. Over the study period, contact frequencies with children decreased, while the total contacts outside the household increased. Feelings of loneliness and social contacts over time only corresponded partly with each other. Bivariate analyses showed that the onset of widowhood, as well as living alone, feelings that time passes more slowly these days, and general adjustment were significantly related to feelings of loneliness during the study period.
Aim: to investigate (i) whether loneliness increases in old age, and if so, whether it relates to ageing itself, to time trends or to cohort effects and (ii) the relationship between changes in institutionalization, partner status and health and loneliness. Methods: 939 men born between 1900 and 1920 completed the De Jong-Gierveld Loneliness Scale, and answered questions about their partner status, health and institutionalization in 1985, 1990 and 1995. Results: for the oldest group (born between 1900 and 1910) loneliness scores increased, but not for the younger groups. The increase in loneliness was attributable to ageing. No birth cohort or time effects were found. Loneliness was related to changes in institutionalization, partner status and subjective health but not to limitations in activities of daily living or cognitive function. Conclusions: the increased loneliness experienced by very old men is influenced by loss of a partner, moving into a care home or not feeling healthy.
82 female and 62 male college students judged the psychosocial functioning and acceptability of hypothetical peers that depicted 2 Levels of Loneliness (Lonely versus Nonlonely) x 2 Domains of Loneliness (Social versus Intimacy). Analysis indicated the students stigmatized both social and intimacy loneliness; they ascribed lower psychosocial functioning to and were less accepting of the lonely than nonlonely peer for both the social and intimacy domains of loneliness. The students, however, displayed greater differentiation in the ascription of psychosocial functioning between the lonely and nonlonely peers for the intimacy than the social domain of loneliness.
Features the essential methodologies and statistical tools for developing reliable and valid survey questionnaires Modern survey design requires the consideration of many variables that will ultimately impact the quality of the collected data. Design, Evaluation, and Analysis of Questionnaires for Survey Research outlines the important decisions that researchers need to make throughout the survey design process and provides the statistical knowledge and innovative tools that are essential when approaching these choices. Over fifteen years of survey design research has been referenced in order to conduct a meta-analysis that not only unveils the relationship between individual question characteristics and overall questionnaire quality, but also assists the reader in constructing a questionnaire of the highest relevance and accuracy. Among the book's most outstanding features is its introduction of Survey Quality Prediction (SQP), a computer program that predicts the validity and accuracy of questionnaires based on findings from the meta-analysis. Co-developed by the authors, this one-of-a-kind software is available via the book's related Web site and provides a valuable resource that allows researchers to estimate a questionnaire's level of quality before its distribution. In addition to carefully outlining the criteria for high quality survey questions, this book also: Defines a three-step procedure for generating questions that measure, with high certainty, the concept defined by the researcher Analyzes and details the results of studies that used Multitrait-Multimethod (MTMM) experiments to estimate the reliability and validity of questions Provides information to correct measurement error in survey results, with a chapter focusing specifically on cross-cultural research Features practical examples that illustrate the pitfalls of traditional questionnaire design Includes exercises that both demonstrate the methodology and help readers master the presented techniques Design, Evaluation, and Analysis of Questionnaires for Survey Research succeeds in illustrating how questionnaire design influences the overall quality of empirical research. With an emphasis on a deliberate and scientific approach to developing questionnaires, this book is an excellent text for upper-level undergraduate or beginning graduate-level survey research courses in business and the social sciences, and it also serves as a self-contained reference for survey researchers in any field.
