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Reconciling productivity with protection of the environment: Is temperate agroforestry the answer?
Abstract
Meeting the needs for a growing world population calls for multifunctional land use, which can meet the multiple demands of food and fuel production, environmental and biodiversity protection, and has the capacity for adaptation or resilience to climate change. Agroforestry, a land-use system that integrates trees and shrubs with crops and/or livestock production, has been identified by the International Assessment of Agricultural Knowledge, Science and Technology for Development (IAASTD) as a ‘win–win’ approach that balances the production of commodities (food, feed, fuel, fiber, etc.) with non-commodity outputs such as environmental protection and cultural and landscape amenities. Evidence is now coming to light that supports the promotion of agroforestry in temperate developed countries as a sustainable alternative to the highly industrialized agricultural model with its associated negative environmental externalities. This paper reviews this evidence within the ‘ecosystem services’ framework to evaluate agroforestry as part of a multifunctional working landscape in temperate regions. Establishing trees on agricultural land can help to mitigate many of the negative impacts of agriculture, for example by regulating soil, water and air quality, supporting biodiversity, reducing inputs by natural regulation of pests and more efficient nutrient cycling, and by modifying local and global climates. The challenge now lies in promoting the adoption of agroforestry as a mainstream land use through research, dissemination of information and policy changes.
... Agroforestry systems were found to increase soil porosity and infiltration rates by 20-45 %, leading to greater water retention in the root zone (33). A differential analysis between agroforestry and conventional wheat monocultures revealed that agroforestry systems retained 411 mm ha -1 of water, whereas monocultures retained only 283 mm ha -1 , demonstrating a significant enhancement in soil moisture conservation (34). Moreover, tree litter and organic matter in agroforestry systems develop water retention by increasing SOC, which improves soil aggregation and its capacity to retain water. ...
... Unlike monoculture systems, which contribute to high GHG emissions due to excessive fertilizer use and soil degradation, agroforestry improved nutrient cycling, promotes methane oxidation and regulated soil respiration regulation. Nitrogen-fixing trees such as Leucaena leucocephala and Albizia lebbeck contributed 100-250 kg N ha -1 yr -1 through biological nitrogen fixation, significantly reducing reliance on synthetic fertilizers and lowering N₂O emissions by 20-50 % (33,34). Agroforestry systems reduced soil disturbance, leading to 30-50 % decrease microbial-mediated nitrous oxide emissions compared to conventionally tilled monocultures (76). ...
... Agroforestry helped regulate soil respiration rates by enhancing SOC fixation, microbial activity and root biomass turnover, ultimately contributing to climate change mitigation. Research indicated that agroforestry systems reduced CO₂ fluxes by 20-35 % related to conventional monoculture cropping systems, primarily due to increased carbon input from tree litter and root biomass, which stabilized soil carbon pools (34). Deep-rooted tree species, such as Eucalyptus spp. ...
Intensive agricultural practices have resulted in in significant soil degradation, nutrient imbalances and the decline of vital ecosystem services, thereby necessitating the adoption of i sustainable land-use strategies. Agroforestry, an integrated land management system that combined with crops and livestock, played a key role in restoring soil health and increasing carbon sequestration. This review discussed the mechanisms through which agroforestry improved soil nutrient cycling, enhanced the accumulation of organic matter and strengthened soil structure, thereby reducing erosion and improving water retention. The roles of tree litter decomposition, deep-rooted species and microbial interactions in increasing soil fertility and biodiversity were also highlighted. Furthermore, the review examined agroforestry’s potential for carbon sequestration, with estimates indicating that such systems could sequester 0.29 to 15.2 Mg C ha-1 year-1. Above Ground Biomass (AGB) accumulation and Below Ground Biomass, (BGB) root inputs contributed significantly to long-term soil carbon stabilization. Agroforestry also aided in greenhouse gas mitigation by enhancing nitrogen use efficiency, facilitating methane oxidation and regulating CO₂ flux. Various agroforestry models, including silvopastoral systems, alley cropping were explored for their applications in both degraded and saline soils. Additionally, the review addressed challenges such as economic and policy barriers, the need for secure land tenure and advancements in carbon monitoring technologies. This findings underscored the necessity for stronger policy support, financial incentives and large-scale adoption of agroforestry to enhance soil health, mitigate climate change and promote sustainable agriculture.
... Intercropping has drawn the attention of a broad range of agricultural, ecological, and environmental professionals with a variety of scientific interests. (for instance, Smith et al., 2013) [15] , enabling multidisciplinary syntheses including different knowledge on the potential of intercropping In this review, intercropping is defined, the processes and mechanisms that drive it are examined, as well as recent findings from agronomy, plant physiology, and ecology. The potential integration of these innovations to improve intercropping systems is also covered. ...
... Intercropping has drawn the attention of a broad range of agricultural, ecological, and environmental professionals with a variety of scientific interests. (for instance, Smith et al., 2013) [15] , enabling multidisciplinary syntheses including different knowledge on the potential of intercropping In this review, intercropping is defined, the processes and mechanisms that drive it are examined, as well as recent findings from agronomy, plant physiology, and ecology. The potential integration of these innovations to improve intercropping systems is also covered. ...
... Agroforestry systems are promoted as sustainable agricultural systems that can maintain or enhance productivity while also delivering environmental benefits (Smith et al., 2013). However, integrating trees in agricultural land reduces the land area available for crops or livestock thus reducing agricultural output, and further reductions can occur where competition for resources exists. ...
... The study farm Wakelyns Agroforestry is a 22.5 ha diverse farm in Suffolk, East Anglia (52.36ºN, 1.36ºE). The annual average temperature is 9.5°C, with 620 mm precipitation (Smith et al., 2013). The soil is sandy clay loam (28% clay, 23% silt, 49% sand) with a depth of 25 cm, and the farm is located at 50 m above sea level. ...
Agroforestry systems can maintain or enhance productivity while also delivering environmental benefits. Whilst productivity from individual agroforestry components may be lower than when grown in a monoculture, overall productivity can be higher due to complementarity in resource-capture. This can be quantified using the Land Equivalent Ratio (LER) which compares the productivity of intercropping (e.g. agroforestry) and monocropping systems. This paper compares three different methods of calculating LERs for a silvoarable agroforestry system on a farm in eastern England. The calculated LER values were all positive and ranged between 1.10–1.44. This demonstrates that resource partitioning is occurring, and that the net output of the agroforestry system is higher than the monoculture equivalent.
... Another important benefit of agroforestry is its ability to reduce soil erosion on farmlands with sloping terrain; Growing trees/shrubs along contours can lead to the natural formation of terraces over time (Do et al., 2023;Hoang et al., 2017;Pattanayak and Evan Mercer, 1998;Pellek, 1992). Agroforestry can also contribute to local biodiversity conservation by, e.g., providing an alternative wood supply that reduces harvesting from nearby forests (Tsegaye, 2023), and providing cover for wildlife to safely move between habitats (Smith et al., 2013). When practiced nearby inland water bodies, agroforestry can help protect the water bodies and their shoreline areas by, e.g., reducing bank erosion, surface runoff, and water pollution (by trapping sediments and pollutants), and providing shade to help regulate water temperatures (Graziano et al., 2022;Smith et al., 2013). ...
