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A review of loneliness: Concept and definitions, determinants and consequences
Abstract
The well-being of older adults in general, and their loneliness in particular, are important themes in recent discussions in the Western world. The social integration and participation of older adults in society are seen as indicators of productive aging, and the alleviation of loneliness forms part of policies aimed at achieving the goal of ‘successful’ aging. Discussions about loneliness date back to ancient times, when they were led by philosophers. They wrote primarily about ‘positive’ loneliness. This positive type of loneliness - as indicated in the concept of ‘Einsamkeit’ used in German literature until 1945 - is perceived to be related to the voluntary withdrawal from the daily hassles of life and oriented towards higher goals, such as reflection, meditation and communication with God.
... Matthews et al. (2019) showed that loneliness was mainly affected by socioeconomic determinants in older adults, whereas for younger people loneliness was unrelated to socioeconomic characteristics [10]. De Jong Gierveld reached a similar conclusion back in 1998, when she showed that, among young people, loneliness was mainly related to personality traits [31]. Nevertheless, recent studies conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic provided slightly different insights: not only did younger individuals report the highest loneliness levels during the lockdown periods [3,12], but employment-related variables, such as job insecurity, appeared as particularly consequential [3,17] for younger groups. ...
... This finding has several implications. First, it contradicts previous evidence suggesting that loneliness among younger individuals is unrelated to socioeconomic factors [16], and mainly driven by specific personality traits [31]. Second, precarity could partly explain the high loneliness levels reported by young people, as they may perceive employment insecurity as the main obstacle preventing them from, for instance, accessing decent housing or forming a family [24]. ...
... By assessing the role of socioeconomic correlates, our study overcomes some of the limitations of studies, namely: focusing only on sociodemographic characteristics or social network size [31,44]. Furthermore, our study focuses on emerging socioeconomic determinants, i.e. socioeconomic factors that were identified as particularly relevant determinants of health in the last decades [15], such as poor or precarious housing conditions and job insecurity. ...
Purpose
Recent evidence shows that loneliness is associated with socioeconomic factors. However, studies often focus on traditional socioeconomic indicators (income, occupation, educational level) only, disregarding other important socioeconomic determinants, such as job insecurity, housing conditions or material deprivation. Therefore, we analyse the association of a broad range of socioeconomic indicators with loneliness. Moreover, we investigate potential age and gender differences in this relationship.
Methods
We used cross-sectional data from the Barcelona Health Survey 2021, representative of the population of Barcelona (Spain). Individuals over the age of 14 were selected (n = 3,337). The outcome was a loneliness score based on 4 items of the UCLA scale. Loneliness was regressed on a series of sociodemographic and emerging socioeconomic correlates. Linear regression models were fitted, and potential age and gender moderation effects were tested by means of two-way interactions.
Results
Job insecurity and precarity-related factors, such as having a temporary job or working without a contract, material deprivation and financial difficulties, as well as poor housing conditions and facing housing insecurity were associated with increased loneliness levels. While the association between loneliness and precarity-related factors is stronger among younger individuals, material deprivation is associated with increased loneliness among older workers and women.
Conclusion
Beyond sociodemographic individual characteristics, socioeconomic factors are strongly associated with loneliness levels in the population. Findings support the relevance of broadening the scope of socioeconomic indicators, assessing both material conditions as well as perceived insecurity.
... loneliness in which retirees think their feelings of loneliness are temporary and will resolve 42,43 . Retirees may also experience a honeymoon period just after retirement but feel (more) lonely afterward because retirement does not meet their expectations, which could then lead to chronic loneliness with feelings of hopelessness 41,42 . ...
... loneliness in which retirees think their feelings of loneliness are temporary and will resolve 42,43 . Retirees may also experience a honeymoon period just after retirement but feel (more) lonely afterward because retirement does not meet their expectations, which could then lead to chronic loneliness with feelings of hopelessness 41,42 . ...
... These components are captured by the dimensions of the loneliness scale and reflect different aspects of intimate loneliness 48 . Loneliness is an "unacceptable lack of (quality of) certain relationships" 42 . In this three-item scale, the quantity and the quality of social interactions seem to be captured most by isolation 49 , the quality or intimacy of social connections by lacking companionship 50 . ...
This article investigates the short- and long-term impacts of retirement on loneliness using panel data from the Survey of Health, Aging, and Retirement in Europe. To identify causal effects, we exploit differences in retirement rules across and within countries and use retirement thresholds in an instrumental variable setting. On average, we find that entering retirement leads to a reduction in loneliness in the long run and no clear effect in the short run. The reduction is driven by individuals being less likely to feel socially isolated and lacking companionship. Our results suggest that individuals adapt to retirement by increasing their activity levels and reap the benefits in terms of reduced loneliness and social isolation. The heterogeneity analysis shows that this is particularly true among the higher educated. The heterogeneity analysis also reveals that retirement increases feelings of loneliness for women in the short term and that the effect seems to be driven by women lacking companionship when their partner is not yet retired.
... The growing acknowledgment of the importance of loneliness among middle-aged and older individuals is prompting researchers in gerontology, public health, and related fields to integrate measures of loneliness into their surveys. While the inclusion of a single direct question, such as "How often in the past week have you felt lonely?", is the most straightforward approach, scholars have expressed concerns about potential underreporting due to the stigma associated with loneliness (De Jong Gierveld 1998;De Jong Gierveld et al. 2006). Thus far, there has been little empirical work that assessed whether direct questions indeed lead to underreporting in a large sample of older adults. ...
... In line with this conclusion, Newmyer et al. (2021) established that single-item measures of loneliness contribute meaningful information in diverse settings. Nevertheless, the use of single, direct questions to measure loneliness has been criticized (e.g., De Jong Gierveld 1998;De Jong Gierveld et al. 2006). An important reason why some scholars caution against using such measures is related to the social stigma associated with loneliness, that is, "a constellation of beliefs that derogate and devalue those who feel lonely" (Barreto et al. 2022(Barreto et al. , p. 2659. ...
... Scholars skeptical about employing direct single-item measures of loneliness often argue that the negative connotations attached to loneliness may lead respondents to refrain from disclosing such feelings when asked directly (De Jong Gierveld 1998;De Jong Gierveld et al. 2006;Russell 1982). Stegen et al. (2024) recently reviewed the literature on loneliness prevalence among community-dwelling older adults. ...
Despite the growing acknowledgment of the importance of loneliness among older individuals, questionnaire length constraints may hinder the inclusion of common multi-item loneliness scales in surveys. Direct, single-item loneliness measures are a practical alternative, but scholars have expressed concerns that such measures may lead to underreporting. Our aim was to test whether such reservations are justified. We conducted a preregistered list experiment among 2,553 people aged 50 + who participated in the Dutch Longitudinal Internet studies for the Social Sciences (LISS) panel. The list experiment method has been developed to unobtrusively gather sensitive information. We compared the list experiment estimate of the prevalence of frequent loneliness with the corresponding direct question estimate to assess downward bias in the latter. Next to pooled models, we estimated models stratified by gender to assess whether loneliness underreporting differed between women and men. Relying on the direct question, we estimated that 5.9% of respondents frequently felt lonely. Our list experiment indicated that the prevalence of frequent loneliness was 13.1%. Although substantial in magnitude, the difference between both estimates was only marginally significant (Δb: 0.072, 95% CI: − 0.003;0.148, p = .06). No evidence of gender differences was found. Although we cannot be conclusive that loneliness estimates are biased downward when a direct question is used, our results call for caution with direct, single-item measures of loneliness if researchers want to avoid underreporting. Replications are needed to gain more precise insights into the extent to which direct, single-item loneliness measures are prone to downward reporting bias.
... Cô đơn được định nghĩa là tình trạng mô tả những cảm giác đau khổ, chán nản, mất nhân tính, tách biệt mà một người phải chịu đựng khi có một khoảng trống trong cuộc sống do cuộc sống xã hội và/hoặc cảm xúc không được thỏa mãn (Killeen, 1998). Cũng có quan điểm cho rằng cô đơn xảy ra khi thiếu hụt cả về số lượng và chất lượng trong các mối quan hệ, gây ra sự khó chịu, cảm giác tiêu cực (De Jong, 1998). Trong một nghiên cứu khác, khả năng phục hồi được đề xuất như một yếu tố tiềm năng để cải thiện những cảm xúc tiêu cực, giúp duy trì hạnh phúc và giảm thiểu các triệu chứng trầm cảm. ...
... Đồng thời, vai trò trung gian của khả năng phục hồi trong mô hình nghiên cứu cũng được xác định nhằm củng cố thêm kiến thức về quá trình cô đơn tác động đến trầm cảm ở nhóm đối tượng này. Cô đơn là sự thiếu hụt các mối quan hệ xã hội gây ra những cảm giác tiêu cực và khó chịu, ảnh hưởng đến thể chất và sức khỏe tinh thần của mỗi cá nhân (Perlman & Peplau, 1981;De Jong, 1998;Tiwari & Chandra, 2013). Trong khi đó, khả năng phục hồi được định nghĩa là quá trình thích ứng với những thay đổi trong cuộc sống, cho phép một cá nhân đối phó và phục hồi sau căng thẳng, đối mặt với khó khăn, thử thách (Rutter et al., 1985). ...
Khả năng phục hồi tác động đến mối quan hệ giữa cô đơn và trầm cảm khá phổ biến ở người già nhưng chưa được nghiên cứu rộng rãi ở người trẻ. Nghiên cứu này phân tích mối quan hệ giữa cô đơn và trầm cảm, đồng thời xác minh vai trò trung gian của khả năng phục hồi. Mô hình cấu trúc tuyến tính SEM được sử dụng để phân tích dữ liệu khảo sát 523 sinh viên trên địa bàn thành phố Hà Nội cho thấy khả năng phục hồi giữ vai trò trung gian, làm giảm tác động tiêu cực giữa cô đơn và trầm cảm. Dựa trên kết quả, một số khuyến nghị được đưa ra nhằm cải thiện tình trạng cô đơn, trầm cảm ở người trẻ, đặc biệt là sinh viên trên địa bàn thành phố Hà Nội.
... The study of loneliness is inherently interdisciplinary, though it has been predominantly shaped by psychology and gerontology. Initially, loneliness piqued the interest of philosophers and literary scholars (De Jong Gierveld, 1998;Mijuskovic, 2012), but it wasn't until the rise of social gerontology in the 1960s (Mijuskovic, 1977) that it became a focal point for interdisciplinary research. Psychologists and gerontologists have since drawn on insights from the social sciences, nursing, and medical fields to explore this complex phenomenon. ...
At a time when loneliness emerges as a major social issue in the post-pandemic world, this article aims to introduce the emerging field of the sociology of loneliness. We argue that, while loneliness studies have traditionally been dominated by psychology, the sociological perspective is increasingly recognized as crucial for understanding contemporary forms of loneliness. Over the past two decades, whether through qualitative, ethnographic, or statistical methods, a growing number of sociological studies have revealed new facets of loneliness across the lifespan. Drawing on an extensive review of this literature, our aim is to identify the specific contributions and distinct features of the sociological approach to loneliness. We show that, compared to other perspectives, this approach fundamentally invites us to consider loneliness not just as an intimate phenomenon, but above all as a social phenomenon, whose causes and consequences are primarily played out at the social and political levels. It therefore reveals structural dimensions of loneliness that are less emphasized in other approaches: the weight of social norms, its social factors and manifestations, the role of inequalities, and its multiple subjective forms. Finally, the article explores the field's main contemporary research horizons and outlines key directions for its further development, highlighting potential intersections with other social sciences.