The advancement of social theory requires an analytical approach that systematically seeks to explicate the social mechanisms that generate and explain observed associations between events. These essays, written by prominent social scientists, advance criticisms of current trends in social theory and suggest alternative approaches. The mechanism approach calls attention to an intermediary level of analysis in between pure description and story-telling, on the one hand, and grand theorizing and universal social laws, on the other. For social theory to be of use for the working social scientist, it must attain a high level of precision and provide a toolbox from which middle range theories can be constructed.
in recognition of the diversity of causes and manifestations of loneliness, researchers have increasingly urged a shift away from a global, undifferentiated view of loneliness towards a more differentiated view
reviews work on this newer focus, emphasizing variations in the duration of loneliness, specific interpersonal deficits, motivational and behavioral causes of loneliness, and the manner of coping with loneliness
implications for further research and clinical interventions are highlighted (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This paper considers the processes and circumstances that create vulnerability among older people, specifically to a very poor quality of life or an untimely or degrading death. Models of ageing processes are used to define vulnerable older people as those whose reserve capacity falls below the threshold needed to cope successfully with the challenges they face. Compensatory supports may intervene to mitigate the effects of challenges and to rebuild reserve. The dimensions of reserve, challenges and compensation are discussed, with emphasis on demographic and other influences on the availability of family and social support. Policy initiatives to reduce vulnerability can focus on each part of the dynamic process that creates vulnerability, namely, ensuring that people reach later life with ‘reserve’, reducing the challenges they face in later life, and providing adequate compensatory supports. The promotion through the lifecourse of healthy lifestyles and the acquisition of coping skills, strong family and social ties, active interests, and savings and assets, will develop reserves and ensure that they are strong in later life. Some of the physical and psychological challenges that people may face as they age cannot be modified, but others can. Interventions to develop compensatory supports include access to good acute care and rehabilitation when needed, substitute professional social and psychological help in times of crisis, long-term help and income support. Our knowledge of which interventions are most effective is however limited by the paucity of rigorous evaluation studies.
The well-being of older adults in general, and their loneliness in particular, are important themes in recent discussions in the Western world. The social integration and participation of older adults in society are seen as indicators of productive aging, and the alleviation of loneliness forms part of policies aimed at achieving the goal of ‘successful’ aging. Discussions about loneliness date back to ancient times, when they were led by philosophers. They wrote primarily about ‘positive’ loneliness. This positive type of loneliness - as indicated in the concept of ‘Einsamkeit’ used in German literature until 1945 - is perceived to be related to the voluntary withdrawal from the daily hassles of life and oriented towards higher goals, such as reflection, meditation and communication with God.
Data from six European regions participating in the Eleven Country Study on Health Care of the Elderly suggested that feelings of loneliness were more prevalent in areas where living alone was rarest and where community bonds were strongest. Individual variables describing life-situation did not explain the differences. The article examines loneliness as an historical and cultural phenomenon. It is argued that loneliness reflects, through complex mediations, the mutual relationship between the individual and the community and the extent to which the ideology of individualism prevails in society. In attempts to understand the differences between the study areas, the article looks more closely into the role of the community and the family in two selected areas: the industrial town Tampere in Finland and rural Greece.
Loneliness has been consistently identified as one of the specific ‘social problems’ which accompanies old age and growing older: 90 per cent of the general population of Britain feel that loneliness is a problem associated with old age. There is a widespread presumption that loneliness and isolation have become more prevalent in Britain in the period since the Second World War as a result of the decline in multi-generation households and changes in family structure. This paper examines the accuracy of this stereotype and considers if current cohorts of older people are more likely to report experiencing loneliness than previous generations of elders, through a comparative analysis of historical and contemporary data. Historical data are provided by three ‘classic’ social surveys undertaken in England between 1945 and 1960. Contemporary data are from a postal survey of 245 people aged 65–74 living in South London in 1999. The questions used in all four surveys were comparable, in that respondents self-rated their degree of loneliness on scales ranging from never to always. The overall prevalence of reports of loneliness ranged from five to nine per cent and showed no increase. Loneliness rates for specific age or gender sub-groups were also stable. Reported loneliness amongst those living alone decreased from 32 per cent in 1945 to 14 per cent in 1999, while the percentages decreased for both those reporting that they were never lonely and that they were ‘sometimes’ lonely.