... Agroforestry can also contribute to local biodiversity conservation by, e.g., providing an alternative wood supply that reduces harvesting from nearby forests (Tsegaye, 2023), and providing cover for wildlife to safely move between habitats (Smith et al., 2013). When practiced nearby inland water bodies, agroforestry can help protect the water bodies and their shoreline areas by, e.g., reducing bank erosion, surface runoff, and water pollution (by trapping sediments and pollutants), and providing shade to help regulate water temperatures (Graziano et al., 2022;Smith et al., 2013). Not all agroforestry practices are environmentally friendly, e.g., those that involve planting invasive alien species or clear-cutting existing forests (Ollinaho and Kröger, 2021). ...
... Agroforestry (AF) is gaining recognition as a tool to address the various crises faced by the agricultural sector today. It can mitigate and adapt to climate change (Nair 2011;Cary and Frey 2020), increase biodiversity (Smith et al. 2013;Graham and Nassauer 2019;Bentrup et al. 2019), and soil conservation (Nair 2011;Smith et al. 2013;Beule et al. 2019), while also improving other ecosystem services like air and water quality (Nair 2011). However, AF land use in Germany makes up less than two percent of utilized agricultural area (den Herder et al. 2017). ...
... Agroforestry (AF) is gaining recognition as a tool to address the various crises faced by the agricultural sector today. It can mitigate and adapt to climate change (Nair 2011;Cary and Frey 2020), increase biodiversity (Smith et al. 2013;Graham and Nassauer 2019;Bentrup et al. 2019), and soil conservation (Nair 2011;Smith et al. 2013;Beule et al. 2019), while also improving other ecosystem services like air and water quality (Nair 2011). However, AF land use in Germany makes up less than two percent of utilized agricultural area (den Herder et al. 2017). ...
Agroforestry can address multiple environmental challenges across the agricultural sector, for example biodiversity loss and soil degradation. However, agroforestry uptake remains low in Germany. Since economic considerations are important for farmer uptake, this paper compares the economic performance of conventional arable farming with silvoarable alley cropping in Brandenburg. Using a modelling approach, the net present value (NPV) is calculated to assess the competitiveness of alley cropping with poplar compared to arable farming under different scenarios. These scenarios cover a range of crops, rotation schedules, alley widths, woodchip prices, and yield levels. Additionally, policy measures that can compensate for potential economic losses associated with transitioning to agroforestry are considered. Results show that short rotation alley cropping had higher NPVs than medium rotation alley cropping, mainly due to cash-flow characteristics. Short rotation alley cropping can be competitive at high woodchip prices without policy support, while at low or average prices alley cropping needs subsidies to be competitive. Medium rotation systems at all price levels were not competitive unless policy support was provided. Current policy payments were unable to make silvoarable alley cropping competitive except at high woodchip prices. When subsidies increase, alley cropping can be competitive even at low or average woodchip prices and over a range of site conditions. Besides policy support, economic performance was strongly influenced by woodchip prices, relative yield potential of poplar and arable crops, and site conditions.
... Several ecosystem services have been promoted from using agroforestry. These include environmental benefits such as nutrient retention, erosion control, carbon sequestration, pollination, pest control, fire risk reduction and social benefits such as increase in recreational, aesthetic, and cultural heritage values (Mcadam et al., 2018;Smith et al., 2021;Terasaki Hart et al., 2023). In addition, agroforestry has potential, with careful management, to be more productive than monoculture systems (Smith et al., 2021) which can provide an economically viable alternative to farmers and ensure food security. ...
... These include environmental benefits such as nutrient retention, erosion control, carbon sequestration, pollination, pest control, fire risk reduction and social benefits such as increase in recreational, aesthetic, and cultural heritage values (Mcadam et al., 2018;Smith et al., 2021;Terasaki Hart et al., 2023). In addition, agroforestry has potential, with careful management, to be more productive than monoculture systems (Smith et al., 2021) which can provide an economically viable alternative to farmers and ensure food security. The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) has shown increasing interest to reward and incentivize adoption of agroforestry practices. ...
Agroforestry has recently been recognized as a sustainable land-use system that can both address farmers' productive needs and provide ecosystem services to society such as biodiversity and carbon sequestration. Further investigation into the role played by social and psychological factors for adoption of agroforestry within a European context, is needed. This paper provides an analysis of farmers' behavioural drivers with respect to their adoption of agroforestry practices, using a survey of 387 farmers from Sweden. We extended the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) model to incorporate the following behavioural factors: businessperson identity, network memberships, conservation objectives, as well as perceived economic benefits and labour constraints on actual adoption. Latent constructs in the model were first extracted with factor analysis before estimating their impact on adoption using logit models. The results indicate that network memberships improve the explanation of adoption and positively impact farmers' adoption of agroforestry, while the remaining behavioural variables were found to be statistically insignificant. We therefore recommend to encourage farmers' connection to formal networks in order to disseminate ideas, technical experience and guidance on agroforestry, thereby facilitating adoption. The lack of a significant influence of the TPB-factors in our study suggests that we are not able to confirm that TPB variables have an effect on actual adoption and may support the common criticism given to the model in relation to the well-known intention-behaviour “gap”.
... BSE was caused by feeding cattle (which are herbivores) mammalian meat and bone meal (MBM) and led to the deaths of millions of cows and some humans who ate beef from infected animals (Alarcon et al. 2023). Feeding practices on farms are also important to study because of their impact on the environment and sustainability, and finding ways to improve the sustainability of agriculture is paramount to tackling biodiversity loss and mitigating climate change (Kok et al. 2018;Smith et al. 2013). ...
Food plays a major part in shaping human–animal relations, from nurturing farm and zoo animals to bringing wild birds into suburban gardens. Food-mediated interactions create personal interspecies bonds, enrich and alter environments, change species distributions, enable new relationships and reconfigure social perspectives, but also lead to many concerns over health and disease, for example, as well as conflicts over spaces and resources. However, previous attention has almost exclusively focused on the purpose-driven, utilitarian and economic aspects of feeding, rather than the affective and emotional encounters that motivate many feeding practices.
Presenting new research and interdisciplinary case studies, The Hand that Feeds considers animal feeding from historic to modern times. The volume explores the nuances and complexity of non-utilitarian feeding relationships, across urban and rural divides, in the wild, on the farm, at the zoo and in the garden, and how our feeding relationships have altered animal distributions and behaviours. The authors scrutinise contrasts between which species are promoted and which are persecuted, and how the species we choose to feed reflects broader world views and cultural values. Ultimately, this volume engages in the discussion of how we feed, why we feed, which animals we deem worthy of feeding and the widespread impacts of feeding relations.