... Loneliness, albeit distressing, is a universal human experience. Although it has been conceptualized in slightly different ways throughout the years due to its multidimensional and subjective nature (Tzouvara et al., 2015), we draw upon the conceptualization that loneliness is an unpleasant feeling associated with either a lack of certain relationships or dissatisfaction with their quality (de Jong Gierveld, 1998;Perlman & Peplau, 1981). Unlike social isolation which reflects the objective number of social relations, loneliness reflects the subjective evaluation of social relations (Perlman & Peplau, 1981). ...
People who migrate at a later age are vulnerable to loneliness: They are challenged to maintain social ties in the origin country while establishing new ties in the destination. In the present study, we investigate (a) the differences in loneliness levels between retirement migrants and older adults who reside in their country of origin (nonmigrants) and (b) the determinants of emotional and social loneliness among retirement migrants. We employ the survey of Dutch retirement migrants abroad (DRM, 2021: Henkens et al., 2022), including 4,995 Dutch retirement migrants residing in 40 destination countries and 1,338 nonmigrants residing in the Netherlands (aged 66–90). Our results showed that retirement migrants were socially lonelier than nonmigrants; however, they were not emotionally lonelier. Among retirement migrants, those who had lost contact with good friends in the country of origin were both emotionally and socially lonelier. Retirement migrants who had more neighbor contact and a higher sense of belonging to the destination were emotionally and socially less lonely. Furthermore, those who had lost contact with their children and had a higher sense of belonging to the Netherlands were emotionally lonelier. The present study presents new insights into the interplay between aging and migration by using a unique representative survey of individuals who migrated at a later age to a new country and points to the risks of the increasingly popular phenomenon of international retirement migration. Differences in levels and predictors of emotional and social loneliness highlight the importance of studying these dimensions separately.
... • Sentimientos de soledad y de aislamiento social. El aislamiento social es la falta objetiva de una red social de apoyo (De Jong Gierveld et al., 2006), y el sentimiento de soledad es una valoración subjetiva del apoyo recibido (De Jong Gierveld, 1998;Hawkley y Cacioppo, 2010;Pinazo-Hernandis, 2021;Pinazo-Hernandis, 2023;Pinazo-Hernandis et al., 2023). Tanto el aislamiento social como los sentimientos de soledad tienen un efecto negativo en la salud general de las personas y en su calidad de vida, al aumentar el riesgo de sufrir enfermedades cardiovasculares (Valtorta et al., 2018) y síntomas depresivos (Taylor et al., 2018), entre otras consecuencias (Yanguas et al., 2018). ...
Los cuidados pueden afectar a la red social y familiar de la persona cuidadora principal. En el presente artículo abordamos los sentimientos de soledad que experimentan las mujeres cuidadoras informales de personas con algún tipo de demencia. Conociendo las consecuencias positivas y negativas del cuidado que nos indica la revisión de la literatura científica, el objetivo de esta investigación es conocer cuáles son los factores implicados en la experiencia de cuidar en las mujeres cuidadoras: analizar el efecto que tienen las tareas de cuidado en la vida personal de las mujeres cuidadoras; estudiar la relación entre cuidar y los sentimientos de soledad ante el cuidado, y conocer las necesidades que tienen las mujeres que cuidan de cuidarse a sí mismas. Para ello, se han realizado entrevistas semiestructuradas a siete mujeres cuidadoras principales familiares, que han permitido conocer en mayor profundidad sus necesidades.
Soledad, mujeres mayores, cuidados, demencia, sobrecarga, depresión.
Zainketek eragina izan dezakete zaintzaile nagusiaren gizarte- eta familia-sarean. Artikulu honetan, dementzia motaren bat duten pertsonen zaintzaile informalen bakardade-sentimenduei helduko diegu. Literatura zientifikoaren berrikuspenak adierazten dizkigun zaintzaren ondorio positiboak eta negatiboak ezagututa, ikerketa honen helburua da emakume zaintzaileen zainketa-esperientzian inplikatutako faktoreak ezagutzea: zaintza-lanek emakume zaintzaileen bizitza pertsonalean duten eragina aztertzea; zainketaren eta zaintzaren aurrean bakardade-sentimenduen arteko harremana aztertzea; beren burua zaintzen duten emakumeek dituzten premiak ezagutzea. Horretarako, elkarrizketa erdi-egituratuak egin zaizkie familiako zazpi emakume zaintzaile nagusiei, eta haien premiak sakonago ezagutzeko aukera eman dute.
Bakardadea, adineko emakumeak, zaintzak, dementzia, gainkarga, depresioa.
... Prior scholarship has found that several individual-level differences influence people's level of desire for social connection, including belonging motivation-a spectrum ranging from sociotropy (i.e., an overly strong desire for close relationships and social acceptance) to social anhedonia (i.e., a lack of interest in and reward reaped from social contact) (Leary and Hoyle 2009)-and relationship valence (i.e., whether or not people believe social connections are inherently beneficial) (S.L. Wright and Silard 2021). Previous studies have also identified a number of personal factors associated with a lower likelihood of developing work relationships, which makes it harder for people to satisfy their desire for social connection: weaker interpersonal skills, having an introverted (versus extraverted) personality, greater individualism, older age, and being biologically male (Buhrmester et al. 1988;Silman and Dogan 2013;Bartel and Rockmann 2024;de Jong Gierveld 1998). Other characteristics-such as possessing a more proactive or extraverted personality-tend to facilitate social contact and liking, thus increasing the odds that people find sufficient connection (Ahsan and ul Haq 2021). ...
In this chapter, we explore how major changes to employment are altering relational dynamics and thus people’s experiences of loneliness in work contexts. We focus on virtual (i.e., hybrid or remote) jobs and gig (i.e., external, contract-based) arrangements, which are increasingly prevalent globally. Drawing on research from multiple literatures (e.g., organizational, social psychology, human-computer interaction), we identify key attributes of virtual jobs and gig arrangements that influence work relationships. First, we suggest that relationships evolve differently in virtual jobs due to limited physical proximity, greater reliance on digital communication technologies, and reduced commuting. Second, we propose that gig arrangements shape relationships through low organizational integration, time-bounded affiliation, and outsider status. These key attributes of virtual jobs and gig arrangements have complex social implications: although they often act as relationship inhibitors—thwarting the development and deepening of interpersonal connections—they can also serve as relationship facilitators—enabling greater relational choice, creativity, and access. Building on our discussion of these mixed effects, we outline fruitful avenues for future research and offer practical recommendations for organizations.
... Social relations are a core concept in this context [10,11]. Loneliness can be understood as the unpleasant and disturbing experience that occurs when a person's network of social relations is quantitatively or qualitatively deficient in some important way [12], creating a situation in which "the number of existing relationships is smaller than is considered desirable, as well as situations where the intimacy one wishes for has not been realized" [13]. Two dimensions of loneliness can be distinguished [14]. ...
Loneliness is an increasingly significant social and public health issue in contemporary societies. The available evidence suggests that social support is one of the key psychosocial processes for the reduction and prevention of loneliness. This study investigated the role played by sources of social support in the experience of social and emotional loneliness, identifying seven sources of support split between family (spouse/partner, children, grandchildren, siblings) and non-family (friends, neighbours). The study population comprised people aged 65 years and over living in Spain, with a partner (without cohabiting children), alone or in a nursing home. A mixed-methods approach was used, combining data from a survey involving 887 participants (quantitative phase) and data from semi-structured interviews with 30 older adults (qualitative phase). The relationship between the various sources and loneliness was analysed using structural equation modelling (SEM) for the survey data and thematic analysis for the qualitative information. The results from both phases of the study suggest different association dynamics between sources of social support and the social and emotional dimensions of loneliness. Lower levels of emotional loneliness were related to support from the following sources: spouse, children, grandchildren, siblings and friends. Lower levels of social loneliness were related to support from the following sources: spouse, grandchildren, siblings and friends. In contrast, greater levels of emotional loneliness were related to support from neighbours and greater levels of social loneliness were related to support from children. The findings of this study contribute to a better understanding of the association between social support and loneliness and suggest that interventions aimed at reducing loneliness could be more effectively targeted by considering the specific effects of support derived from different sources.
... This study found that 29% of participants experienced frequent loneliness, in contrast, a study conducted in Canada in 2021, yielded that 34.8% experienced feelings of loneliness at least occasionally, 43.1% of respondents felt lonely sometimes, and 8.3% reported experiencing consistent or frequent loneliness [16] revealing that 14% of participants rated themselves as never lonely, 58% rated themselves as sometimes lonely, and 28% responded as often lonely. Living alone is an important risk factor for loneliness, both pre-COVID-19 [17,18] and during the pandemic [19,20]. This study further supported the notion that loneliness persists even among individuals living alone during hospital stays post-COVID-19. ...
Background: Loneliness is prevalent among the elderly population. This, in turn, is a significant risk factor for various physical and psychosocial health ailments. Chronic loneliness emerges as a predisposing factor for suicidality, exacerbating cognitive decline and diminishing the overall quality of life. This study investigates loneliness among geriatric patients in critical care at a tertiary hospital in Islamabad, aiming to identify contributing factors and support interventions for improved emotional well-being. Methods: The study applied a cross-sectional quantitative research design that used a convenient non-probability sampling technique. The University of California, Los Angeles Loneliness Scale Version 3 (UCLA-LS V3), a 20-item questionnaire developed by Russell, was used to measure the loneliness and social isolation of geriatric patients. The sample included 100 geriatric patients aged above 65 years with acute clinical loneliness and chronic illnesses and those admitted. The study excluded patients under 65 years of age, unconscious, or on mechanical ventilation. The collected data was analyzed through SPSS version 27, and outcomes were presented in graphs and tables. Results: This study assessed loneliness in 100 geriatric patients, with 63% male and 37% female participants, and a mean age of 75.83 years. The average UCLA Loneliness Scale score was 33.06, indicating moderate loneliness. Gender did not significantly affect loneliness (t = 0.225, p = 0.22), and there was a weak, non-significant correlation between age and loneliness (r = 0.14, p = 0.17). Most participants (65%) experienced moderate loneliness, with males reporting higher levels of severe loneliness. The primary factors contributing to loneliness were perceived lack of support (22%) and social exclusion (12%). Conclusion: The study concludes that there is a significant prevalence of loneliness among geriatric patients, with a majority experiencing moderate loneliness. Gender and age did not have a significant impact on loneliness levels, suggesting that other factors, particularly a perceived lack of support and social exclusion, play a more substantial role. The findings underscore the need for targeted interventions that address the multifactorial nature of loneliness, emphasizing the importance of enhancing social support and emotional connections to improve the well-being of geriatric patients.
