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Ablaut reduplication in English: The criss-crossing of prosody and verbal art
Abstract and Figures
The two properties that characterize Ablaut reduplication in English ( chit-chat , dilly-dally ) are: (1) identical vowel quantity in the stressed syllabic peaks, (2) maximally distinct vowel qualities in the two halves, with [ i ] appearing most commonly to the left and a low vowel to the right. In addition, Ablaut reduplicatives are described as having a trochaic contour, yet there is a great deal of uncertainty regarding the stress on the second part of the formation. Historically, Ablaut reduplication appeared long after Copy reduplication ( boo-boo , yo-yo ) and flourished during the Renaissance; its productivity declined sharply in the twentieth century.
This article treats Ablaut reduplicatives as verbal art products, analogs of dipodic poetic meter. The naturalness of the template ensues from the interaction of conflicting segmental and prosodic constraints on identity and markedness. An independently established hierarchy blocks high back vowels from appearing in these forms. The height difference is a response to the principle of INTEREST which favors maximum perceptual differentiation between the stressed vowels. The linear ordering of the vowels correlates with domain-final lengthening. The ambiguity between compound stress and level stress that these words exhibit is related tentatively to the existence of a separate prosodic domain, a dipodic colon. The article provides Optimality-theoretic support for the analytical relevance of gradient phonetic properties and the relevance of the colon as a separate prosodic layer, and potentially enriches the taxonomy of metrical forms in English.
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... In the present study, we employ a set of novel experimental procedures for eliciting intuitions of native speakers of English and French for what sounds right in nonce binomial sequences. In developing our experimental design and methods, and in motivating our hypotheses about speaker preferences for nonce sequences, we are guided by previous research on reduplicatives under Optimality Theory (OT), in particular Minkova (2002) and Yip (1999). To similar ends, we examine a corpus of reduplicatives (Thun 1963) and a corpus of counting-out sequences (Arleo 2009). ...
... Both Yip (1999) and Minkova (2002) suggest that the two constituents of reduplicative expressions have equal morphological status, and therefore, terms such as "base" and "reduplicant" may be unnecessary. Yip (1999) asserts that rather than the realization of a phonologically empty affix, the output of reduplication is the production of sequences that rhyme and alliterate. ...
... While Yip's analysis includes Input-Output Faithfulness, Minkova (2002) conducts her study exclusively on the Output level. Therefore, Base-Reduplicant correspondence is more important to her analysis, although she claims that these terms are only used for convenience and that in reality, both parts of reduplicative expressions are "equally 'primitive' partial copies of each other" (Minkova 2002:138). ...
Binomial expressions (e.g., hocus-pocus; dribs and drabs) are irreversible sequences of two types: reduplicative binomials (e.g., pitter-patter) and conjoined binomials (e.g., wheeling and dealing). Both types exhibit similar phonological features such as rhyme, alliteration and ablaut alternation. The present study investigates English and French speaker preferences for phonological templates in binomials. Elicitation of preferences was carried out using nonsense sequences exemplifying the templates Simple Rhyme (e.g., fiply-biply; fudette-budette), Complex Onset Rhyme (e.g., settip and slettip; ni cougui ni crougi), and Ablaut (e.g., gesky and gosky; fudette-fudotte), which were pitted against each other, e.g., gesky and gosky (Ablaut) versus gesky and glesky (Complex Onset Rhyme). Results of two experiments – the first involving nonce sequences containing disyllabic terms, the second involving nonsense items with monosyllabic constituents – reveal that English speakers prefer Simple Rhyme in items containing disyllabic constituents, and Ablaut for items containing monosyllabic terms. In contrast, French speakers prefer Ablaut in both the disyllabic term and the monosyllabic term conditions. In both experiments, Simple Rhyme is preferred to Complex Onset Rhyme. The experimental results for English align with statistical distributions of phonological templates in the Thun (1963. Reduplicative words in English: A study of formations of the types tick-tick, hurly-burly and shilly-shally. Lund: Carl Bloms) corpus of binomials. Our testing of English and French respondents further reveals that certain preferences are dissimilar across languages. Our findings lead us to propose that constraint rankings for reduplicatives in English and French under Optimality Theory should be sensitive to the number of syllables in constituent terms. In sum, the study of binomial expressions is enhanced by experimental evidence of speakers’ preferences when presented with competing sequencing patterns.