... These results align with prior research emphasizing that adoption decisions are driven primarily by perceived advantages and ease of implementation (Amare and Darr 2023;Buyinza et al. 2020;Leduc and Hansson 2022). The attitude construct significantly influences tea growers' intention to adopt agroforestry for boundary planting, driven by perceived benefits such as enhanced soil fertility (ATT1, α = 0.912) (Franzel et al. 2001;Mosquera-Losada et al., 2023), microclimatic regulation (ATT2, α = 0.894) (Jose 2009;Smith et al. 2013), long-term investment potential (ATT3, α = 0.901) (Meijer et al. 2015;Ullah (Li et al. 2020;Reppin et al. 2020). In alignment with adoption theories (Rogers and Singhal 2003;Davis et al., 1989), these positive perceptions reinforced growers' willingness to integrate agroforestry. ...
The adoption of agroforestry practices,
particularly boundary planting, offers significant ecological
and economic benefits for tea growers. This
study integrates the Diffusion of Innovation Theory
and the Theory of Planned Behavior to examine the
determinants influencing the adoption intention of
boundary planting among tea growers in the Nilgiris
district, Tamil Nadu, India. A cross-sectional survey
of 300 tea growers was conducted, and the data
were analysed using partial least squares structural
equation modeling (PLS-SEM). The findings reveal that attitude, perceived behavioral control, relative
advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability,
and observability significantly influence adoption
intentions, whereas subjective norms did not exhibit
a statistically significant effect. These results suggest
that individual perceptions of agroforestry’s benefits
and feasibility exceed external social influences in
decision-making. The study underscores the need for
targeted interventions such as capacity-building programs,
financial incentives, and technology-driven
advisory services to enhance adoption. By leveraging
precision agroforestry tools, structured extension programs,
and market-based incentives, decision-makers
and stakeholders can facilitate the large-scale integration
of boundary planting within tea plantations.
The findings contribute to the growing literature on
agroforestry adoption and provide actionable insights
for improving sustainability in tea-based farming systems.
Future research should explore comparative
adoption patterns across different agroforestry models
and develop region-specific policy frameworks to
enhance adoption scalability.
... The development of future agricultural systems in the face of climate change incorporate the aspect of resilience to maintain food security (Azadi et al., 2021). Agroforestry systems, i.e., the combined cultivation of woody elements and crops and/or livestock, are seen as a promising agricultural practice for maintaining productivity while being more resilient (Fig. 1) (Smith et al., 2013). They have repeatedly been cited in scienti c literature as a promising approach to agriculture that is both productive and resilient (Ong et al., 2015;Sollen-Norrlin et al., 2020). ...
Climate change is having an impact on European agriculture and will increasingly do so in the future. Agroforestry, the integration of trees or shrubs in agricultural production systems, has been repeatedly voiced as a productive, sustainable and resilient approach of food production. Quantifying agricultural benefits of agroforestry in the context of resilience to current and future climate change in Europe is challenging. In an online survey we gathered 60 experts’ assessment on the resilience of different forms of agroforestry (silvoarable, silvopastoral and systems with hedgerows, riparian buffer strips and windbreaks) in diverse European regions to various climate change variables. Across all regions and independently of the agroforestry system type, agroforestry systems were observed to show stable yields until now (0% change of yield compared to -8% in non-agroforestry systems). Experts expected yield differences between agroforestry and non-agroforestry to increase in future with − 20% yield until 2050 in non-agroforestry systems, while they expected agroforestry systems to accommodate the changes (0% yield change). This gap was highest in central and eastern Europe. In north-western and northern Europe, small yield increases were expected in agroforestry systems. Silvopastoral, silvoarable and systems with hedgerows, riparian buffer strips and windbreaks were similar in terms of observations/expectations of changes in yield. The quality of saleable agricultural products until 2050 was estimated to show a distinct difference between non-agroforestry and agroforestry systems. In particular in arable and hedgeless systems where all of the surveyed experts expected quality to be reduced, while only 48% and 55% thought so for silvoarable and hedgerow systems, respectively. Heavy precipitation events, prolonged drought, late frost, summer heat waves and hail were the main threats by climate change listed by experts. Our expert study emphasizes a general resilience of agroforestry systems to climate change impacts, regardless of the exact system type and climate region.
... Agroforestry systems also foster beneficial interactions among species, such as pollination and pest control services provided by birds, bats, and insects. These interactions are essential for maintaining ecosystem stability and productivity, highlighting the role of agroforestry in promoting species richness and ecological balance [32]. ...
Agroforestry is an integrative land-use system that enhances biodiversity, improves soil conservation, and mitigates climate change while sustaining agricultural productivity. By strategically combining trees, crops, and livestock, agroforestry systems provide critical ecosystem services, including carbon sequestration, nutrient cycling, soil stabilization, and water retention. Research indicates that agroforestry can increase soil organic carbon by 20–40%, reduce erosion by up to 80%, and enhance species richness by 50% compared to conventional agriculture. These systems also support pollinators, beneficial insects, and endangered species by creating ecological corridors and microhabitats. Despite its proven benefits, widespread adoption faces several challenges, including high initial investment costs, resource competition, land tenure insecurity, and a lack of policy incentives. Socioeconomic constraints such as limited access to credit and extension services further hinder implementation, particularly among smallholder farmers. Technical limitations include complex management requirements, potential pest interactions, and variability in system performance across different agroecological zones. To overcome these barriers, targeted policy interventions, financial incentives such as payments for ecosystem services, and farmer education programs are needed. Recent innovations in precision agroforestry, digital technologies, and climate-smart approaches offer promising avenues for optimizing agroforestry systems while increasing resilience to climate change. Scaling up adoption requires a multidisciplinary approach integrating scientific research, policy support, and community-driven initiatives to enhance global food systems while preserving natural ecosystems.
... While several studies have illustrated the benefits of ecosystem services from forests in coffee landscapes, including pollination (e.g., Priess et al., 2007;Ricketts et al., 2004), predation of harmful pests (e.g., Karp et al., 2013;Martínez-Salinas et al., 2016), and buffering against the spread of wind-borne pathogens (Daba et al., 2022), research addressing coffee farmer participation in carbon markets is relatively new, owing in part to uncertainty regarding the emissions reduction potential of changes in agricultural practices (i.e., market eligibility), transaction costs (i.e., market access) (De Pinto et al., 2010), and concerns about impacts on foreign exchange and food security (Lee, 2017). Recent evidence of the potential for climate-smart agricultural practices to support climate resilience (El Chami et al., 2020;Jamil et al., 2021), while having positive or insignificant impacts on yields (Saliu et al., 2023;Smith et al., 2013), established the prospect of a "triple win". In the right context, sustainable agricultural practices may contribute to higher yields, lower emissions, and farm-level resilience to climate change. ...
