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Joseph II's Reshaping of the Austrian Church
Abstract
The article draws on recently discovered manuscript sources to re-examine Joseph II's structural changes to the Catholic and Uniat church in the Austrian central lands between 1781 and 1790. In contrast to the extensive literature dealing with state policy towards church authority, or Josephinism, these changes have traditionally been the subject of guesswork and misstatement. Joseph has been credited with nationalizing the church, ruthlessly cutting down its monastic numbers, placing the secular clergy on fixed stipends, and financing a wholesale increase in bishoprics, parishes and secular clergy by extensive sales of monastic lands. The article presents new figures for clerical numbers and income before and after Joseph's reforms, and argues that while the latter were radical (though not always consistent) in intention, they were much less so in execution, partly because the church's resources, exposed by the emperor's massive investigation, proved less extensive than he had expected.
... According to the secret instructions given in 1768 to the Giunta Economale in Milan, an administrative body specifically designed to settle all outstanding problems between the Church and the state in favour of the latter, Church jurisdiction should be restricted to matters "that had been entrusted by Christ to His Apostles" and every right or privilege granted by the sovereign to the clergy could be amended or revoked 52 . Maria Theresa and her son Joseph II also restricted the wealth of the Church in favour of the state's needs 53 . ...
An important area of historical research is the study of how people organize themselves into communal existence, especially when conscious of their difference in a foreign en - vironment. The focus of this study is the formation of the community of Greek immi - grants in 18th-century Trieste. The main aim of the chapter is to view the organization, administration and function of the Greek community of Trieste by studying its statutes and the influences it received from administrative models both in the immigrants' na - tive places of origin and their host country. In addition to this, the following analysis tracks factors and indices relating to the gradual integration of the immigrants and ex - amines the role of the community in the process of immigrants' integration into the host society. Tο ελληνικό παροικιακό φαινόμενο προσφέρει ένα ευρύ πεδίο αναζητήσεων για τη δράση, οργά - νωση, πορεία και το βίο εν γένει των ελληνικών κοινοτήτων του εξωτερικού. Θέμα του παρόντος άρθρου είναι η ελληνική παροικία της Tεργέστης και ο στόχος του είναι διττός. Aφενός μεν παρουσιάζει την οργάνωση της κοινότητας βάσει του καταστατικού της (1786), υποδεικνύ- οντας σημεία σύγκλησης αλλά και απόκλισης από τις άλλες κοινότητες του εξωτερικού ή της Oθωμανικής Aυτοκρατορίας. Aφετέρου δε, επιχειρεί να παρουσιάσει όλα εκείνα τα στοιχεία που αποτελούν ενδείξεις της ενσωμάτωσης των μελών της στην κοινωνία της Tεργέστης άρα και της σταδιακής αφομοίωσής τους, εμβαθύνοντας παράλληλα, στο ρόλο της κοινότητας στην αφομοιωτική διαδικασία.
The complicated political and cultural position of the Serbs who migrated to
the Habsburg Monarchy in the early eighteenth century caused the rise of
popularity of Russian rulers, who were recognized as protectors of the
Orthodox against religious persecution. Political ties were accompanied by a
strong Russification of Serbian culture, which was carried out through the
mass procurement of Russian liturgical books and the arrival of many Russian
teachers to Serbian schools. Ukrainian painters who came to the
Metropolitanate of Karlovci brought new forms of baroque religious painting
and introduced changes in the structure of the iconostasis. The cult of the
Romanov dynasty among Orthodox Serbs in Hungary was amplified by their
numerous portraits and engravings. [Project of the Serbian Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development, Grant no. 177001: Representations of identity in art andverbal-visual culture of the Modern era]
In the 1790s, the influx and presence of French émigrés was an enduring issue in all parts of the Habsburg monarchy. This chapter conceptualises the exile period as a mutual challenge for both the émigrés and the host society and investigates their interactions and interrelation on several levels. Analysing legislation, it identifies three stages of policies towards emigration reflecting different mobility patterns of émigrés as well as changing attitudes towards them in the reception country and vice versa. The broad spectrum of everyday relations reveals the productive interplay of interests between émigrés and hosts, as the former offered prestige and cultural skills, while the latter provided support and sociability. The final section discusses perspectives on the lasting integration of émigrés into the host society.
The major changes which transformed Europe in the eighteenth century gave rise to the emergence of a new cultural spirit, a growing conviction that men could improve their lives and achieve full happiness through rational thought and scientific development. This proposition was defended by those who embraced the “Encyclopedia”, the leading proponents of the movement known as the Enlightenment, a trend which necessarily affected the legal framework of European kingdoms, as its philosophes believed that the king’s function was not only to maintain order, but to bring progress, achieving the greatest level of well-being for his subjects. The head of state, therefore, became not only the guardian of order but also the protector and educator of its people and a reformer of society. Enlightenment monarchs were no longer considered chosen by God. Rather, their power came to be based on the fact that they were those most qualified to know what their people needed. As such, the kings were not the owners but the administrators of the Crown’s property. Though Enlightenment-era monarchs were still absolutists, they could not do what they wanted because the expansion of royal power that their reformism required was not incompatible with a respect for the law and the rationalization of the state. Therefore, European kingdoms were essentially transformed thanks to the great enlightened despots and their ministers, preparing the way for the important constitutional changes introduced in the last third of the eighteenth century.
More than 700 monasteries were dissolved under emperor Joseph II in the lands of the Habsburg monarchy between 1782 and 1787. The number of regular clergy declined from an estimated 25,000 to just over 11,000.1 With dissolutions proceeding in distinct phases, this extraordinary undertaking brought about an immense movement of books and proved to be of critical importance in the history of both private and public libraries in Austria. Today’s public libraries, in particular, derive their basic stock of manuscripts and incunables from the dissolved monastic libraries.
On October 18, 1783, a cortege of gala carriages escorted by liveried attendants, lackeys, and trumpeters drew up in the main courtyard of the Hofburg, the Imperial palace in Vienna. Received with military honors, it bore a deputation of the Lower Austrian Estates led by Landmarschall Count Johann Anton Pergen and that included a dozen representatives of the four orders (prelates, lords, knights, and townsmen) that composed the diet. The group ascended into the ceremonial apartments to be welcomed by the Imperial grand chamberlain, who announced its arrival. The emperor's appearance in the audience chamber prompted a short address by Pergen, to whom Joseph II then personally handed his government's annual tax demand. As his mother the Empress Maria Theresa had sometimes done on these occasions, he took advantage of Estates' attendance to raise a matter of special concern. He exhorted them avec beaucoup de noblesse to consider ways of revising the provincial cadastre that underlay the system of direct taxation. This prefigured one of the reign's celebrated initiatives that culminated in the great tax and peasant labor reform of 1789. Joseph's participation in a court function that dated back to the middle years of the previous reign and that was rooted in a much older ritual in which the Lower Austrian Estates had in corpore received the tax request out of the monarch's own hands largely conformed to later Theresan practice. But this would be the last time that he observed the rite. In the following year, his absence from Vienna prevented its occurrence, and in 1785 he did away with it altogether. © 2014 Central European History Society of American Historical Association.
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