... Recent research has shown that specifically three distinct types of word-internal reduplication are fairly frequently used in everyday German language and can therefore be considered conventionalized. Notably, all three types are attested in English, too, and mostly serve similar functions (Benczes, 2012;Ghomeshi et al., 2004;Green, 2016;Horn, 2018;Minkova, 2002;Thun, 1963). ...
... Vowel-alternating reduplication is formally restricted in that it is exclusively applied to stems with the high front vowel [i] or the low vowel [a]. Furthermore, the sequence of stem and copy is strictly determined by the vowel order [i-a] (Kentner, 2017;Minkova, 2002). Accordingly, stems with [a] show prefixing reduplication (Hickhack~hack), whereas stems with [i] have a suffixed reduplicant (Mis-chmasch~misch). ...
... Vowels and consonants crucially differ in terms of their sonorance and hence their acoustic salience, with vowels being more salient than consonants. Among the vowels, the contrast between the cardinal vowels [i] and [a] is the greatest potential contrast, as these vowels differ most strongly in terms of sonorance and intrinsic length (Lisker, 1974;Minkova, 2002). The acoustic differences among the three onset sonorants [j,l,m] and the differences among the postvocalic fricatives [f,s,ʃ] are markedly smaller. ...
Reduplicative words like chiffchaff or helter-skelter are part of ordinary language use yet most often found in substandard registers in which attitudinal and expressive meaning components are iconically foregrounded. In a rating experiment using nonwords that either conform to, or deviate from, conventional reduplicative patterns in German, the present study identified affective meaning dimensions, judgments of familiarity and esthetic evaluations of sound qualities associated with such words. In a subsequent recall test, we examined the respective mnemonic potential of the different types of reduplication. Results suggest that, in the absence of semantic content, reduplicative forms are inherently associated with several affective meaning associations that are generally considered positive. Two types of reduplicative patterns, namely full reduplication and [i-a]-vowel-alternating reduplication, boost these positive effects to a particularly pronounced degree, leading to an increase in perceived euphony, funniness, familiarity, appreciation, and positive belittling (cuteness) and, at the same time, a decrease in arousal. These two types also turn out to be particularly memorable when compared both to other types of reduplication and to non-reduplicative structures. This study demonstrates that reduplicative morphology may in and of itself, that is, irrespective of the phonemic and the semantic content, contribute to the affective meaning and esthetic evaluation of words.
... It is a common linguistic phenomenon found in many languages, including English and Karakalpak. In this study, we will analyze Minkova's (2002) paper about ablaut reduplication in English, Merlini Barbaresi's (2008) work on English reduplicatives, Mattiello's (2013) book chapter on English reduplicatives and other. We will also analyse the research works of Karakalpak linguists, including Baskakov's (1952, as cited in Bekbergenov, 1979, p. 13) extensive work on Karakalpak morphology, Bekbergenov's (1979) paper on Karakalpak word-formation, Nazhimov's (1971, as cited in Bekbergenov, 1979, p. 13) dissertation abstract on Karakalpak reduplicatives and other works on Turkic languages. ...
Редуплікація, процес словотворення, що передбачає повторення слова або його частини, є поширеним мовним явищем. Це дослідження має на меті дослідити формальні властивості редуплікації в англійській та каракалпацькій мовах, двох мовах з різними типологічними характеристиками. Ми досліджуємо різні типи, розподіл та семантичні властивості редуплікації в обох мовах. Англійська, незважаючи на те, що є західноєвропейською мовою, демонструє широкий спектр редуплікативних моделей, включаючи копійну редуплікацію (tick-tick, puff-puff), аблаутну редуплікацію (mish-mash, sing-song), римовану редуплікацію (handy-dandy) та римовані сполучення (merge-purge). Ці типи різняться структурно і фонетично. Копійна редуплікація передбачає повторення цілої основи, часто зустрічається в дитячій мові, скорочених словах і експресивній мові. Аблаутна редуплікація передбачає повторення слова зі зміною голосного звуку. Римована редуплікація характеризується гемінацією приголосного в редупліканті. Римовані сполучення складаються з двох змістовних слів. У каракалпацькій мові, що належить до тюркської групи, редуплікація також є продуктивним процесом, причому основними типами є повна і часткова редуплікація. Повна редуплікація передбачає повторення цілих слів або коренів (oyın-oyın, tóbe-tóbe), тоді як часткова редуплікація, зокрема інтерфіксальна редуплікація (kepkelte, mup-muzday), використовується для утворення інтенсивних форм прикметників і прислівників. Повна редуплікація використовується для вираження інтенсивності, множинності або тривалості. Крім того, існують інші типи редуплікації, такі як ехо-редуплікація (balıq-malıq, shay-pay) та синонімічна редуплікація (aman-esen, ıdıs-tabaq). Ехо-редуплікація – це процес, коли слово повторюється з фонетичною модифікацією, щоб створити римовану пару. Цей тип часто виражає колективність, невизначену множинність, приниження та зневагу. Синонімічна редуплікація передбачає поєднання двох змістовних слів. Ці слова можуть бути синонімами, квазісинонімами або антонімами. Це дослідження надає огляд формальних властивостей, що демонструються редуплікацією в англійській та каракалпацькій мовах, але все ще важливо дослідити семантичні та прагматичні функції редуплікативних слів в обох мовах у майбутніх дослідженнях.