... Sattler et al., 2024;Smith et al., 2013). They also have a high recreational value, contribute to the well-being and create local products (Philipp and Zander, 2023;Plieninger et al., 2013).Preserving and establishing traditional orchards can be considered a nature-based solution, providing ecological, societal, and economic benefits (Bohorquez et al., 2023;Lovell et al., 2021).Various research approaches have already investigated how grassland can be optimally managed to maintain biodiversity (Bomanoska et al., 2019;Humbert et al., 2009;Kuhn et al., 2021;Milberg and Tälle, 2023;Sattler et al., 2024). ...
... Integrating crops and trees into agricultural systems provides many benefits, such as soil fertility enhancement, microclimate regulation for crops, crop pest and disease control, and additional income from tree products (Smith et al. 2013). Common tree integration strategies include agroforestry systems and woodlot systems. ...
Integrated farming systems aim to achieve synergies by deliberately combining crop, livestock, and other agricultural enterprises within a farm system. Well-managed integration can lead to greater productivity, more efficient resource utilization, and environmental benefits compared to specialized or single-enterprise systems. This chapter provides an overview of key principles, components, major examples, benefits, challenges, and future opportunities associated with integrated farming approaches. The background section defines integrated farming systems as those featuring purposeful complementarities between agricultural, horticultural, and aquatic production components. Several examples are provided, including crop–livestock integration through rotational grazing or stall-feeding of residues, the use of pond water and waste from aquaculture to support crop irrigation and soil nutrient management, and agroforestry combining woody perennials with agricultural crops or livestock. By taking an integrated approach that combines crops, livestock, forestry, aquaculture, and other farm enterprises, integrated farming systems can contribute to multiple sustainable development goals (SDGs). This chapter outlines considerations in enterprise selection along with different resource availability and agroecological contexts. Furthermore, it discusses planning for nutrient balancing, waste and by-product utilization, and coordinated production cycles and infrastructure requirements. While integrated systems can bolster productivity, economic returns, and climate resilience, challenges exist, including heightened management complexity, higher labor and skill requirements, and the need for supporting infrastructure. To realize the full advantages of integrated farming techniques, it is often necessary to expand the scale of farmers’ current operations. This expansion requires facilitating farmers’ access to knowledge-sharing platforms, financial incentives, new market openings, and transportation infrastructure that can handle multiple agricultural goods. Overall, well-designed and managed integrated farming systems hold promise toward developing multifunctional landscapes yielding environmental gains alongside sustainable livelihoods. The concluding section summarizes the challenges and potential for sustainable intensification of important future directions of food and nutrition security through purposefully managed integrated farming systems.
... At the same time, the problem they faced urged the people to plant trees and the grassland areas were also integrated in the farming system. This indicates that there were complete practical changes in land use and land cover that is in agreement withSmith et al. (2012). ...
Climate change negatively affects agricultural production, the natural resources base, and the livelihoods of communities. As such, adapting to climate change through agroforestry practices is important for sustainable agriculture. This study aimed to assess farmers' adaptation to climate change through agroforestry practices in the Hadiya zone, in Ethiopia. Stratified random sampling techniques were employed. Data were collected through structured and semi-structured questionnaires. Data were analyzed using Participatory Learning Action tools. In this study, three major agroforestry systems, five common agroforestry practices, six major and seven minor associated food and cash crops, more than 14 common multipurpose tree species, four common tree propagation or seedling sources, nine common tree niches versus population and five common tree management practices were identified, analyzed and recorded in the order of priority in adapting to climate change. The major finding from the focus groups or key informant interviews is that income generation is of primary importance in deciding whether to plant trees. Farmers preferred Grevillea robusta as the best agroforestry or multipurpose tree species compared to other existing indigenous or introduced multipurpose tree species. Mellia azedarach and Cupressus lusitanica were the least preferred tree species. Agroforestry systems and practices should be encouraged in the study area to enhance adaptation to climate change by addressing food, wood, and income needs. Consequently, this helps farmers to develop their livelihood assets.
... Combining crops or animals with trees improves production, profitability, and environmental sustainability. Trees improve microclimate conditions and lessen crop stress by providing shade, cover, and windbreaks (Smith et al., 2013). Their deep root systems increase soil fertility and moisture availability by strengthening soil structure, nutrient cycling, and water retention. ...
... Soil organic carbon (SOC) and total nitrogen (TN) are important indicators of soil quality (Smith et al., 2013), soil fertility (Gebrewahid et al., 2019), and sustainable land use management (Ge et al., 2013). They are also major components of global climate change largely through the role soils can play as a source or sink for carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) Minasny et al., 2017). ...
... In the following sections, we describe the model, the data required to run it, and a set of results obtained during the verification of the modules developed and in the simulations for two contrasting climatic years. We aimed to evaluate the effects of microclimatic changes associated with the shade from trees on the vineyard, testing vitiforestry as an adaptation technique to climate change, as suggested by several authors [52][53][54]. ...
Climate change threatens established agricultural systems and production, driving the need for adaptation and mitigation strategies. Vitiforestry, an alternative cultivation system combining trees and shrubs in the vineyard, promotes environmental sustainability and offers a possible adaptation strategy to climate change. This work scrutinizes the impact of shading on vineyards using an Integrated Model of Vineyard Shading and Climate Adaptation (IMVSCA), supported by a system dynamics approach. This model estimates solar radiation and computes daily and annual trends of insolation, air temperature, and relative humidity to shading and its influence on vineyard growth stages. It also assesses the effects of shading-related extreme weather events and the occurrence of grapevine disease development driven by daily weather conditions and zoning adaptations. The pilot results depict the effects of tree shading on vineyards, namely the impacts of solar radiation and air temperature on vine phenology, pollination, pollen germination, fungal diseases, and the complimentary indicators of grape production and quality. Our modeling framework and findings suggest that vitiforestry could be an interesting climate change adaptation technique, providing a starting point for further studies in this scope.
... Gardeners can adjust planting schedules to account for longer growing seasons or changing frost dates, allowing crops to mature before extreme weather events occur. Using shade structures, windbreaks, and mulch can also help protect plants from heat stress and reduce the impact of climate variability on garden productivity [30]. ...
Sustainable vegetable gardening is an eco-friendly practice that integrates organic farming principles, resource conservation, and biodiversity promotion to produce nutritious, chemical-free food while minimizing environmental impact. This approach emphasizes soil health through the use of organic amendments, crop rotation, composting, and mulching to improve fertility and water retention. Water conservation techniques, such as drip irrigation and rainwater harvesting, are employed to optimize water use, especially in arid regions. Pest and disease management relies on integrated pest management (IPM), biological controls, companion planting, and the use of organic pesticides to reduce chemical input while maintaining crop health. Sustainable homegrown produce has been shown to have superior nutritional content compared to commercially grown produce, and the avoidance of synthetic chemicals reduces the risk of pesticide residue exposure. Gardening fosters healthy eating habits by connecting individuals to their food sources, encouraging the consumption of fresh, unprocessed vegetables, and contributing to food security. The mental and physical health benefits of gardening, including reduced stress, increased physical activity, and improved mental well-being, further highlight its holistic value. However, challenges such as the initial setup costs, time investment, pest management, and knowledge gaps can hinder widespread adoption. Addressing these challenges requires greater access to resources, educational initiatives, and the development of climate-resilient practices tailored to specific regions. Future trends in sustainable gardening include the adoption of technological innovations, such as smart irrigation systems, automation, and vertical farming, which offer scalable solutions for urban and small-scale gardeners. The COVID-19 pandemic has underscored the importance of resilient, local food systems, and sustainable gardening is poised to play a critical role in addressing future food security concerns.