Preventing and alleviating social isolation and loneliness among older people is an important area for policy and practice, but the effectiveness of many interventions has been questioned because of the lack of evidence. A systematic review was conducted to determine the effectiveness of health promotion interventions that target social isolation and loneliness among older people. Quantitative outcome studies between 1970 and 2002 in any language were included. Articles were identified by searching electronic databases, journals and abstracts, and contact-ing key informants. Information was extracted and synthesised using a standard form. Thirty studies were identified and categorised as 'group ' (n=17) ; ' one-to-one ' (n=10) ; 'service provision' (n=3) ; and ' community development ' (n=1). Most were conducted in the USA and Canada, and their design, methods, quality and transferability varied considerably. Nine of the 10 effective interventions were group activities with an educational or support input. Six of the eight ineffective interventions provided one-to-one social support, advice and information, or health-needs assessment. The review suggests that educational and social activity group interventions that target specific groups can alleviate social isolation and loneliness among older people. The effectiveness of home visiting and befriending schemes remains unclear.
Creating anti-oppressive practices in service provision that successfully remove barriers to the social inclusion of older lesbians, gay men, bisexuals and transgendered (LGBT) citizens has proven thus far tremendously difficult. The White Paper, Better Care, Higher Standards: A Charter for Long Term Care, addresses the development of non-discriminatory services that treat users with dignity and respect, taking account of sexual orientation. Such government social policy holds out the hope that services will be designed to support senior LGBT people. This paper examines the unique oppression and marginalization faced by older lesbian, gay men, bisexual and transgendered citizens in homophobic and ageist societies, which often fail to acknowledge their existence. The research findings highlight strategies being created through social policy that aim to successfully achieve the inclusion of this group in the planning and delivery of their services.
Purpose:
This study aims to explore the concept of loneliness using Walker and Avant's concept analysis framework. In addition, the overlap and potential confusion of the factors related to the nursing diagnoses Social Isolation and Risk for Loneliness were noted and discussed.
Data sources:
A literature review was conducted by searching Google, CINAHL, PsychINFO, and MEDLINE databases using the keywords "loneliness,"concept analysis," and "loneliness concept analysis" in the title. Only those sources that directly addressed loneliness were used (27).
Data synthesis:
Dictionary definitions, various uses, and critical attributes were identified; model, borderline, related, and contrary cases were developed; and antecedents, consequences, and empirical referents were determined. Data were evaluated and summarized to reach conclusions and recommendations.
Conclusions:
The authors concluded with a recommendation that Loneliness replace Social Isolation as the primary nursing diagnosis in the NANDA International taxonomy.
Past studies in the UK and the Netherlands indicate that loneliness varies significantly according to characteristics of older
people’s residential environment. This raises questions regarding potential neighbourhood influences on individuals’ social
relationships in later life. This article examines neighbourhood influences on loneliness, using multiple classification analysis
on comparable empirical data collected in the UK and the Netherlands. UK data arise from a survey of 501 people aged 60+ in
deprived neighbourhoods of three English cities. Netherlands data derive from the NESTOR Living Arrangements and Social Network
survey, with a sub-sample of 3,508 people aged 60+ drawn from a nationally representative sample of older people, living in
11 municipalities. Both surveys incorporated the 11-item De Jong Gierveld Loneliness Scale. In addition to neighbourhood characteristics
and indicators of health and social embeddedness, a typology of eight groups of persons was developed that accounted for individuals’
age, sex, and partner status. While 13% of participants in the UK were severely lonely, the proportion in the Netherlands
was just four per cent. Mean loneliness scores in the UK varied significantly between the neighbourhoods under investigation.
Additionally, the evaluated quality of the residential neighbourhood accounted for a relatively large degree of variance in
loneliness in both countries.
This paper introduces the ‘Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe’ (SHARE) to researchers on ageing. SHARE provides
an infrastructure to help researchers better understand the individual and population ageing process: where we are, where
we are heading to, and how we can influence the quality of life as we age, both as individuals and as societies. The baseline
wave in 2004 provides data on the life circumstances of some 27,000 persons aged 50 and over in 11 European countries, ranging
from Scandinavia across Western and Central Europe to the Mediterranean. SHARE has made great efforts to deliver truly comparable
data, so we can reliably study how differences in cultures, living conditions and policy approaches shape the life of Europeans
just before and after retirement. The paper first describes the SHARE data. In order to demonstrate its value, it then presents
highlights from the three main research areas covered by SHARE, namely economics, sociology, and health.