... These forms follow a prosodic template in which the first syllable carries primary stress and features a high front vowel, while the second syllable has a low vowel. While perhaps infrequent today, this has been a marginally productive strategy for English word formation, especially for words with mildly pejorative meanings (e.g., Minkova, 2002). The second type of reduplication, represented by mugga chugga [mʌgə ʧʌgə] for 'mother fucker,' is reminiscent of rhyme reduplication (e.g., hocus pocus), but there are multiple influences on the form, which was produced by a Black American creator. ...
In response to content moderation that disproportionately censors discourse by and about marginalized users, content creators on the video sharing platform TikTok have developed a linguistic repertoire whose communicative effect is akin to that of an avoidance register. Creators manipulate sound, morphology, meaning, orthography, and gesture to circumvent lexical items that may be censored based on notions of “appropriateness” articulated in the platform’s community guidelines. The strategies they use parallel documented forms of language play online and offline, as well as censorship avoidance on other social media platforms. These strategies are used most frequently on words related to contested ideas such as race, gender, and sex(uality). However, because of the memetic culture of TikTok, the practice of linguistic self-censorship has expanded to contexts where content is at little risk of top-down censorship, instead functioning to reflect creativity, make social commentary, and index sociopolitical alignment.
... Therefore, the head can come on the right as in crisscross, mishmash, dilly-dally or on the left as in super-duper and fuzzy-wuzzy in English. Minkova (2002) argues that this depends on the prosodic pronunciation of reduplicative units, their correct construction. For example, zagzig is more difficult to pronounce than zigzag. ...
تعرف عمليه التكرار على أنها عمليه صرفية، إذ يكرر الجذر وهو جزء من الكلمة بصورة تامة أو مع تغيير طفيف. تهدف هذه الدراسة إلى تناول عمليه التكرار في اللغتين الانجليزية والعربية للوقوف على أوجه التشابه والاختلاف بينهما من حيث التعريف، والتصنيف، والإنتاجية، والاستخدام، والعمومية (الشمولية) إضافة إلى السمات الصوتية والصرفية والنحوية والدلالية والبراغماتية، وجذبت عمليه التكرار انتباه اللغويين إلى حد كبير في العقود الأخيرة. تستند هذه الدراسة إلى نظريه المبادئ والمتغيرات للنحو التوليدي (شومسكي،1981). وقد تم استخدم المنهج الوصفي التحليلي المقارن لتحقيق الهدف، وتعتمد الدراسة على بيانات جمعت بشكل وصفي من المراجع والمعاجم الإنجليزية والعربية حول موضوع التكرار. وتوصلت الدراسة إلى أن عمليه التكرار هي عمليه صرفيه تعمل على توليد كلمات جديدة، وإن هناك تشابه واختلاف بين الكلمات التكرارية في اللغتين الإنجليزية والعربية؛ وبما أن هناك تشابه واختلاف بين الكلمات التكرارية في اللغتين الإنجليزية والعربية، تدعم النتائج نظريه المبادئ والمتغيرات للنحو التوليدي.
... They also include so-called rhyming reduplications such as lovey-dovey, hurly-burly, hocus-pocus and artsy-fartsy (see e.g. Minkova [2002], among others). Finally, English has contrastive focus reduplication (salad-salad, see e.g. ...
In this article we present a new approach to words of the type zigzag , chitchat , etc. in English. Such words form a formal (phonological) and functional (semantic) pattern in English. We argue that this pattern should be analysed in a construction-based approach, which has clear advantages over other approaches, e.g. analyses involving extragrammaticality or a synchronically productive reduplication process. We propose to extend the construction-based approach beyond its original scope (syntactic constructions) to words that may even no longer be morphologically complex. Finally, we make a tentative suggestion about how the difference between productive and unproductive patterns could be captured in the construction-based approach.