... Culturally, these traditional orchards contribute to recreation, education, tourism, the landscape's aesthetic value, and the regional identity of people [13][14][15]. Finally, they contribute to essential regulation and support services such as regulation of the microclimate, carbon sequestration, or a reduction in surface run-off and erosion [16][17][18][19]. Therefore, such traditional agroforestry systems could play a vital role in agroecological schemes in Europe [20]. ...
Traditional orchards are distinctive features of cultural landscapes in Central Europe. Despite their high level of ecological importance, they are in decline, and comprehensive spatial data over broad extents, which could enable a trend analysis, are lacking. We analysed traditional orchard maps from 1952 to 1967 and a map from 2010, generated via aerial image interpretation, for the state of Hesse (ca. 21,115 km²), which has the second largest share of traditional orchards in Germany. We aimed to (1) quantify long-term orchard dynamics, (2) compare orchard characteristics in terms of topographical, ecological, and socioeconomic factors, and (3) identify key drivers of orchard loss. We found that the number and area of orchards have clearly decreased across Hesse, with varying local and regional patterns. Further, historically old orchards tended to have a larger area, higher shape complexity, and were located closer to settlements, highways, and neighbouring orchards. In contrast, newly established orchards were often found at higher elevations and on steeper slopes. Finally, the three historical orchard hotspots also experienced the most notable losses driven by different factors, namely the expansion of Artificial Surfaces, Residential Buildings, and Agricultural Land. We highlight the importance of such multitemporal spatial data for a wide range of ecological applications, and we encourage the use of novel technologies to support geospatial analyses in the future.
... While there are many studies showing that silvoarable can dampen negative environment extremes (Smith et al. 2013;Lasco et al. 2014), there are few studies that show significant effects of this dampening on arable crop yield, and fewer still that have characterised the relationship between mean yield and its variation through time (stability). It is therefore a priority to characterise the relationship between mean yield and yield stability for both biophysical and biotic components of the agroforestry system because it potentially allows better predictive modelling of the response of arable yield to future environmental conditions. ...
In-field trees are thought to buffer arable crops from climate extremes through the creation of microclimates that may reduce the impacts of heat, wind, and cold. Much less is known about how trees and their biotic interactions (e.g. with natural enemies of pests and wild understory plants) impact crop yield stability to biotic stresses such as crop pests and disease. Modelling these interactions using conventional approaches is complex and time consuming, and we take a simplified approach, representing the agroecosystem as a Boolean regulatory network and parameterising Boolean functions using expert opinion. This allies our approach with decision analysis, which is increasingly finding applications in agriculture. Despite the naivety of our model, we demonstrate that it outputs complex and realistic agroecosystem dynamics. It predicts that, in English silvoarable, the biotic interactions of in-field trees boost arable crop yield overall, but they do not increase yield stability to biotic stress. Sensitivity analysis shows that arable crop yield is very sensitive to disease and weeds. We suggest that the focus of studies and debate on ecosystem service provision by English agroforestry needs to shift from natural enemies and pests to these ecosystem components. We discuss how our model can be improved through validation and parameterisation using real field data. Finally, we discuss how our approach can be used to rapidly model systems (agricultural or otherwise) than can be represented as dynamic interaction networks.
... However, semi-natural habitats in agricultural systems can involve economic drawbacks (Van Vooren et al., 2017) and even fail to enhance biocontrol when designed poorly or when pests benefit more from semi-natural habitats than natural enemies (Tscharntke et al., 2016). Silvoarable agroforestry recently gained attention as a land use that promotes agricultural productivity while preserving biodiversity (Smith et al., 2013). A particularly promising type of agroforestry is alleycropping, where rows of arable crops are alternated with rows of trees. ...
Intensive agricultural land use negatively impacts biodiversity, including arthropod predator diversity and their pest control potential. Alley‐cropping agroforestry systems (integration of tree rows into arable land) are increasingly considered an economically viable alternative for more sustainable and biodiversity‐friendly agriculture. However, their effectiveness in promoting generalist predator diversity and pest control, especially as a function of space (distance from tree rows) and time (across the growing season) remains poorly understood.
We assessed how spider abundance, taxonomic and functional diversity (as proxies of pest control potential) respond to temperate alley‐cropping agroforestry systems as compared to open croplands. Additionally, we analysed whether spiders with different habitat preferences (eurytopic, forest and open‐habitat specialists) show distinct responses. Lastly, we analysed whether the influence of agroforestry changes with decreasing tree proximity and across the growing season.
Tree row proximity generally benefited the abundance, as well as taxonomic and functional diversity of the overall spider communities. Alley‐cropping promoted the abundance and taxonomic diversity of forest specialists and eurytopic spiders, without negatively affecting open‐habitat specialists. The positive effect of alley cropping was strongest within tree rows and their immediate vicinity, but was still detectable at considerably farther distances. These patterns were temporally dynamic with spider abundance and taxonomic diversity being highest within tree rows in early spring and spiders spilling over to adjacent crop rows in subsequent periods.
Synthesis and applications: Overall, our findings highlight that the inclusion of tree rows benefited spiders across the entirety of the 48 m crop rows, independent of crop type. Since the peak in spider abundance and taxonomic diversity in crop rows coincided with crop pest arrival, alley‐cropping agroforestry is expected to benefit agricultural production through increased pest control potential. Alley‐cropping agroforestry may therefore be an important management strategy to develop more sustainable agricultural systems benefiting farmers and biodiversity alike.
... Agroforestry can be defined as an agricultural production system that deliberately integrates variety of trees, livestock, and annual crops to optimize productivity by leveraging their interactions. It is crucial in improving the food and nutritional assured through diverse mechanisms [38]. Agroforestry practices contribute to sources of food availability, intensify to food and other nutrient requirements, and elevate diet quality. ...
Food insecurity and nutritional imbalances remain challenging in many developing countries worldwide. Food security relies on four fundamental pillars: availability, accessibility, utilization, and stability. These four pillars together establish the basis for a comprehensive strategy toward food security, with the goal of guaranteeing that solitary has ongoing access to secure and nourishing food such aligns with their nutritional necessity. The Food and Agriculture Organization and prominent agroforestry communities have shown that agroforestry systems can effectively aid in accomplishing the four pillars of the food and nutritional security. This approach to integrated farming combines tree cultivation with other crops, leading to various advantages that strengthen food availability and nutritional well-being. Agroforestry can affect food security in several ways, mainly directly or indirectly. Additionally, they offer increased access to food, create income-generating opportunities, and contribute to enhanced health outcomes within communities. This recognition underscores the holistic and sustainable nature of agroforestry as an approach to addressing the complex challenges associated with food security. It highlights how agroforestry practices have the potential to bring about positive effect at different levels, making it a crucial strategy in the pursuit of sustainable food systems. Conversely, agroforestry is important in advancing Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by strengthening food and nutritional security. This chapter introduces a greater understanding of how agro-forestry practices can enhance food and nutritional security. It underscores the potential and benefits of using agroforestry to improve nutrition through food-based interventions. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the difficulties bind with agroforestry practices and their implications for policy and the identification of areas requiring further exploration in this particular domain.