... Weiss (3) identified two components of loneliness: emotional and social loneliness. Emotional loneliness is associated with the perceived absence or loss of an intimate connection, while social loneliness arises from a perceived lack of a social network (4)(5)(6)(7)(8)(9). Research often focuses on overall loneliness (5,10). ...
Background
COVID-19-related restrictions led to an increase in overall loneliness and social isolation. Before the pandemic, care partners reported higher levels of loneliness and higher loneliness prevalence compared to non-care partners. Because of the spread and severity of the infections, and the access to support spread, we expect a different impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on LATAM care partners.
Objectives
To describe the loneliness levels of LATAM caregivers and to identify socioeconomic and health factors associated.
Design
An international online cross-sectional survey for care partners, embedded within the ‘Coping with Loneliness and Isolation during COVID-19’ (CLIC) Study conducted between June 2020– and November 2020.
Setting
We analysed data from 246 family care partners living in Latin American countries (46% Mexico, 26% Chile,18% Brazil, and 10% from Argentina, Peru, Venezuela, Panama, Guatemala y Costa Rica).
Measurements
We assessed loneliness using the 6-items of De Jong Gierveld loneliness Scale. We described the levels of overall, emotional, and social loneliness pre and during Covid, and reported the distribution of care partners who improved, worsened or maintained their levels of loneliness. Moreover, we used longitudinal multiple linear regression models with bootstraps errors of 1,000 iterations to identify factors associated with the levels of overall, emotional, and social loneliness during the pandemic.
Results
Participants were mostly women, 50 years and older, in a partnership, highly educated and with finances meeting their needs, with good to excellent physical and mental health. Among the total of care partners, 55% perceived higher overall loneliness, 56% higher emotional loneliness, and 21% higher social loneliness during the pandemic in comparison with pre-COVID-19 levels. Perceived mental health was associated with the overall, emotional, and social loneliness.
Conclusions
Regardless of their living and health situation, during the pandemic, loneliness increased in all groups of care partners. These should be taken in consideration when planning public health approaches for crises such as pandemics or other large-scale disruptive events.
... Loneliness is the difference between the levels of a person demanded social relations and achieved levels of this (Bekhet et al., 2008;Perlman & Peplau, 1981). Although the need to the social relationship is different among the individuals (Weiss, 1973), and social norms can influence the expectation of quality and quantity (De Jong Gierveld, 1998), some researchers indicated that over 70% of individuals experienced occasional loneliness (i.e., Cacioppo, 2008;Inderbitzen-Pisaruk et al., 1992;Saari, 2010). Beutel et al. (2017) in a survey estimated that 10.5% of Germans (35-74 years) experienced a spectrum of loneliness, slight (4.9%), moderate (1.7%), and severe (1.7%). ...
Loneliness is a distressing experience and has destroying psychological consequences for children. This paper explored the effectiveness of instructing philosophy for children on children's loneliness after controlling the role of the social-emotional learning. This study adopted a quasi-experimental method. The statistical population included sixth grade primary school male students of Urmia (N=50) chosen by cluster random sampling method and then randomly assigned to the experimental (N=25) and Control (N=25) groups. The experimental group participated in 12 sessions of philosophy for children instruction while the control group did not receive any special instruction. Children loneliness questionnaire by Asher and Wheeler (1985) and the Social-Emotional Learning scale of Coryn et al. (2009) were administrated. The results of this study showed the same patterns as Westerns studies. After controlling the role of covariates variables (the pre-test and social-emotional learning) on loneliness by ANCOVA test, instructing philosophy for children has a significant effect on loneliness. Moreover, after instructing philosophy for children, the experimental group showed lower levels of loneliness than the control group (P<0.001). Although there were two covariate variables, pre-test, and social-emotional learning, instructing philosophy for children had an effect on loneliness, accordingly these findings highlight the importance of philosophy for children in mitigating children's loneliness. This findings may be helpful for school psychologists in schools.
... Loneliness is an adverse emotion that emerges when individuals are unable to form or maintain social connections with others. This happens because humans have an inherent need for meaningful relationships (Gierveld, 1998). When loneliness is experienced, it can trigger a drive to re-establish social connections. ...
The COVID-19 pandemic has witnessed a notable escalation in smartphone usage among the adolescent population in Indonesia. This study was thus designed to investigate the underlying mechanism that linked attachment styles to the prevalence of problematic smartphone use (PSU) among Indonesian college students during the pandemic. Employing an attachment theory perspective, this study examined the hypotheses that distinct attachment styles (i.e., secure, fearful, preoccupied, and dismissive) were predictive of PSU, with loneliness and fear of missing out (FoMO) posited as potential mediators. This study recruited 276 undergraduate students, aged 17 to 25, from six diverse islands across Indonesia. The measurement tools used included the Smartphone Addiction Scale, the Attachment Styles Questionnaire, the UCLA Loneliness Scale, and the Fear of Missing Out Scale. The results showed a robust positive correlation between fearful or preoccupied attachment style and PSU. Conversely, secure and dismissive attachment styles were observed to have no significant correlation with PSU. Mediation analyses conducted separately demonstrated that FoMO mediated the relationship between each attachment style and PSU, while loneliness did not. Intriguingly, serial mediation analyses revealed that FoMO and loneliness sequentially mediated the relationship between secure or dismissive attachment style and PSU. This study suggests that it is not merely the attachment style itself, but rather the self-model shaped by individuals’ attachment styles, that exerts a profound influence on PSU. This insight invites a paradigm shift in our approach to the management of PSU.
... • Sentimientos de soledad y de aislamiento social. El aislamiento social es la falta objetiva de una red social de apoyo (De Jong Gierveld et al., 2006), y el sentimiento de soledad es una valoración subjetiva del apoyo recibido (De Jong Gierveld, 1998;Hawkley y Cacioppo, 2010;Pinazo-Hernandis, 2021;Pinazo-Hernandis, 2023;Pinazo-Hernandis et al., 2023). Tanto el aislamiento social como los sentimientos de soledad tienen un efecto negativo en la salud general de las personas y en su calidad de vida, al aumentar el riesgo de sufrir enfermedades cardiovasculares (Valtorta et al., 2018) y síntomas depresivos (Taylor et al., 2018), entre otras consecuencias (Yanguas et al., 2018). ...
Los cuidados pueden afectar a la red social y familiar de la persona cuidadora principal. En el presente artículo, abordamos los sentimientos de soledad que experimentan las mujeres cuidadoras informales de personas con algún tipo de demencia. Conociendo las consecuencias positivas y negativas del cuidado que nos indica la revisión de la literatura científica, el objetivo de esta investigación es conocer cuáles son los factores implicados en la experiencia de cuidar en las mujeres cuidadoras: analizar el efecto que tienen las tareas de cuidado en la vida personal de las mujeres cuidadoras; estudiar la relación entre cuidar y los sentimientos de soledad ante el cuidado, y conocer las necesidades que tienen las mujeres que cuidan de cuidarse a sí mismas. Para ello, se han realizado entrevistas semiestructuradas a siete mujeres cuidadoras principales familiares, que han permitido conocer en mayor profundidad sus necesidades.
... Despite there being a variety of definitions and measurements for social isolation and loneliness, social isolation often refers to objective isolation, which is a limited social relationship in structural (social networks) or functional (social support) facets [8,9]. On the other hand, loneliness is generally perceived as subjective isolation and refers to situations in which an individual feels uncomfortable or has an unacceptable lack of social connectivity [10]. Although social isolation and loneliness can co-occur, they are distinct concepts. ...
Background
Social isolation and loneliness can co-occur; however, they are distinct concepts. There is discrepancy as some people feel lonely in social isolation, while others do not. This study sought to enhance our understanding of this discrepancy between social isolation and loneliness by investigating its related factors, with a specific focus on mental status and personality traits.
Methods
This study adopted a cross-sectional study design and utilized data from the 2016 and 2018 waves of the University of Michigan Health and Retirement Study. The participants were community dwellers aged 50 years and older. The outcome measurement was defined as the discrepancy between social isolation, based on six criteria, and loneliness, assessed using the three-item version of the Revised UCLA Loneliness Scale. Multinomial logistic regression models were conducted to examine the factors associated with the discrepancy.
Results
Participants with fewer depressive symptoms and higher extraversion were associated with the only social isolation group and the only loneliness group rather than the group consisting of those who felt lonely with social isolation. In addition, lower neuroticism was associated with the only social isolation group. Participants with fewer depressive symptoms, lower neuroticism, and higher extraversion were more likely not to feel lonely even with social isolation, compared to feeling lonely even in the absence of isolation.
Conclusions
Mental status and personality traits may be closely related to the discrepancy between social isolation and loneliness. This study suggests that incorporating social, mental, and psychological factors may be essential for interventions in social isolation and loneliness.
... Aging can inflict substantial life adversities, such as decreased social connections and social support, which may lead to loneliness [1] and undermine older adults' wellbeing [2]. Alongside these age-related vulnerabilities, old age may contain strengths and flourishing [3,4]. ...
Objectives: Aging may challenge life and even affect individuals’ wellbeing and flourishing. This includes the challenges of diminished social connections and the experience of solitude in later life while seeking to leverage personal strengths. The current study examines two important personal resources, i.e., the skill of positive solitude and the 24 character strengths, which may be associated with flourishing in old age. Methods: A convenience sample of 1085 community-dwelling adults (M = 57.20, SD = 6.24, range = 50–87) completed an online survey with demographic measures and scales measuring personal strengths, the skill of positive solitude, and flourishing. Results: As hypothesized, the 24 character strengths and positive solitude were each associated with flourishing, and positive solitude moderated the relationships between the 24 character strengths and flourishing. The relationship between the 24 character strengths and flourishing was stronger among participants with lower levels of positive solitude. Conclusions: These findings highlight the way in which, despite the decrease in social relations which often characterizes old age, the skill of positive solitude serves as a valuable resource for flourishing in the later stages of life.
... Loneliness is defined as an unpleasant experience that occurs because of the individual's inability to get the satisfaction he/she wants in interpersonal relationships and when he/she cannot achieve what he/she hopes for in terms of quantity or quality in social relationships (de Jong-Gierveld, 1998). In another definition, loneliness is expressed depending on whether the person establishes social bonds, perceived social support and participation in social activities, and whether he/she isolates himself/herself (Emerson et al., 2021). ...
The COVID-19 COVID-19 Pandemic, first seen in China in 2019, has directly affected the daily life practices of individuals, and an understanding that emphasizes isolation rather than socialization has become dominant in the world. With the COVID-19 Pandemic, loneliness among young people has become more visible. This study examined social and emotional loneliness among college students in relation to wellness and psychological flexibility. A total of 498 university students participated in the study (F= 395; M= 103). One-way ANOVA, MANOVA, and hierarchical regression analysis were used. According to the results of the study, the mean social loneliness scores of men were significantly higher than the mean social loneliness scores of women, and the mean emotional loneliness scores of those whose romantic relationships ended during the COVID-19 Pandemic period were significantly higher than those whose romantic relationships continued. While meaningfulness of life and goal orientation, physical wellness, and social wellness sub-dimensions of wellness, values and behaviors consistent with values, and acceptance sub-dimension of psychological flexibility significantly predicted social loneliness, meaningfulness of life and goal orientation, social wellness sub-dimensions of wellness, and acceptance sub-dimension of psychological flexibility were found to be significant predictors of emotional loneliness.