In this typological study, we identify 31 languages that have reduplication with a changed vowel, as in English tick-tock, referred to as ablaut reduplication. Cross-linguistically, this type of reduplication typically manifests as total reduplication with a changed vowel whose quality may or may not be fixed, and when it is not fixed the vowel differs maximally from the corresponding vowel in the base. The order of the copy relative to the base can be fixed or variable, and when it is variable the order enforces a language-specific vowel contour across the two components, such as a low vowel in the first constituent and a high vowel in the second, regardless of which constituent is the base. Furthermore, all cases of ablaut have strikingly similar semantics (playfulness, onomatopoeia, movement, etc.). We review previous treatments of the topic and outline the necessary components of a unified analysis that accommodates the typological patterns.
The aim of the paper is to (re-)evaluate the treatment of reduplicative expressions as compound words in nearly all previous work on English. Examples of reduplicative expressions are listed, out of context, and they are labelled as compound words, without providing proper motivations as to why it makes sense to treat them as compounds, in the sense of lexical items that are formed of other lexical items. The paper provides plenty of examples of how the reduplicatives listed in previous work are actually used in present-day English and examines the functions and interpretations of such expressions. The paper shows that most reduplicative expressions are not compound words. Some of them are words in their own right that cannot be divided into meaningful constituents. Some may have a more compound-like reading, alongside a clearly non-compound-like reading; for most such items, the latter function and interpretation seem to be most common. A large majority of alleged reduplicative compounds display clear non-compound-like behaviour. It will be shown that these expressions are likely to be sequences of words that are created by the same (syntactic) process/es that iterate or stack ‘ordinary’ nouns, adjectives and verbs in English.
Blending presents unique and unusual attractive words in mass media because of its creativity (Beliaeva, 2019). The study aims to: 1) identify types of blends, 2) investigate the semantic relationships of blends, and 3) examine the contribution of splinters in the formation of blends in The Manhattan Fish Market advertisements. Mattiello (2013, 2017) comprehensively classified blends into morphotactic (total and partial), morphological and graphic (overlapping and non-overlapping), and morphosemantic (attributive and coordinative). This study uses Bauer’s (2006, 2012) model to study the semantic relationship between paradigmatic and syntagmatic based on the headedness and meanings of the blend. The Manhattan Fish Market (MFM) contributes many blends inspired by other splinters (e.g., sea-, -licious, -tastic). This study analyses 142 blends to classify the syntactic and semantic categories using a descriptive qualitative research design. The findings show that MFM uses overlapping blends and syntagmatic blends to attract readers. The paradigmatic blends share the same lexical class, while syntagmatic blends share different lexical categories. The subtypes of syntagmatic blends are right-headed (modifier + head) and left-headed (head + modifier). The findings help identify the semantic relations based on the headedness in blends and the contribution of splinters in the formation of blends. The paper concludes that headedness determines the semantic types and function of blends.Keywords: blends, Manhattan Fish Market, headedness, syntagmatic, paradigmatic, splinter
For the first time in over thirty years a revolution is happening in phonology, with the advent of constraint-based approaches which directly oppose the rule-and-derivation tradition of mainstream Generative Phonology. The success of Optimality Theory and the rapidity of its spread since its official launch in 1993 is remarkable even by the general standards of post-1950s linguistics. Many phonologists appear to have been caught up in the whirlwind, as witnessed by the substance of many current working papers and conferences the world over, and the recent contents of well-established journals. Two questions naturally arise: What is Optimality Theory about? In what way is Optimality Theory superior to traditional theory, if indeed it is? In this book, leading specialists and active researchers address these issues directly, and focus deliberately on the evaluation of the two competing approaches rather than on simple displays of their applicability to limited bodies of data.
This groundbreaking new study takes a novel approach to reduplication, a phenomenon whereby languages use repetition to create new words. Sharon Inkelas and Cheryl Zoll argue that the driving force in reduplication is identity at the morphosyntactic, not the phonological level, and present a new model of reduplication - Morphological Doubling Theory - that derives the full range of reduplication patterns. This approach shifts the focus away from the relatively small number of cases of phonological overapplication and underapplication, which have played a major role in earlier studies, to the larger class of cases where base and reduplicant diverge phonologically. The authors conclude by arguing for a theoretical shift in phonology, which entails more attention to word structure. As well as presenting the authors' pioneering work, this book also provides a much-needed overview of reduplication, the study of which has become one of the most contentious in modern phonological theory.
Cambridge Core - Historical Linguistics - The Cambridge History of the English Language - edited by Suzanne Romaine