... Subsequently, we explore the diverse array of benefits that agroforestry offers, spanning ecological, economic, and social dimensions. Furthermore, we address the challenges associated with agroforestry implementation, such as limited awareness, financial constraints, and land tenure issues [12][13][14]. ...
Agroforestry, the practice of integrating trees and shrubs into agricultural landscapes, offers many benefits for biodiversity, soil health, climate resilience, and socio-economic development. This review explores the multifunctional benefits of agroforestry systems and discusses implementation strategies to optimize their potential. The article covers ecological, economic, and social aspects, highlighting successful case studies and best practices from various regions. By providing a comprehensive overview of agroforestry's advantages and practical approaches for its adoption, this review aims to inform policymakers, researchers, and practitioners about the transformative potential of agroforestry in sustainable land management and rural development. Agroforestry systems have the potential to transform traditional agricultural practices by promoting biodiversity, enhancing ecosystem services, and increasing farm productivity and resilience. Integrating trees and shrubs into farming landscapes can improve soil health through enhanced nutrient cycling and erosion control, sequester carbon to mitigate climate change, and create microclimates that protect crops and livestock from extreme weather events. Additionally, agroforestry offers significant economic benefits by diversifying income sources for farmers, reducing reliance on chemical inputs, and improving market opportunities for agroforestry products. The review also addresses the social implications of agroforestry, emphasizing its role in enhancing rural livelihoods, promoting food security, and supporting community resilience. Agroforestry practices can empower smallholder farmers by providing them with new skills and knowledge, increasing their adaptive capacity, and fostering social cohesion through community-based initiatives. The article presents a comprehensive analysis of the barriers to agroforestry adoption, such as lack of awareness, financial constraints, and insecure land tenure, and proposes solutions to overcome these challenges. In-depth case studies from various regions illustrate the successful implementation of agroforestry systems and their positive impacts on local communities and ecosystems. The review highlights best practices and lessons learned from these examples, offering valuable insights for scaling up agroforestry initiatives globally. By integrating scientific research with practical experiences, this article provides a holistic perspective on the potential of agroforestry to contribute to sustainable development goals, including climate action, zero hunger, and life on land. Ultimately, this review aims to inspire policymakers, researchers, and practitioners to recognize the value of agroforestry and to implement strategies that support its widespread adoption. By fostering collaboration among stakeholders and promoting innovative approaches, agroforestry can become a key component of sustainable agricultural landscapes, ensuring food security, environmental health, and socio-economic well-being for future generations.
... However, there is currently worldwide concern regarding the impact of these modern farming practices on soil and water quality (Smith, et al., 2013). Others fear that excessive application of agricultural chemicals lead to undesirable environmental impacts (soil acidification, water pollution) that could outweigh the benefits (Pretty in Ogbodo and Onwa, 2013). ...
This study examined the excessive application of agricultural chemicals and the consequences on the sustainable environment and food security. The study had four specific purposes and was guided by four research questions. A descriptive survey research design was adopted. The population for the study consisted of 195 teachers of Agricultural Science in the 66 public secondary schools in the four local government areas in Enugu North senatorial zone. A structured questionnaire was used to elicit information from the respondents. The instrument was validated by three experts from the Department of Agricultural Education University of Nigeria, Nsukka. The reliability of the instrument was established using Cronbach method which yielded a coefficient of 0.78. Data were collected by the researchers with the help of four research assistants. Data collected were analyzed using mean and standard deviation to answer the research questions and decisions taken using the real limit of numbers. Results show that excessive application of fertilizer causes damage to the crops, facilitates the eutrophication process, pollution of the water bodies, creates a negative impact on the soil pH, and causes air pollution by nitrogen oxide emissions, among others. It was further found that excessive application of herbicides inhibits the activities of microorganisms in the soil, causes acute poisoning and sometimes leads to human death, causes skin rashes to exposed farmers, soil degradation, and reduction of water retention in soil, among others. Moreover, the results indicated that excessive use of insecticides leads to the destruction of biodiversity, declines in rare species of animals and birds, threats to aquatic animals, and declines in the population of beneficial insects, among others. Remedies were found to include enacting specific legislations to regulate the importation of extremely hazardous pesticides, registration of all agrochemicals used in Nigeria, organization of seminars and workshops to educate farmers on the safe application of agrochemicals, prohibition of sales of agrochemicals in an open market, use of organic manures and pesticides, among others. It was recommended among others that the Ministry of Agriculture should strictly regulate the application of agricultural chemicals to reduce the deleterious effect on the sustainable environment and food security.
... Climates: Agroforestry systems in temperate climates focus on improving soil fertility, enhancing water use efficiency, and providing additional income through timber and non-timber products. The integration of trees with crops and livestock in temperate regions has been shown to improve soil physical, chemical, and biological properties [47]. The seasonal leaf fall in temperate agroforestry systems adds organic matter to the soil, enhancing soil carbon and nutrient levels. ...
The diverse applications and benefits of agroforestry, emphasizing its critical role in enhancing soil health and fertility. Agroforestry, the integration of trees, crops, and livestock within the same land management system, presents numerous advantages. These include improved soil structure, enhanced nutrient cycling, and increased carbon sequestration, contributing to overall ecosystem sustainability and resilience against climate change. Agroforestry systems have been shown to improve soil physical properties by enhancing soil structure and porosity, reducing erosion, and increasing water infiltration and retention. These systems boost soil chemical properties through increased organic matter, enhanced nutrient status and cycling, and favorable changes in soil pH and cation exchange capacity. Key findings from various case studies across tropical, temperate, and arid regions demonstrate the multifunctionality of agroforestry systems. For instance, in the Sahel region of Africa, the integration of Faidherbiaalbida significantly improved soil fertility and increased crop yields. In the temperate regions of the United States, alley cropping with black walnut and corn improved soil structure and provided additional income through timber production. In arid regions like the Thar Desert of India, Prosopis-based agroforestry systems enhanced soil organic carbon and nutrient levels, leading to higher crop yields. Despite these benefits, the adoption of agroforestry practices faces significant challenges. Socio-economic barriers, such as the initial investment costs and land tenure insecurity, hinder widespread adoption. Additionally, a lack of knowledge and training among farmers and insufficient policy and institutional support further impede the implementation of agroforestry. Potential negative impacts, such as competition between trees and crops for resources, allelopathic effects, and management complexity, also need to be addressed through careful planning and management. Emerging trends in agroforestry research focus on integrating climate-smart agriculture principles and exploring the multifunctionality of these systems. Innovations such as precision agroforestry, biochar application, and the development of agroforestry-based bioproducts show promise in enhancing system efficiency and sustainability. However, research gaps remain, particularly in understanding the long-term impacts on soil health, the socio-economic benefits, and the integration of modern technologies. Addressing these gaps requires comprehensive, multidisciplinary approaches to fully realize the potential of agroforestry as a sustainable land management strategy.