More than two decades of research has consistently indicated that feelings of loneliness among older people are more common
in southern Europe than in its northern parts, with the lowest rates in Denmark and Sweden. Our analyses based on analysis
of 2004–2006 data from 8,787 individuals aged 65years or older in the SHARE project replicate, update, and extend these findings.
We found, similar to previous studies, that the prevalence of feelings of loneliness was more common in the Mediterranean
countries than in Northern Europe. Living together with a spouse/partner was consistently associated with the lower prevalence
of loneliness across countries. The combination of living alone and having bad health was associated with 10times higher
odds of feeling lonely as compared with living together with someone and having good health. With regard to gender and health,
we found signs of differences between countries in how these factors were related to loneliness. Our results indicate the
importance of both contextual features and cultural expectations in interpreting reported loneliness, that is, loneliness
across Europe has both nomothetic and idiographic features.
Loneliness is a complex set of feelings encompassing reactions to the absence of intimate and social needs. Although transient for some individuals, loneliness can be a chronic state for others. We review the developmental, social, personality, clinical, and counseling psychology literatures on loneliness with an emphasis on recent empirical findings. Chronic feelings of loneliness appear to have roots in childhood and early attachment processes. Chronically lonely individuals are more likely to be high in negative affectivity, act in a socially withdrawn fashion, lack trust in self and others, feel little control over success or failure, and generally be dissatisfied with their relationships compared to nonlonely individuals. Loneliness has also been associated with a variety of individual differences including depression, hostility, pessimism, social withdrawal, alienation, shyness, and low positive affect; loneliness is also a concomitant of more severe disorders, such as clinical depression, borderline personality, and schizophrenia. Although loneliness affects a large number of individuals and is associated with numerous negative outcomes, relatively few investigations have examined the efficacy of treatments aimed at alleviating or preventing loneliness. Several investigations raise the possibility of treating loneliness, but the absence of appropriate comparison groups casts doubt on the efficacy of many of these treatments. Correlational studies also suggest that one close friend or romantic partner may be sufficient to buffer those at risk for loneliness. Research on causal processes is sparse, however, and more research is needed to delineate which factors are antecedents and which are consequences of loneliness.
We report the results of several randomized survey experiments designed to evaluate two intended improvements to anchoring
vignettes, an increasingly common technique used to improve interpersonal comparability in survey research. This technique
asks for respondent self-assessments followed by assessments of hypothetical people described in vignettes. Variation in assessments
of the vignettes across respondents reveals interpersonal incomparability, allowing researchers to improve comparability by
rescaling self-assessments relative to vignette responses. Our experiments show, first, that switching the question order
so that self-assessments follow the vignettes primes respondents to define the response scale in a common way. In this case,
priming is not a bias to avoid but a means of better communicating the question’s meaning. Second, we demonstrate that combining
vignettes and self-assessments in a single direct comparison induces inconsistent and considerably less informative responses.
Since similar combined strategies are widely employed for related purposes, our results suggest that anchoring vignettes could
reduce measurement error in many applications where they are not currently used. Data for our experiments come from a national
telephone survey and a separate online survey.
We investigated the prospective impact of self-reported loneliness on all-cause mortality, mortality from ischemic disease and mortality from other cardiovascular diseases. We tested these effects through GEE binomial regression models applied to longitudinal data from the Alameda County Study of persons aged 21 and over arranged into person-years. Controlling for age and gender, the chances of all-cause mortality were significantly higher among respondents reporting that they often feel lonely compared to those who report that they never feel lonely. Frequent loneliness was not significantly associated with mortality from ischemic heart disease but more than doubled the odds of mortality from other ailments of the circulatory system in models controlling for age and gender. Subsequent models showed that physical activity and depression may be important mediators of loneliness-mortality associations. Finally, we find support for the contention that chronic loneliness significantly increases risk of mortality but also find reason to believe that relatively recent changes in feelings of loneliness increase risk of mortality as well.