... For others, it is an unproblematic routine and natural part of the day, with ready-made meals and other convenience foods being considered positive [20][21][22]. The theoretical drawbacks are evidenced if we turn to the research on social relations, where the literature demonstrates the importance of distinguishing between being alone in an objective manner and the subjective feelings of loneliness [23]. These two separate constructs can have different health implications [24,25], yet the commensality literature currently lacks such a distinction. ...
Background
Eating is fundamental not only to survival and health, but also to how humans organise their social lives. Eating together with others is often seen as the healthy ideal, while eating alone is highlighted as a risk factor for negative health outcomes, especially among older adults. This paper, therefore, investigates the relationship between the frequency and subjective experience of eating alone and food-related outcomes among 70- to 75-year-olds in Sweden.
Methods
A survey was distributed to a nationally representative random sample of 1500 community-living in Sweden, aged 70–75 years. Two different constructs of eating alone (objective and subjective) were measured, along with the following food-related outcomes: a food index, intake of food groups, consumption of ready-made meals, number of main meals per day, and body mass index (BMI).
Results
In total, 695 respondents were included in the final sample. A quarter of the respondents were categorised as eating alone, of which a small proportion reported that doing so bothered them. There were no associations between eating alone and food index scores, BMI, or intake frequencies of fruits and berries, or fish and shellfish. However, people eating alone were less likely to report eating three meals per day (OR: 0.53, CI: 0.37–0.76, p = 0.006), less likely to report higher intake frequencies of vegetables and snacks, sugary foods, and sweet drinks (adjusted OR: 0.68, CI: 0.48–0.95, p = 0.023 resp. OR: 0.59, CI: 0.43–0.81, p = 0.001), and more likely to report higher intake frequencies of ready-made meals (adjusted OR: 3.71, CI: 2.02–6.84, p < 0.001) compared to those eating together with others. The subjective experience of eating alone did not have an impact on food-related outcomes.
Conclusion
Eating alone or with others played a role in participants’ food intake, and seemed to influence aspects of the organisation of everyday eating routines rather than overall dietary healthiness or weight status. Our findings add to the previous body of research on commensality, eating alone, and health among the older population, providing insights into the development of future health policies and research.
... 9 Loneliness is commonly conceptualized as a subjective personal experience, reflected as the gap between desired and available relationships. 16 It is important to differentiate loneliness from social isolation, which typically refers to the lack of social contact with others (e.g., absence of marital partners, friendship ties, and belonging to social groups). 17,18 Moreover, older adults are inclined to describe depressive symptoms in terms of loneliness, and this misclassification has also often impeded research on loneliness. ...
Background
Loneliness has been implicated as a stroke risk factor, yet studies have examined loneliness at only one time point. The association of loneliness changes and risk of incident stroke remains understudied. Our aim was to examine the association of loneliness with incident stroke, particularly the role of loneliness chronicity.
Methods
This prospective cohort study examined data from the Health and Retirement Study during 2006–2018. For analyses examining baseline loneliness only, we included U.S. adults aged 50 years or older and stroke-free at baseline and excluded individuals missing data on loneliness and those who experienced death at baseline. For analyses examining loneliness changes over two time points, we included those aged 50 years or older at baseline and stroke-free through the exposure measurement period. Individuals missing a loneliness scale measure or those who experienced death during the exposure measurement period were excluded. Loneliness was measured with the 3-item Revised UCLA Loneliness Scale. We constructed loneliness scores (range 3–9), dichotomized loneliness measures (high vs low using a >6 cutoff), and loneliness patterns across two time points (consistently low, remitting, recent onset, consistently high). Cox regression models estimated associations of baseline loneliness (N = 12,161) with incident stroke over a 10–12-year period, and loneliness change patterns (N = 8936) with incident stroke over a subsequent 6–8-year period, adjusting for demographics, health behaviors and health conditions.
Findings
Higher loneliness scores at baseline were associated with incident stroke for continuous (hazard ratio [HR]: 1.05, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.01–1.08) and dichotomized (HR: 1.25, 95% CI: 1.06–1.47) loneliness measures, and persisted after adjustment for social isolation but not depressive symptoms. Only individuals with a consistently high loneliness pattern over time (vs consistently low) had significantly higher incident stroke risk (HR: 1.56, 95% CI: 1.11–2.18) after adjusting for depressive symptoms and social isolation.
Interpretation
Chronic loneliness was associated with higher stroke risk independent of depressive symptoms or social isolation. Addressing loneliness may have an important role in stroke prevention, and repeated assessments of loneliness over time may help identify those particularly at risk.
Funding
10.13039/100000049National Institute on Aging (NIA U01AG009740).
... On the other hand, felt loneliness can affect wellbeing and health negatively. Loneliness has been defined as a perceived deficiency in one's personal relationships (De Jong Gierveld, 1998;Perlman & Peplau, 1981). Unlike social isolation, loneliness could be experienced despite regular social interactions. ...
... This is why a multitude of approaches have been offered from different disciplines, although psychology has dedicated more in-depth study to this reality, giving rise to various currents that range from psychodynamic and phenomenological angles predominant in the 1950s-60s (Fromm-Reichmann, 1957;Sullivan, 1953;Winnicott, 1958;Weiss, 1975) to more existential approaches in the 1970s, which recognize the need to address loneliness as a fundamental experience inherent to life (Mijuskovik, 1977;Moustakas, 1961). Since the 1980s, more cognitive (Jong Gierveld, 1998;Peplau & Perlman, 1982), neuroscientific and evolutionary approaches have been used (Cacioppo et al., 2014), and since the 2000s, multidimensional approaches are used (Stein & Tuval-Mashiach, 2015). Among the existing definitions, one of the most popular is that of Peplau and Pearlman (1982), who describe loneliness as an unpleasant experience caused by the perceived imbalance or deficiency between desired and real relationships. ...
Loneliness among young people has been increasing in recent years and is considered a major public health problem. This article delves into the sociocultural dynamics that favour the experiences of loneliness. For this purpose, 40 students between 19 and 24 years of age were interviewed using the photo elicitation interview (PEI) strategy. The results show a gradual normalization of the experience of loneliness and an effort to become accustomed to it. Virtual relationships and isolation linked to the COVID-19 pandemic are considered the two factors that have most enabled a climate prone to loneliness. Young people identify a few elements that feed social loneliness, such as an understanding of instrumental relationships, a scarcity of intimate relationships, a demand for hyperconnectivity, a fantasy of independence and a culture of positivity that hinders the establishment of quality social ties. Faced with hostile relational conditions, youth are sent into a cycle of loneliness. The greater the distrust of the environment is, the greater the defensive reactions and social distancing, and the greater the search for nearby spaces of refuge, security and shelter. Social withdrawal makes in-person relationships difficult and strengthens the need to isolate and become accustomed to loneliness.
In recent years, the topic of loneliness has garnered significant public attention in Flanders, as evidenced by the substantial growth in its media coverage and the emergence of policies aimed at mitigating and preventing it. Research findings have repeatedly demonstrated the association between loneliness and various health problems, including depression, chronic diseases, and early mortality, thereby raising public awareness that loneliness is a ‘silent killer’ with a detrimental impact on the quality of life across all age demographics. The increasing proportion of life spent in retirement, attributable to changes in life expectancy, underscores the necessity for strategies that promote inclusion, good health, and mental well-being in old age. Such strategies are not merely a matter of fundamental human rights and needs but are also beneficial to society at large. In this regard, researching and formulating strategies to detect, prevent, and alleviate loneliness among older adults is paramount. By identifying specific attributes that shape the perceptual and conceptual processes by which older adults construct and interpret their social realities and create mental images of absence or presence, distance or proximity, loneliness or belonging, this dissertation seeks to explore the conditions that empower older adults to effectively navigate their spatial and temporal surroundings and attain social connectedness, or, conversely, prevent them from doing so. To this end, the dissertation is structured into three sections: the first part is theoretical, while the subsequent parts are empirical. The first chapter delineates five core characteristics of loneliness and further elucidates that it constitutes an adverse emotional response to perceived absence, emanating from a series of perceptual and cognitive-evaluative processes in which relational standards and expectations, as well as the capacity to compensate for the perceived absence of human or non-human objects with an internally felt presence or mental image of these objects, are involved. The subsequent two chapters draw on several principles of grounded theory to systematically analyze two theoretical subsamples derived from a larger data set of 615 in-depth interviews with individuals aged 65 and above. The first study indicates that the dynamic interplay of four evaluative dimensions guides older adults’ interpretations of specific properties of video calling and how they situate video-mediated interactions within the broader realm of their social interactions. Additional findings reveal that these evaluative dimensions, along with older adults’ concomitant interpretations, play a pivotal role in shaping their perceptions of distance or closeness, absence or presence. The second study suggests that older adults’ mental representations of past, present, and future spatial settings serve as stable anchoring points, enabling them to (re)construct temporal horizons and contextualize their current living environment. Depending on whether or not older adults are successful in making aspects of their living environments their own and filling the perceived gaps left by past experiences of loss and exclusion, as well as those anticipated in the future, they perceive either the absence or presence of a place called home, which, in turn, contributes to feelings of loneliness or belonging, respectively. The anchoring points and attributes identified in this dissertation provide researchers with multiple points of departure for further study of the topic, both empirically and theoretically, and allow practitioners and policymakers to seamlessly translate the findings presented into multi-layered loneliness prevention and intervention strategies, which are necessary given the multidimensional and multidisciplinary nature of the phenomenon.
Loneliness is a pervasive and distressing emotional experience that profoundly impacts the lives of older adults. This article explores the conceptualisation of loneliness, emphasising its subjective nature and the perceived discrepancy between desired and actual social relationships. Drawing from psychological theories, loneliness is understood as an emotional response to perceived social isolation, encompassing feelings of emptiness, sadness and longing for companionship. In older adults, loneliness is exacerbated by life transitions, such as retirement and bereavement, as well as physical health limitations. The impact of loneliness on older adults' health and wellbeing is significant, with associations documented between chronic loneliness and poor mental health outcomes, including depression, anxiety and cognitive decline. Moreover, loneliness is linked to adverse physical health outcomes, such as cardiovascular disease and mortality, as well as functional decline and decreased quality of life. Recognising the multifaceted impacts of loneliness in older adults underscores the importance of developing interventions and support systems that address both the quantity and quality of social connections, promoting healthy ageing and meaningful engagement in later life.
The aging process is characterized by various facets, being both subjective and natural, and it progresses without alteration. During this process, elderly individuals may experience social isolation or loneliness, which has been associated with significant impacts on their physical, psychological, and social health. This study aimed to examine the evidence in the scientific literature regarding the association between loneliness and its impact on the physical, cognitive, and emotional health of older adults. It is an integrative literature review conducted across the following databases: the National Library of Medicine and National Institutes of Health (PubMed), Virtual Health Library (BVS), Psychinfo, Scielo, Pepsic, the Capes Theses Portal, and Lilacs, utilizing descriptors indexed in MeSH Terms and DeCS, specifically: "Loneliness or Social Isolation," AND "Depression and Cognitive Disorder," AND "Aging or Senescence." A total of 116 articles were retrieved, of which 13 were deemed eligible for analysis. The results highlight the impact and association of loneliness with cognitive decline, depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms, and detrimental health behaviors. Conversely, social support emerges as a strong protective factor and coping mechanism against loneliness in older adults.