... For instance, planting shades one year before planting the seedlings help conserve soil water as well as reducing disease and pest attack. To derive the full protection from shade trees, it is important that farmers select and plant certain desirable shade trees with the correct spacing and density per acre (Smith et al. 2013;Kaba et al. 2020). The spacing, density, shade cover, and shade tree species play a vital role in good shade management. ...
The paper examines the effect of shade management practices on cocoa seedling mortality. It investigates farmer awareness and adoption of the recommended shade practices and its influence on reducing cocoa seedling mortality. The constraints facing cocoa farmers in adopting the recommended shade management practices were also examined. Using data collected from 180 smallholder cocoa farmers, the ordered logit and poisson regression models were employed. The results indicate that majority of the farmers were highly aware of the recommended shade management practices, however, relatively moderate number of the farmers have adopted the recommended shade management practices. Our results further revealed that educational level, extension service, source of a shade tree, the type of shade practice, spraying insecticide, and weeding had a significant effect on reducing seedling mortality. Furthermore, the prevalence of diseases and pest infestation was identified as the major constraint faced by farmers in shade management. We, therefore, recommend that Cocobod should intensify extension services to increase the adoption of shade management practices through trainings to offset the high mortality in unshaded cocoa farms and sustain the survival of the cocoa seedlings.
... Combining crops or animals with trees improves production, profitability, and environmental sustainability. Trees improve microclimate conditions and lessen crop stress by providing shade, cover, and windbreaks (Smith et al., 2013). Their deep root systems increase soil fertility and moisture availability by strengthening soil structure, nutrient cycling, and water retention. ...
Agroforestry is a sustainable land management practice that integrates trees into agricultural landscapes to improve environmental sustainability, economic stability and social resilience. It contributes to Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) by improving soil health, conserving water and promoting biodiversity conservation. Various agroforestry systems, such as alley cropping, silvopasture and windbreaks, offer unique benefits for climate resilience and sustainability. However, agroforestry faces challenges like limited land access, knowledge gaps, and financial constraints. Policy and institutional barriers also hinder widespread adoption. Emerging trends in agroforestry research and practice, such as digital agriculture tools and precision forestry, are discussed. Agroforestry holds immense promise for addressing global challenges like climate change, food security and rural development. Policymakers, researchers, farmers and stakeholders are encouraged to promote and support agroforestry through advocacy, research collaboration and capacity-building initiatives.
... It is also largely responsible for soil nutrient depletion and soil erosion [3]. Alternatively, agroforestry systems (AFS) combine herbaceous crops or legumes with perennial woody crops to create diversified, sustainable, and climate-resilient systems [4]. Agroforestry, the integration of trees into agricultural landscapes, serves as an adaptation strategy that can help mitigate climate change by significantly increasing carbon sequestration in both soil and vegetation [5]. ...
This study examines the impact of line spacing (X: 24 m, Y: 9 m, Z: 6.5 m) and orientation to tree lines on the growth, yield, and quality of red clover (Trifolium pratense L.) in a temperate, irrigated agroforestry system (2 ha) in Szarvas, Hungary. Three sampling locations were distinguished between the east and west oriented tree lines: the north (N) side, middle (M) strip, and south (S) side of the tree lines. The highest red clovers were observed in the 6.5 m spacing (mean height 69.3 ± 7.2 cm), although yields were similar across 24 m, 9 m, and 6.5 m spacings (2.9 t ha⁻¹, 2.3 t ha⁻¹, and 2.7 t ha⁻¹ dry matter, respectively). Orientation significantly influenced all forage quality parameters, with the north side showing earlier developmental stages and higher proportions of immature flowers (41–59%). Managing the spatial arrangement of red clover in agroforestry systems can help optimize forage quality by mitigating variations in plant maturity.
... Agroforestry systems also foster beneficial interactions among species, such as pollination and pest control services provided by birds, bats, and insects. These interactions are essential for maintaining ecosystem stability and productivity, highlighting the role of agroforestry in promoting species richness and ecological balance [32]. ...
Agroforestry, the integration of trees and shrubs into agricultural systems, presents a sustainable land-use practice that enhances biodiversity conservation and ecosystem services. This review examines the historical development of agroforestry, its various types, and its role in promoting biodiversity and ecosystem health. Traditional agroforestry systems, such as home gardens and shifting cultivation, have long supported diverse species and sustainable land management. Modern agroforestry innovations, including climate-smart and precision agroforestry, further optimize resource use and resilience to climate change. Despite these benefits, the adoption of agroforestry faces significant socioeconomic barriers, including limited financial resources, insecure land tenure, and cultural resistance. Policy and institutional constraints, such as fragmented governance and insufficient support for agroforestry, also impede its widespread implementation. Technical and knowledge gaps, particularly in region-specific practices and long-term ecological impacts, further challenge adoption. Environmental challenges, including climate change and soil degradation, add to the complexity of managing agroforestry systems. Nevertheless, agroforestry's contributions to habitat creation, genetic diversity, species richness, and ecosystem services like soil fertility, water regulation, carbon sequestration, and pest management underscore its importance. Future prospects for agroforestry involve innovations in practice, supportive policies, targeted research, and the active role of stakeholders, including farmers, extension services, NGOs, the private sector, and governments. Effective promotion and implementation require integrated efforts across these domains to overcome existing barriers. This review highlights the need for comprehensive policies, enhanced research and development, and multi-stakeholder collaboration to scale up agroforestry practices globally. As global environmental and climate crises intensify, agroforestry stands out as a viable strategy for creating resilient and sustainable agricultural landscapes, ultimately contributing to food security, rural livelihoods, and ecological health.
... Since the 1980s, agroforestry has gained interest of researchers worldwide (Gold and Hanover 1987;Nerlich et al. 2012), first especially in the (sub)tropical areas but more recently also in regions with a more temperate climate such as North-western Europe. Agroforestry has the potential to increase biodiversity and deliver many regulating ecosystem services such as local climate change adaptation, erosion control, and climate change mitigation through carbon sequestration (Jose 2009;Smith et al. 2012). Additionally, the provisioning services of agroforestry are manifold, with generated products providing multiple income possibilities spread out over the short term (e.g. ...