We address two long-standing survey research problems: measuring complicated concepts, such as political freedom and efficacy, that researchers define best with reference to examples; and what to do when respondents interpret identical questions in different ways. Scholars have long addressed these problems with approaches to reduce incomparability, such as writing more concrete questions—with uneven success. Our alternative is to measure directly response category incomparability and to correct for it. We measure incomparability via respondents’ assessments, on the same scale as the self-assessments to be corrected, of hypothetical individuals described in short vignettes. Because the actual (but not necessarily reported) levels of the vignettes are invariant over respondents, variability in vignette answers reveals incomparability. Our corrections require either simple recodes or a statistical model designed to save survey administration costs. With analysis, simulations, and cross-national surveys, we show how response incomparability can drastically mislead survey researchers and how our approach can alleviate this problem. Government Version of Record
Introduction
The context for the review of loneliness and social isolation in later life is that of ‘successful aging’ and ‘quality of life’. The term ‘quality of life‘ includes a broad range of areas of life and there is little agreement about the definition of the term. Models of quality of life range from identification of ‘life satisfaction’ or ‘social wellbeing’ to models based upon concepts of independence, control, and social and cognitive competence. However, regardless of how the concept of quality of life is defined, research has consistently demonstrated the importance of social and family relationships in the definition of a ‘good quality of life’.
The relationship between social and community ties and mortality was assessed using the 1965 Human Population Laboratory survey of a random sample of 6928 adults in Alameda County, California and a subsequent nine-year mortality follow-up. The findings show that people who lacked social and community ties were more likely to die in the follow-up period than those with more extensive contacts. The age-adjusted relative risks for those most isolated when compared to those with the most social contacts were 2.3 for men and 2.8 for women. The association between social ties and mortality was found to be independent of self-reported physical health status at the time of the 1965 survey, year of death, socioeconomic status, and health practices such as smoking, alcoholic beverage consumption, obesity, physical activity, and utilization of preventive health services as well as a cumulative index of health practices.
This article presents a model of loneliness that incorporates characteristics of the social network, background variables, personality characteristics, and evaluative aspects. The most salient aspect of this approach is its emphasis on cognitive processes that mediate between characteristics of the social network and the experience of loneliness. A total of 554 adult men and women served as respondents. The program LISREL, a causal modelling approach, was used to analyze the data. The LISREL program includes a goodness-of-fit test that indicates the degree of fit between a particular model and the data. The hypothesized model made a valuable contribution to the understanding of loneliness: It accounted for 52.3% of the variance in the data set. One of the model's major advantages is its ability to disentangle both the direct and the indirect causal influences of the various factors on loneliness.
82 female and 62 male college students judged the psychosocial functioning and acceptability of hypothetical peers that depicted 2 Levels of Loneliness (Lonely versus Nonlonely) x 2 Domains of Loneliness (Social versus Intimacy). Analysis indicated the students stigmatized both social and intimacy loneliness; they ascribed lower psychosocial functioning to and were less accepting of the lonely than nonlonely peer for both the social and intimacy domains of loneliness. The students, however, displayed greater differentiation in the ascription of psychosocial functioning between the lonely and nonlonely peers for the intimacy than the social domain of loneliness.
The purpose of this study was to examine whether older age is associated with increasing loneliness in people aged 60 and over. Data came from TamELSA, a population-based prospective longitudinal study in Tampere, Finland. The follow-up time was 20 years. Loneliness was measured by a single question--"Do you feel lonely?"--with the possible answers often, sometimes, or never. Cross-sectional analysis showed that the percentage of subjects feeling lonely increased toward older age groups, but in a multivariate analysis, only household composition and social participation were independently associated with loneliness. Longitudinal analysis showed that loneliness increased with higher age. Over a 10-year period, loneliness increased most in those who, at baseline, were married and living