The growing number of primary studies and reviews on loneliness, and the multidisciplinary efforts to comprehend this complex phenomenon from various perspectives, underscore the heightened recognition of its impact on individual and societal well-being and health. To comprehensively assess the size and scope of this research field, we conducted a scoping review of 35 English-language reviews of primary studies on loneliness, published between 2001 and 2023. Focusing specifically on psychological research, these reviews covered a total of N = 1,089 studies, which were conducted between 1986 and 2022. In addition to providing a broad overview of the structure of the field, the present scoping review aimed to explore the methodological landscape of loneliness research, including data collection, sample demographics, and measures, and to present key topics and evidence in the field. By deepening the understanding of loneliness and identifying data gaps and methodological challenges, our analyses provide critical insights for future research endeavors, thereby fostering advances in the field.
Important changes in symptom profiles occur early in the course of severe mental illness (SMI) after its clinical presentation. The emergence of negative symptoms is of particular concern for later function, and these may well have strong links with loneliness and poor social support which are also recognised to be common. However, the impact of loneliness and social isolation on symptoms and treatment outcomes remains unclear. To explore this, we conducted a retrospective observational analysis using data from electronic health records of a large mental health provider in London. Loneliness, living alone and symptoms of SMI were extracted using bespoke natural language processing algorithms. Symptoms were grouped into five domains: positive, negative, disorganised, manic, and catatonic, and were measured at diagnosis and 12 months following the initial SMI diagnosis. Loneliness and living alone were operationalised as binary variables, based on any recording during the follow-up period. A total of 8237 records were analysed. The prevalence of loneliness was 20.4 % and living alone 19.9 %, with only 6.8 % recorded with both. Recorded loneliness was associated with an increase in negative symptoms over the follow-up period, in models adjusted by sociodemographic variables and pharmacological treatment [OR 1.28 (1.11–1.48), p = 0.001], as was living alone to a weaker extent [OR 1.18 (1.02–1.36), p = 0.030]. No associations were found between either exposure variable and changes in symptoms from other domains. Given that negative symptoms are disabling and challenging to treat, these results highlight the importance of effective interventions to enhance social support in SMI over the early post-diagnostic period.
Loneliness as a contributing factor in the development of depression in the caregiver of a patient with Alzheimer’s disease (AD) has been given little attention despite the fact that researchers have found a moderate to high correlation between loneliness and depression in persons other than caregivers for some time (1–2). However, recent studies strongly suggest loneliness as a significant predictor of depression for husbands and wives caring for their AD spouse in the same household (3–5). The purpose of this chapter is to discuss those findings.
This article reports on a qualitative embodied inquiry that was undertaken to explore the lived experience of disclosure amongst disabled, chronically ill, and/or neurodivergent doctoral researchers. Previous research has shown that disabled, chronically ill, and/or neurodivergent academics apply a cost–benefit analysis to help them decide whether to disclose their needs. This study specifically focused on doctoral researchers and how doctoral researchers navigate the process of disclosure. Twelve participants from the United Kingdom took part. Data collection was via interviews and additional creative submissions. Data was analyzed using reflexive, thematic analysis. The themes generated were disclosure experiences, career considerations, and navigating spaces and academic buildings. The findings show that doctoral researchers’ decisions of whether to disclose depends on their individual situations and factors rather than it being a linear, either-or matter.
Background: Loneliness can occur at any age, but it is more prevalent among older adults due to the associated risk factors. Various interventions exist to improve this situation, but little is known about their long-term effects. Our aims were to determine if these interventions have long-lasting effects and for how long they can be sustained. Additionally, we aimed to analyze if the interventions carried out by volunteers affected the outcomes regarding loneliness and psychological impact. Methods: A systematic review was performed by searching the literature in the MEDLINE PubMed, SCOPUS, Web of Science, PsycINFO, and Web of Science databases for interventions focused on the lonely population. The inclusion criteria for this review were the assessment of loneliness using a validated tool, and loneliness being the primary or secondary outcome. The CASPe checklist was used to assess the risk of bias in the selected studies, and the PRISMA-ScR recommendations were followed to present and synthesize the results. Results: Thirty articles were included. The interventions identified were classified into five categories: psychosocial, technological, health promotion, physical exercise, and multicomponent interventions. Loneliness improved in 24 studies during the post-intervention analysis. Social connectivity and depressive symptoms also improved in most interventions. Long-term follow-ups were conducted with positive results in a total of 16 interventions. Depressive symptoms and social connectivity were also improved. Eight of the interventions were carried out by volunteers and showed good results regarding loneliness. Conclusions: The results obtained in this work suggested that multidisciplinary interventions can reduce loneliness, but more controlled clinical studies are needed.
Loneliness has been with us since the beginning of time. Many ask themselves what can they do about loneliness? It is impossible, of course, to eradicate it. It is simply part of being human, just like hunger and physical pain. We can, though, address its pain and possibly lower its frequency in our lives. This article reviews the field of treatment of the pain caused by loneliness, and assisting people, of various ages, reduce its frequency. The appointment of a minister of loneliness in the UK, may be a right step in getting loneliness out of the “closet”, and in the forefront of public awareness and the state’s attempts to address it on a national level.
Loneliness, social isolation, aloneness, and solitude are frequently used interchangeably but are actually different. Loneliness is particularly salient now, due to the international restrictions on social activities imposed as a result of COVID-19, which brought loneliness into open discussion worldwide. The article highlights loneliness as a multidimensional construct and reviews its impact on cognitive, behavioral and affective functioning. In doing so, particular attention is given to loneliness as it manifests through the various life stages, as well as how personal predisposition and contextual factors may exacerbate it. in this article we also review solitude, and a clear distinction between loneliness and solitude is established. Finally, we conclude by addressing the global claims of loneliness during the pandemic and its implications. We offer a point of view which may assist in coping with it.
Der Age Report ist das Standardwerk zum Thema Wohnen und Altern in der Schweiz, das einen Überblick über aktuelle und zukünftige Fragen zu diesem Thema bietet.
Der fünfte Age Report legt den Schwerpunkt auf die Frage, wie die Nachbarschaft das Leben älterer Menschen beeinflussen kann und wie ältere Menschen dieses Wohnumfeld wahrnehmen und mitgestalten. Welche Rolle spielt die Nachbarschaft in Bezug auf die verschiedenen Lebensräume, Wohnformen und Lebensstile der Bewohnerinnen und Bewohner? Diese und viele weitere Fragen werden anhand von Daten, die im Jahr 2023 im Rahmen der Age-Report-Umfrage bei 2 644 älteren Menschen in der gesamten Schweiz erhoben wurden, im ersten Teil des Buches analysiert. Im zweiten Teil wird dies durch multidisziplinäre Beiträge vertieft. Mit seinen detaillierten Analysen und den zahlreichen Grafiken (www.age-report.ch) bildet das Buch eine wertvolle Grundlage für die fachliche und politische Diskussion zum Thema Wohnen und Altern. Der Age Report wird von der Age-Stiftung in Zusammenarbeit mit den beiden Alterssoziologen Valérie Hugentobler (HETSL | HES-SO) und Alexander Seifert (FHNW) konzipiert und von dieser Stiftung in Partnerschaft mit der Fondation Leenaards finanziert.
Existing literature has explored the impact of social support (SS) on life satisfaction (LS). However, the reciprocal relationship—that is, the influence of LS on SS—remains understudied, despite extant theoretical support. In addressing this gap, the present study employed bivariate latent growth modeling to examine bidirectional associations between SS and LS trajectories among 8,449 middle-aged and older adults in Singapore, over seven waves spanning almost 6 years. Results provided evidence supporting the notion of bidirectional associations. Specifically, baseline SS positively predicted subsequent changes in LS, and baseline LS positively predicted subsequent changes in SS. Findings underscore the potential for interventions and policies aimed at enhancing well-being among older individuals to capitalize on this bidirectional relationship. By targeting either LS or SS, interventions could potentially trigger positive feedback loops, amplifying their collective impact on overall well-being.
The COVID‐19 pandemic was an unparalleled stressor that enhanced isolation. Loneliness has been identified as an epidemic by the US Surgeon General. This study aimed to: (1) characterize longitudinal trajectories of loneliness during the acute phase of the COVID‐19 pandemic; (2) identify longitudinal mediators of the relationship of loneliness with anxiety and depression; and (3) examine how loneliness naturally clusters and identify factors associated with high loneliness. Two hundred and twenty‐nine adults (78% female; mean age = 39.5 ± 13.8) completed an abbreviated version of the UCLA Loneliness Scale, Perceived Stress Scale, Emotion Regulation Questionnaire, State Anxiety Inventory, and Patient Health Questionnaire‐8 longitudinally between April 2020 and 2021. Trajectory analyses demonstrated relatively stable loneliness over time, while anxiety and depression symptoms declined. Longitudinal analyses indicated that loneliness effects on anxiety and depression were both partially mediated by perceived stress, while emotion regulation capacity only mediated effects on anxiety. Three stable clusters of loneliness trajectories emerged (high, moderate, and low). The odds of moderate or high loneliness cluster membership were positively associated with higher perceived stress and negatively associated with greater cognitive reappraisal use. Our results demonstrate the important interconnections between loneliness and facets of mental health throughout the early phases of the pandemic and may inform targeted future interventions for loneliness work.
Background
Local authorities need to find new ways of collecting and using data on social care users’ experiences to improve service design and quality. Here we draw on and adapt an approach used in the healthcare improvement field, accelerated experience-based co-design, to see if it can be translated to social care. We use loneliness support as our exemplar.
Objectives
To understand how loneliness is understood and experienced by members of the public and characterised by social care and voluntary sector staff; to identify service improvements around loneliness support; to explore whether accelerated experience-based co-design is effective in social care; and to produce new resources for publication on Socialcaretalk.org.
Design and methods
Discovery phase: in-depth interviews with a diverse sample of people in terms of demographic characteristics with experience of loneliness, and 20 social care and voluntary staff who provided loneliness support. Production of a catalyst film from the public interview data set.
Co-design phase: exploring whether the accelerated experience-based co-design approach is effective in one local authority area via a series of three workshops to agree shared priorities for improving loneliness support (one workshop for staff, another for people with experience of local loneliness support, and a third, joint workshop), followed by 7-monthly meetings by two co-design groups to work on priority improvements. A process evaluation of the co-design phase was conducted using interviews, ethnographic observation, questionnaires and other written material.
Results
Accelerated experience-based co-design demonstrated strong potential for use in social care. Diverse experiences of participants and fuzzy boundaries around social care compared to health care widened the scope of what could be considered a service improvement priority. Co-design groups focused on supporting people to return to pre-pandemic activities and developing a vulnerable passenger ‘gold standard’ award for taxi drivers. This work generated short-term ‘wins’ and longer-term legacies. Participants felt empowered by the process and prospect of change, and local lead organisations committed to take the work forward.
Conclusions
Using an exemplar, loneliness support, that does not correspond to a single pathway allowed us to comprehensively explore the use of accelerated experience-based co-design, and we found it can be adapted for use in social care. We produced recommendations for the future use of the approach in social care which include identifying people or organisations who could have responsibility for implementing improvements, and allowing time for coalition-building, developing trusted relationships and understanding different perspectives.
Limitations
COVID-19 temporarily affected the capacity of the local authority Project Lead to set up the intervention. Pandemic work pressures led to smaller numbers of participating staff and had a knock-on effect on recruitment. Staff turnover within Doncaster Council created further challenges.
Future work
Exploring the approach using a single pathway, such as assessing eligibility for care and support, could add additional insights into its transferability to social care.
Trial registration
This trial is registered as Current Controlled Trials ISRCTN98646409.
Funding
This award was funded by the National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) Health and Social Care Delivery Research programme (NIHR award ref: NIHR128616) and is published in full in Health and Social Care Delivery Research; Vol. 12, No. 27. See the NIHR Funding and Awards website for further award information.
Background
Loneliness has been long associated with poor health outcomes including health-related quality of life (HRQoL). However, few studies used longitudinal data and none to our knowledge considered the dynamic nature of loneliness over time.
Objective
To identify longitudinal patterns of loneliness over 18 years and its association with physical and mental HRQoL of middle-aged and older women.
Methods
Data were from the Australian Longitudinal Study of Women's Health. Latent Class Analysis was conducted to identify long-term loneliness patterns. Multinomial logistic regression was used to examine the prospective associations between baseline predictors of loneliness and loneliness trajectories. Linear regression was used to examine the association between loneliness trajectories and HRQoL.
Results
Baseline predictors such as current smoking, depression, anxiety, stress and low social engagement were associated with higher odds of increasing, stable medium and stable high loneliness. Compared to stable low loneliness, increasing [B = -3.73 (95%CI = -5.42, -2.04)], medium [B = -3.12 (95%CI = -5.08, -1.15)] and high loneliness [B = -5.67 (95%CI = -6.84, -4.49)] were associated with lower mental HRQoL. The increasing loneliness class was also associated with lower physical HRQoL [B = -1.06 (95%CI = -2.11, -0.02)]. Out of all HRQoL sub-scales, emotional role, social functioning and physical role were the most strongly associated with loneliness.
Conclusions
Long-term loneliness patterns are consistently associated with prospective physical and mental HRQoL. This finding highlights the importance of addressing loneliness among women to promote their health and well-being.
Loneliness refers to the negatively perceived mismatch between one’s desired and actual engagement in social relations. Besides the individual suffering it implies, epidemiological evidence has suggested that loneliness is a critical determinant of mental health in late life. In this chapter, we provide definitions, operationalisations, prevalence estimates, and risk factors of loneliness in older people. Further, we summarise epidemiological evidence on the association between loneliness and depression, anxiety, suicide, and cognitive disorders and cover their potential underlying mechanisms. Despite an existing link between loneliness and mental health disorders, more evidence is needed to disentangle causality, bidirectionality and underlying mechanisms. Last, we discuss intervention strategies to reduce loneliness in older adults, focusing on their individual goals, challenges, and potential future development, as well as on the importance of inclusive communities and neighbourhoods. Interventions to facilitate social interactions and improve one’s social cognition seem promising yet challenging to implement and assess. Addressing loneliness remains a critical task to promote health in an ageing society.
Objectives:
Older care recipients have different types of care networks, varying from spouse-only to large mixed care networks, that add to different levels of wellbeing. Applying Self-Determination Theory (SDT) to the care context, we argue that the care network composition may foster or hamper the three basic needs for wellbeing: relatedness, autonomy and competence.
Method:
Data are from ten observations between 1992 and 2022 of the Longitudinal Aging Study Amsterdam (N = 18,434 observations from 4,837 older Dutch adults). Five care network types are used: no care, partner, informal, formal or privately paid care. Mixed-hybrid-multilevel regression analysis of depressive symptoms as measure of wellbeing is applied on care network type and loneliness, mastery and care sufficiency as indicators of the three basic needs for wellbeing.
Results:
Receiving care from a partner care network is, compared to the formal care network, the most negatively associated with depressive symptoms, followed by informal care and privately paid care. Differences in care network types existed in loneliness and care sufficiency, but not in mastery, and in part explained the association between care network types and depressive symptoms. Results of between and within effects are comparable.
Conclusion:
Using a rich data set and advanced methodology support the hypotheses that formal care networks hamper wellbeing due to insufficient care and increased loneliness, in particular compared to partner and informal care. The role of mastery was less important, possibly because it does not measure care related level of control.
Loneliness and social isolation have become more apparent and serious during the COVID-19 pandemic. This paper aims to summarize the definitions, classifications, measurement methods, and theoretical approaches to loneliness and social isolation, both domestically and overseas. In addition, factors associated with loneliness and social isolation are examined from both micro and macro perspectives. At the micro level, demographic, social, and individual factors are taken into consideration. Meanwhile, at the macro level, changes in the social environment, such as demographic shifts, widening economic disparities, and cultural factors, are also considered. Previous research on loneliness and social isolation has faced several challenges, including the absence of a clear definition and measurement, a focus on elderly people, and a tendency to prefer cross-sectional studies. Furthermore, given that the issues brought to light during the COVID-19 pandemic may fade into obscurity after its conclusion, the scrutiny of loneliness and social isolation remains an ongoing concern that society must continue to tackle. Future research should take a more comprehensive approach and address these challenges.
In South Korea, the proportion of adults experiencing severe loneliness has been increasing rapidly. Accordingly, this study examines the elements of loneliness experienced by Korean adults and investigates their structural relevance using concept mapping. Korean adults (47) were recruited for individual in-depth interviews based on their scores on the UCLA Loneliness Scale. The interviews yielded 80 unique statements, which were then evaluated using multidimensional scaling and a hierarchical cluster analysis. A cluster map of loneliness was derived, with three clusters: (1) emotional distress due to the actual or anticipated absence of connection in relationships, (2) emotional distance from oneself or from others in a relationship, and (3) powerlessness and emptiness due to being directionless. Two dimensions distinguished these clusters: the lack of a sense of connection or self-assurance, and an inward or outward focus. These findings reveal that loneliness encompasses more than unmet relational needs; it also involves self-attentional focus, indicating a need to reconceptualize the notion of loneliness. The study’s implications extend to counseling theory and practices by highlighting the importance of addressing both relational connections and self-perceptions in interventions for loneliness. By expanding the understanding of loneliness through empirical data, this research provides a more comprehensive framework for addressing loneliness.
The development of an adequate assessment instrument is a necessary prerequisite for social psychological research on loneliness. Two studies provide methodological refinement in the measurement of loneliness. Study 1 presents a revised version of the self-report UCLA (University of California, Los Angeles) Loneliness Scale, designed to counter the possible effects of response bias in the original scale, and reports concurrent validity evidence for the revised measure. Study 2 demonstrates that although loneliness is correlated with measures of negative affect, social risk taking, and affiliative tendencies, it is nonetheless a distinct psychological experience.
Technological development leads to new forms of primary group structure. It demands differential mobility which makes traditional primary groups hard to maintain. However, it also provides mechanisms which permit new types of primary groups. Thus, contacts among extended family kin can be maintained despite breaks in face-to-face contact; neighborhoods can exist despite rapid membership turnover; and friendships can continue despite both of these problems. This is possible because technology permits rapid communication over distance and rapid group indoctrination. It is hypothesized that because of differences in structure, neighbors can best handle immediate emergencies; kin, long term commitments; and friends, heterogeneity. Data from Hungary and U.S.A. are used to illustrate the point.
A variety of demographic phenomena common to developed societies (e.g., declining fertility, rising divorce, rising proportions living alone) are viewed as part of a general trend toward separate living and smaller households and as different forms of an underlying coresidential decision--behavioral answers to the question "With whom shall I live?" Household status is seen as a composite good and is discussed in terms of a demand-supply framework. Nine specific hypotheses to explain the trend toward separate living are discussed within this framework.
Earlier studies on gender differences in loneliness appear to have produced contradictory results. However, when 39 existing data sets were classified according to whether they used the UCLA scale (N = 28) or a self-labeling measure (N = II) of loneliness, the results revealed a clear pattern. Statistically significant sex differences are not usually found with the UCLA scale, but, when they are found, males typically have higher loneliness scores. In terms of self-labeling, women more frequently than men admit being lonely. Sex role factors may help explain these seemingly contradictory results. Of the various possible explanations of the gender differences in self-labeled loneliness, most assume that social influence processes play a crucial role. To test this viewpoint, an experiment was conducted. Subjects (N = 117) were presented with a case history of a lonely person, which varied only the target person's sex. The subjects were more rejecting of a lonely male than of a lonely female. These results support the view that women are more apt to acknowledge their loneliness than men because the negative consequences of admitting loneliness are less for women.
Does information on the types of relationships composing older adults' networks provide an indication of the amount and effectiveness of network support? This question was addressed using data from a representative sample from the Netherlands of 160 non-institutionalized older adults between the ages of 65 and 75. Results showed first that different types of relationships differed in their supportiveness. These differences were linked with the degree of consanguinity of kin and the degree of friendship of non-kin. Second, consistent with a mechanism of compensation, the supportiveness of particular types of relationships depended upon the network in which they were embedded, namely upon the availability of an alternative source of support. For example, adult children were more supportive to parents who no longer had a partner than to parents who were still together. Third, the effectiveness of support in providing protection against loneliness varied according to the availability of a partner. Among the cohabiting, support from friends and adult children was unrelated to loneliness. Furthermore, support from the network, instrumental support in particular was less closely associated with loneliness among the cohabiting than among the never married and the formerly married.
It is generally assumed that social support has a favorable impact on the maintenance of health and on coping with illness. However, results are inconsistent and even conflicting. This is partly due to conceptual and methodological shortcomings. In order to overcome these problems and to guide further research, we present a taxonomy of social relationships and a causal process model. Social integration, cognitive social support and behavioral social support are distinguished and related to personality, stress, coping and the pathogenic process. In the causal model we propose that social support is depicted both as mediating the effects of stress on illness as well as directly affecting illness. A meta analysis was conducted that related social support and social integration to morbidity and mortality based on eighty empirical studies, including more than 60,000 subjects. Data subsets revealed disparate patterns of results that give rise to intriguing theoretical questions. Evidently, social support operates in complex ways. Several causal models are specified which represent alternative pathways of social support processes. Where social support was associated with less illness, a direct effect model was proposed. In cases where more support was seemingly paradoxically associated with illness it is assumed that a mobilization of support has taken place. In conclusion, some recent research examples that help illustrate future directions untangling the social support-illness relationship are presented.
Trends in theory and in research in the field of personal and social relationships seem to go their separate ways. This article describes a research programme which explicitly tries to integrate these two fields. Attention is paid in particular to two programme facets: (1) ideas on concept analysis, the operationalization process, measuring models and measuring instruments, including a detailed example of the development of a loneliness measuring instrument according to the so-called Rasch model; and (2) the cumulative development of a causal explanatory loneliness model which is based on cognitive theory. On-going projects investigating certain aspects of the explanatory model are also dealt with.
The literature on loneliness is selectively reviewed with respect to three major theoretical approaches that have guided research in this area. The authors survey the theory and research associated with the social needs approach, the behavioral/personalityapproach and the cognitive processes approach to loneliness. Specific theoretical perspectives subsumable within each approach (e.g. social developmental, social support) are discussed. The second part of the paper addresses methodological considerations in the measurement of loneliness that are specifically relevant to the major theoretical issues discussed. Potential points of theoretical integration and methodological refinement are noted. In a concluding section, recommendations forfuture research on loneliness are suggested, and the need for a general process model incorporating some of these suggestions is noted.
The present study examined differences in the loneliness experience with subjects from three age levels (high school students, college undergraduates, retirees). In accordance with social role theory and existing research, we predicted differences across these age periods in level of loneliness and the relation of loneliness to other indices of adjustment, and personal and social competency. Results indicated that the greatest loneliness and strongest loneliness correlates were among high school students, while loneliness was least associated with other variables for retirees. These results are consistent with those suggested by previous cross-study comparisons. The results also support a social role theory interpretation of loneliness that age-related changes in social demands will influence the relation among measures of adjustment, and personal and social competency.
Data collection procedures can influence respondents' self-disclosure, accuracy and motivation to complete the interview.
In comparing research results across different studies, it is important to use robust measuring instruments. The ‘De Jong-Gierveld
Loneliness Scale’ was developed to measure loneliness among different populations and in studies with different designs. Data
on this loneliness scale were re-analyzed to investigate the robustness of the scale. The data were from six Dutch surveys.
Different interview modes were used for data collection: three surveys with self-administered paper questionnaires, two surveys
with face-to-face interviews, and one telephone survey. In order to compare the properties of the loneliness scale, a relatively
homogeneous category of respondents was selected: single women between the ages of 25 and 65. An examination of the scale
with regard to five aspects of robustness showed in very few cases that it was affected. No evidence was found for the assumption
that the use of a self-administered questionnaire would lead to high item non-response, any higher than using other data collection
procedures. It was also assumed that in self-administered questionnaires or telephone interviews, a better inter-item homogeneity
and a better person scalability would be found in studies with face-to-face interviews. The results sustained this hypothesis.
Further, it was believed that the absence of an interviewer would result in greater self-disclosure and therefore in higher
scale means. We found on evidence to support this. In general the results showed that the loneliness scale met the psychometric
requirements of items non-response, scale homogenity and person scalability. After testing the robustness of the scale, we
conclude that it is questionable on two aspects: the inter-item homogeneity and the person scalability.
Ninety-six male and 179 female undergraduates were administered the UCLA Loneliness Scale and judged as people who were prototypically lonely or non-lonely. Consistent with a `social stigma' view of loneliness, individuals attributed lower psychosocial functioning to and were less accepting of the lonely than the non-lonely person. This provided evidence for the prevailing perception of the lonely person as a negative stereotype and the social tendency to reject him or her. Females attributed lower psychosocial functioning to the lonely person than did males. In contrast to Borys & Perlman's (1985) findings, individuals did not attribute lower psychosocial functioning to nor were less accepting of the lonely person when identified as a male rather than a female. It was found that lonely individuals were less accepting of the non-lonely person than were non-lonely individuals. This latter finding was attributed to the negative effects of upward social comparison and was regarded as a factor that would maintain loneliness.
To consider friendships and their significance through the life course requires, first, differentiation of deep structure (i.e., reciprocity) from surface structure (i.e., the social exchange) and, second, assessment within a multifaceted framework that simultaneously emphasizes having friends, the identity of one's friends, and relationship quality. Having friends is correlated with a sense of well being across the life span, but developmental outcome also depends on the identity of one's friends as well as the quality of one's relationships with them. Greater attention needs to be given to the manner in which friendships differ from one another, continuities and changes across major developmental transitions, and differentiation of developmental pathways through which friendship experience contributes to individual outcome. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The validity of Rotter's Internal-External Control Scale (I-E) and a revision of R. Bradley's (1969) Loneliness Scale were tested against D. N. Jackson's (1967) Personality Research Form needs and 16 PF traits for 349 chronic alcoholic male veterans. A few extremely modest correlations emerged between the I-E scale and the reference measures, an indication of appropriate, but practically useless, convergences. The Bradley scale, revised factor-analytically into 2 correlated dimensions termed Interpersonal Anxiety and Sense of Rejection and Abandonment, showed many moderately high correlations. These correlates were seen as highly supportive of the construct validity of the new scales. Future work on alcoholism with the 2 revised loneliness scales is seen as promising, whereas the I-E scale remains obscure. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examination of the well-being and living conditions of older widows and widowers reveals ways in which adaptation to loss of the partner in later life is influenced by gender. This article compares the results of two Dutch studies, one on men and one on women between the ages of 60 and 75, living independently and widowed three to five years earlier. The same combination of quantitative and qualitative methods was used in these studies. The results indicate remarkable similarities in the well-being of the widows and widowers. Gender influences the availability of resources such as income, education and freedom from health restrictions, with widowers demonstrating clear advantages compared to widows. In the area of relational resources, widows who are well adapted have more varied sources of support, including close female friends and supportive neighbours in addition to children. Widowers benefit more from the presence of new partners or partner-like relationships; the tendency of many widowers to rely strongly on children is a disadvantage. Few significant differences were found in the relational needs acknowledged by widows and widowers; however, acknowledging the need for intimacy is differentially related to life satisfaction for widowed men and women. An unexpected finding is the effect of gender on life satisfaction, which remains when other variables have been entered into the equation in regression analysis. Several possible interpretations for this gender factor are provided; these involve the possibility of greater diversity in the ways in which women adapt to widowhood, women's special virtuosity in relationships, and a kind of flexibility that is developed in the course of women's lives which helps them adapt to major change later life, despite structural disadvantages in comparison to men.
Thesis (doctoral)--Vrije Universiteit te Amsterdam, 1992. Includes bibliographical references (p. 153-161) and index.
Research on loneliness has been hindered by the lack of a simple and reliable assessment technique. The development of the UCLA Loneliness Scale, a short, 20-item general measure of loneliness is reported. The measure has high internal consistency (coefficient alpha = .96) and a test-retest correlation over a two-month period of .73. Concurrent and preliminary construct validity are indicated by correlations with self-reports of current loneliness and related emotional states, and by volunteering for a "loneliness clinic."
Foreword - Letitia Anne Peplau Preface - Mohammadreza Hojat and Rick Crandall PART ONE: THE PRESENT STATE OF LONELINESS THEORY AND RESEARCH Reflections on the Present State of Loneliness Research - Robert S Weiss Further Reflections on the Present State of Loneliness Research - Daniel Perlman Research and Theory on Loneliness - Warren H Jones A Response to Weiss's Reflections Models and Methods in Loneliness Research - Raymond F Paloutzian and Aris S Janigian Their Status and Direction Further Reflections on Loneliness Research - Norman R Schultz Jr and DeWayne Moore Commentary of Weiss's Assessment of Loneliness Research Loneliness - Linda A Wood Physiological or Linguistic Analysis? Past the Reflection and Through the Looking Glass - Peter Suedfeld Extending Loneliness Research SECTION TWO DEVELOPMENTAL AND THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF LONELINESS The Revelation of Loneliness - Daniel Perlman and Purushottam Joshi Self-Disclosure as a Marketable Commodity - Helen L Wintrob A Psychodynamic View of Loneliness and Mother-Child Relationships - Mohammadreza Hojat A Review of Theoretical Perspectives and Empirical Findings Being Lonely, Falling In Love - Phillip Shaver and Cindy Hazan Perspectives from Attachment Theory Parental Intrusion Versus Social Isolation - Lars Andersson, Larry C Mullins, and D Paul Johnson A Dichotomous View of the Sources of Loneliness Socioemotional Bonding and Neurobiochemistry - Mohammadreza Hojat and Wolfgang H Vogel PART THREE: ATTRIBUTIONAL MODELS OF LONELINESS AND SUPPORT SYSTEMS Loneliness and Social Support - Warren H Jones and Terri L Moore The Relationship of Interpersonal Competence and Skills to Reported Loneliness Across Time - Brian H Spritzberg and H Thomas Hurt The Relationships of Differential Loneliness, Intimacy, and Characterological Attributional Style to Duration of Loneliness - Mary Ann Snodgrass Need for Uniqueness Correlates of Loneliness and Social Interest - Charles E Joubert The Partner as Source of Social Support in Problem and Non-Problem Situations - Jenny de Jong-Gierveld and Theo van Tilburg Loneliness and Perceptions of Control - Cecilia H Solano General Traits Versus Specific Attributions SECTION FOUR LONELINESS AMONG THE ELDERLY Loneliness Among the Elderly - DeWayne Moore and Norman R Schultz Jr The Role of Perceived Responsibility and Control Loneliness of the Elderly - Larry C Mullins, D Paul Johnson and Lars Andersson The Impact of Family and Friends PART FIVE: CLINICAL RESEARCH, THERAPY, AND APPLICATIONS The Experience of Loneliness Among Schizophrenic and Normal Persons - Lawrence H Gerstein, Harry D Bates and Morey Reindl Serving the Vulnerable - Ron L Evans and C Mary Dingus Models for Treatment of Loneliness Measuring the Emotional/Social Aspects of Loneliness and Isolation - Harry Vincenzi and Fran Grabosky Epilogue - Mohammadreza Hojat and Rick Crandall Selected Bibliography on Loneliness - Reza Shapurian and Mohammadreza Hojat
Predictors of adolescent loneliness were investigated in two samples of high school students (n=92)and college undergraduates (n=192).Results were similar across samples. Among the high school sample loneliness was significantly predicted by a combination of alienation, a lack of social facility and acceptance, inferiority feelings, negative school attitudes, and a lack of social integration. Among college students loneliness was negatively related to social facility, regularity, approval, and involvement and positively related to alienation, parental disinterest, negative school attitudes, and inferiority feelings.
The article examines the forms and components of the sentiment of loneliness as experienced by widows living in an American metropolis. The forms include loneliness for the deceased husband as: an individual, an object of love, the person making the woman an object of love, a companion, someone whose presence organizes time and work, a partner in the division of labor, a source of status, and a source of life style. Loneliness is also experienced by widows because of strains in relations with married friends and of an inability to convert secondary relations into ones of greater depth. The very lonely are women socialized into passive membership in automatically encompassing groups, who now lack such relations. Other widows continue close relations or build new life styles solving many of the problems of loneliness.
Based on a social support model, the authors analyzed the association between the experience of loneliness and the emotional closeness older persons have in their social relationships with their children, friends, and spouses. The effects on loneliness of age, sex, subjective health status, economic situation, need for attachment, and need for social integration were also examined and controlled. Results are based on 1,071 participants in the congregate and home-delivered meal programs of the Senior Citizens Nutrition and Activities Program in Hillsborough County, Florida. An analysis of covariance showed that the loneliness expressed by these older persons was related, not to variation in age, but to their gender, health status, and economic condition; their needs for affection and security, and desire to be part of a social network; and the existence, but not the emotional commitment, to a set of friends. Whether these persons had children or spouses or not, and if they had either, and were emotionally close ot not, made no difference in their assessment of how lonely they felt. Theoretically, the results lend only partial support to the social support perspective.
In a micro-study in rural India the old-age security motive for high fertility among widows, who are generally considered to be a particularly vulnerable group was investigated. Thirty of the 123 village widows, representing different economic situations and living arrangements, were selected for in-depth interviews. Comparisons were made between widows who were primary breadwinners and had dependent sons living with them, widows who lived with earning sons but were not totally dependent on them; and widows who resided with and were economically dependent on their sons, as well as those who lived with their daughters. Economic factors alone did not account for the pervasive son-preference in the community: sons had a deeper cultural significance which persisted even when widows were financially well-off or independent. It is argued that the emphasis given to economic explanations in previous fertility research has masked the importance of cultural factors which still remain largely unexplored.
The present study examined sex differences among college students in the quantitative and qualitative aspects of loneliness. Measurements of loneliness, emotional reactivity, and social risk taking were administered to 112 undergraduates. Males evidenced greater self-reported loneliness than females. Generally, affective and social risk-taking measures were more highly related to loneliness among males than females. The results suggest that loneliness is more likely to be associated with negative personal and affective self-evaluations for males than for females. Males may react to loneliness more negatively than females because of a tendency to attribute loneliness to personal failure rather than external, uncontrollable causes. Evidence also suggests that having difficulty in initiating social risks may contribute to loneliness for males more than females.
This paper describes an attempt to construct a measuring instrument for loneliness that meets the cri teria of a Rasch scale. Rasch (1960, 1966) proposed a latent trait model for the unidimensional scaling of di chotomous items that does not suffer from the inade quacies of classical approaches. The resulting Rasch scale of this study, which is based on data from 1,201 employed, disabled, and jobless adults, consists of five positive and six negative items. The positive items assess feelings of belongingness, whereas the negative items apply to three separate aspects of miss ing relationships. The techniques for testing the as sumptions underlying the Rasch model are compared with their counterparts from classical test theory, and the implications for the methodology of scale con struction are discussed.
Investigated differences in loneliness involving parents and peers and the relations between loneliness, choices of a "first comfort figure" (FCF), and social sensitivity as perceived by peers. 60 female and 52 male 5th graders, 97 female and 45 male 7th graders, and 66 female and 73 male 9th graders were given a loneliness scale and a sociometric measure of perceived social sensitivity. Results indicate that age differences in parent-related loneliness were marginally significant. Seventh graders seemed to have fewer loneliness experiences in their relationships with parents than 5th and 9th graders. Boys more frequently reported those feelings than girls. Ss who indicated both parents as their FCFs had the lowest scores for parent-related loneliness, whereas those who indicated friends as their FCFs had the highest scores for parent-related loneliness. With respect to peer-related loneliness, no age or sex differences were found. However, girls who chose both parents as their FCFs were more lonely than boys who did the same, and boys who chose their fathers as their FCFs mentioned more peer-related loneliness feelings than the girls who made this choice. Ss perceived as socially sensitive by their classmates less frequently mentioned peer-related loneliness feelings. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Describes loneliness as a natural response of the individual to certain situations and not as a form of weakness. Emotional and social isolation (as 2 distinct forms of loneliness) are delineated, as well as feelings of emptiness, anxiety, restlessness, and marginality. Examples from case studies are included. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Suggests a conceptual framework that views loneliness as resulting from both social and emotional isolation. This distinction may be useful in understanding the impact of family and friends on loneliness among the elderly. A study was conducted through interviews with 131 residents of a high-rise for the elderly in Florida. As measured by the short form of the UCLA Loneliness Scale, the results indicate that those with no children and grandchildren were less lonely than those with children and grandchildren. Among those with existing relationships, the amount of contact with family had no impact on loneliness; Greater contacts with neighbors and friends related to less loneliness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Notes that past studies on perceived control and loneliness have taken either a trait locus of control or a specific attributional approach. The present study attempted both to replicate the earlier findings and to integrate them using a scale that bridges the 2 approaches. Also investigated were the effects of desire for control, type of relationship, and sex. The data from 9 samples of college students were used (1,253 males and 890 females). Using a variety of trait scales (e.g., UCLA Loneliness Scale and Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale), data from all samples showed that loneliness was associated with a low desire for control and a belief that one does not have control. Loneliness was correlated with uncontrollable internal and external attributions for both successful and unsuccessful situations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
What is it about older adults' primary relationships, the ties thay have with spouses, children, siblings, friends and other intimates, that helps to promote their well-being? Why do older adults differ in the primary relationships available to them? When is it that older adults' primary relationships are differentially effective in promoting their well-being?
Bringing together varying theoretical perspectives, these questions are addressed in the process of explaining the importance of primary relationships for older adults' well-being, and more particularly, their importance in providing protection against loneliness. In explaining when and why older adults are vulnerable to feelings of loneliness, the usefulness is demonstrated of looking at primary relationships not only at the dyadic level, but also at the level of the network in which they are embedded. Furthermore, the usefulness is shown of looking at older adults' relationships attitudes, and the opportunities open to them for developing and maintaining relationships.
This book is essential reading for scholars and practitioners in gerontology, psychology, sociology, demography, social work, health care and counseling. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The 1st study examined the hypothesis that feeling lonely is related to a self-perceived lack of self-disclosure to significant others. 37 male and 38 female undergraduates rated themselves on the UCLA Loneliness Scale and the Jourard Self-Disclosure Questionnaire. Analyses showed that for males and females, loneliness was significantly and linearly related to a self-perceived lack of intimate disclosure to opposite-sex friends. For females, loneliness was also associated with a perceived lack of self-disclosure to same-sex friends. The 2nd study investigated the relationship between loneliness and actual disclosure behavior. 24 lonely and 23 nonlonely Ss were paired with nonlonely partners in a structured acquaintanceship exercise. Both opposite-sex and same-sex pairs were included in the design. Postexercise ratings by partners indicated that lonely Ss were less effective than nonlonely Ss in making themselves known. Analysis of the intimacy level in the conversations showed that lonely Ss had significantly different patterns of disclosure than nonlonely Ss. The authors suggest that the self-disclosure style of the lonely person impairs the normal development of social relationships. (37 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
RÉSUMÉ
Dans le cadre de cette étude, nous examinons les répercussions de la situation de parent et de l'état matrimonial sur (1) les fondations des réseaux de soutien sociaux et (2) l'identité des personnes auxquelles on fait appel afin d'obtenir de l'aide pour accomplir ses activités quotidiennes. Les données proviennent d'entrevues structurées menées auprès de 678 personnes de 55 ans et plus vivant à leur domicile à London, en Ontario. Aux fins de l'analyse, cet échantillon compte une surreprésentation des personnes sans enfant, des célibataires (personnes jamais mariées) et des personnes divorcées afin d'assurer un nombre adéquat dans chaque catégorie. Nos résultats ont démontré que l'état matrimonial a une plus grande influence que la situation de parent en ce qui touche les différences dans les fondations du réseau de soutien social. Toutefois, dans le cas des formes d'assistance plus spécialisées, les personnes divorcées et les célibataires sont plus susceptibles que les personnes mariées, et les personnes sans enfant que les parents, de faire appel aux services de soutien formels et aux services d'aide professionnels, et moins portés à se reposer sur la famille. De plus, tant dans le cas de l'état matrimonial que dans la situation de parent, les résultats démontrent une importante interaction entre les sexes.
Data from six European regions participating in the Eleven Country Study on Health Care of the Elderly suggested that feelings of loneliness were more prevalent in areas where living alone was rarest and where community bonds were strongest. Individual variables describing life-situation did not explain the differences. The article examines loneliness as an historical and cultural phenomenon. It is argued that loneliness reflects, through complex mediations, the mutual relationship between the individual and the community and the extent to which the ideology of individualism prevails in society. In attempts to understand the differences between the study areas, the article looks more closely into the role of the community and the family in two selected areas: the industrial town Tampere in Finland and rural Greece.
The focus of this chapter is on how families and relationships within them have been affected by demographic change and by
the wider societal changes that are associated with population aging. Decreased mortality, altered patterns of fertility,
and the increasing imbalance in sex ratios during the second half of adulthood have had profound effects on families. This
chapter relates these changes to some key aspects of family life, touches on how other characteristics of aging societies
have contributed to changes in family worlds, and outlines some of the issues that will be confronting families as our aging
society faces the twenty-first century. A final section contrasts the consequences these patterns of change are posing for
the separate life experiences of men and women.
This study concerns the prevalence of loneliness in a sample of adolescent Australian college students and examines the predictors of loneliness in this group, in particular the impact of social network characteristics, social network appraisal, the functions of friendship, and the psychosocial variables of identity and intimacy (Erikson, 1978) within the context of de Jong-Giervald's (1987) model of loneliness. One hundred and thirty- eight college students aged between 17 and 20 years from one regional and one city tertiary institution were surveyed to ascertain the level of experienced loneliness as measured by the UCLA Loneliness Scale (Russellet al., 1980). Measures of intimacy and identity were obtained using the Erikson Psychosocial State Inventory (Rosenthalet al., 1981) while the functions of friendship in general and of a specific same- sex close friend were those established in a previous study (Moore and Boldero, 1987). Comparison of the levels of loneliness reported with those found by other studies suggested that Australian adolescents are no less vulnerable to the experience of loneliness than their American counterparts. In addition, while no quantitative sex differences in loneliness were found, qualitative differences emerged. Specifically, although psychosocial intimacy was the best predictor of loneliness for both male and female, the other independent predictors were different. For males having fewer same- sex friends and an inability to share feelings with a specific same- sex friend predicted loneliness whereas for females social network appraisal, the ability to engage in mutual aid with a specific same-sex friend, living with family, and psychosocial identity were important. These differences were discussed in terms of the impact that the differential socialization of male and female has on ability of adolescents to engage in close and satisfying interpersonal relationships. Suggestions for intervention were made.
The clubs and associations formed and run by old people for themselves differ in striking ways from those run by younger people on behalf of charitable organizations. The latter tend to ignore social processes in the elderly peer group which are important in sustaining the participants, such as friendship and indigenous leadership. Such organizationss are, however, provided with the intention of benefitting the elderly recipients and do so in a number of ways. Charitable organizations are compared with examples of intervention by professional social workers and evaluated in terms of their capacity to meet the club goers' needs for intimacy and effectiveness. Some implications for social policy are suggested.
Research over the past two decades has documented a positive relationship between social support and health. The causal interpretation of these associations has, however, been unclear. This study aims at filling the gap in our understanding of this causal link with respect to the frail poor elderly. The main questions addressed are, Does lack of social ties affect the elderly's health? or are unhealthy people less likely to establish and maintain social ties? We employed a time-series panel design to overcome problems of causal explanations and examine social networks and health in a sample of 3,559 poor frail elderly, participants of the California Multipurpose Senior Services Project. The results indicate that social networks have a positive effect on health (though only in the short run). However, neither the subjective nor the objective health measures have a significant effect on social networks. Implications for intervention are discussed.
"A dissertation submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Psychology ..." Thesis (Ph. D.)--City University of New York, 1976. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 137-139).