Many studies point to the social and environmental benefits of agroforestry, also in temperate regions such as Flanders. Nevertheless, farmers do not yet see agroforestry as an equally valuable option alongside other farming systems because of the uncertain economic profitability and the current incompatibility of this system with existing market conditions. This paper has the aim to identify and evaluate – existing and hypothetical- economic incentives for agroforestry in Flanders. Data was collected over the period 2015—2021 through focus groups at conferences and in thematic living labs in Flanders with a broad range of stakeholders (e.g. farmers, processors, policy makers, researchers, etc.). The results were analysed qualitatively in Nvivo12 to make a classification of incentives and instruments in a first phase. In a second phase they were evaluated based on an adjusted SAF (Suitability, Acceptability and Feasibility) framework. Four types of incentives were identified: (1) government based; (2) payment for agroforestry products; (3) payment for ecosystem services; and (4) community based incentives. Currently, the highest potential is expected from payment for ecosystem services and the least potential from payment for products and community-based incentives due to a lack of consumer demand for agroforestry products specifically and the unfamiliarity of agroforestry to a broader public. At the end of the data collection period, a positive evolution was already observed in the development of these instruments. To accelerate this evolution, initiatives supporting awareness among a broader public and more insights into the preferences of a wide range of stakeholders is needed.
... The main hypothesis of this field experiment was that a genetically diverse cereal population would outperform a high-yielding commercial variety in a heterogenous environment of an AFS. The underlying assumption is that breeding efforts have created high-yielding modern varieties which are designed for high-input sole crop agriculture, have specific environmental requirements and are not particularly suitable for low-input mixed cropping systems like silvoarable agroforestry (Atlin and Frey 1989;Smith et al. 2012a;Bourke et al. 2021). According to Lammerts van Bueren et al. (2011), 95% of organic production is based on crop varieties bred for conventional agriculture, which has substantially different input levels than organic farming (see also Le Campion et al. 2020). ...
In agroforestry systems (AFS), where environmental conditions are highly variable at small spatial scales, the use of uniform genetic material of a single cultivar commonly grown in monoculture cropping might not be optimal. However, the use of composite cross populations (CCPs) that contain an inherent genetic variability might be a promising approach under the environmental variability created by trees in AFS. In this experimental trial, the performance of a CCP (‘CC-2 k’) of winter wheat was compared to a commercial variety (‘Wiwa’) in a split-plot design at two AFS (Feusisberg and Wollerau) in Central Switzerland. Yield of CC-2k (1.9 ± 0.7 Mg ha⁻¹) was higher than yield of Wiwa (0.7 ± 0.4 Mg ha⁻¹) in Wollerau, but yields did not differ between CCP and variety in Feusisberg (1.9 ± 0.7 Mg ha⁻¹ and 2.0 ± 0.8 Mg ha⁻¹, respectively). The interaction of site and variety was significant (p < 0.05). Wiwa had a higher protein, Fe and Ca content than CC-2k. Therefore, while the CC-2k outperformed Wiwa in terms of yield in one of the two AFS, Wiwa outperformed CC-2k in terms of quality. In this one-year field experiment, the composite cross population might have been better adapted to the heterogenous environment of agroforestry systems (found in one out of two sites) but failed to reach the high-quality product of modern cultivars. These initial results must be seen as first insights which need to be complemented by larger field experiments for generalisation. The findings of this study may be interpreted as an indication that further improvements in terms of quality might make CCPs a viable option for diversified agricultural systems with larger environmental heterogeneity than common monoculture cropping systems.
... A possible management regime to address this is presented in agroforestry. It effectively combines the cultivation of trees and crops (Nair 1993, Smith et al. 2013) and increases farmland capacity to improve ecosystem functioning while maintaining strong crop yields (Lojka et al. 2021 ...
The European turtle dove (Streptopelia turtur) is an endangered IUCN Red List species impacted by agricultural intensification. Although its population has declined, there is limited knowledge of its habitat preferences in Eastern European countries. To address this gap, we conducted a study in the Czech Republic to investigate the environmental factors that affect the distribution of turtle doves. We used turtle dove presence data from countrywide monitoring efforts, as well as environmental variable datasets describing all natural and human-modified ecosystems making up the land cover of the country. We analysed the general effects of land cover on turtle dove distribution using generalised mixed-effects models. We performed a compositional analysis of habitat use to investigate detailed habitat preferences. A higher proportion of urban and wetland land cover was associated with a significant decrease in turtle dove presence. In contrast, a higher proportion of agricultural and forest land cover was associated with the increased presence of turtle doves. In addition, the compositional analysis revealed significant differences between the suitability of individual habitat types within each land cover type. For example, turtle doves preferred coniferous tree plantations and semi-natural beech and riparian forests, but oak forests, broadleaf, and mixed tree plantations were strongly avoided. In agricultural areas, turtle doves strongly preferred semi-natural grasslands and vineyards but avoided intensive agriculture. Overall, our study provides important insights into the habitat preferences of the endangered turtle dove in the Czech Republic, which can better inform conservation efforts for the species.
... Agroforestry is lauded as a 'win-win' approach. Welldesigned agroforestry systems fulfill the requirements for food, fiber, and fuel production while also restoring and augmenting the stock of ecosystem assets, consequently boosting the provision of various ES, including carbon fixation and biodiversity conservation [55][56][57][58][59][60]. Hence, these multifunctional agroforestry ecosystems, geared towards the realization of multiple ES, present a more viable marginal land use model, particularly suitable for scaling up in karst desertification areas. ...
The ongoing degradation of fragile ecosystems increasingly diminishes the availability of natural resources. Consequently, the conservation and utilization of ecosystem assets have emerged as a focal point of global research. This study focuses on integrating agroforestry ecosystem assets (AEA) with their capacity to provide ecosystem services, aiming to explore their interconnections and enhance their optimization. We employed a comprehensive literature review method, utilizing the Scopus database to select, analyze, and include 61 pertinent studies on AEA globally. The systematic literature review results show the following: (1) The overall number of published papers is showing an upward trend, indicating that research in this field is gradually expanding. The geographical focus of the literature is primarily in Europe and Asia, with academic institutions being the main contributors to this research. (2) Landmark research findings are mainly concentrated in the areas of identification, quantitative assessment, and decision management. Among these, quantitative assessment is the main focus, while the research on identification, decision management, and influencing factors is relatively limited and explores the relevant key scientific questions. (3) The above information highlights the key areas for improvement in the karst desertification control agroforestry ecosystem, focusing on two aspects: fragile habitats and human–land relationships. Furthermore, this review furnishes essential recommendations for agroforestry practitioners and policymakers across various regions, emphasizing the critical need to thoroughly evaluate and leverage the connections between the quantity and quality of ecosystem assets. Such an approach is pivotal for facilitating the strategic restructuring and optimization of agroforestry ecosystems. This, in turn, aims to elevate the sustainability of AEA utilization and enhance their ability to provide ecosystem services (ES).
Agroforestry systems (AFS) are an effective solution for addressing environmental challenges while meeting rising food demands. However, the complex interplay of factors makes research challenging, particularly in understanding the impact on crop yields. This study uses multispectral unmanned aerial system (UAS) data to investigate a maize-cultivated alley cropping system in eastern Germany. We derived the growth parameters NDVI and plant height as yield proxies and analysed them as a function of distance to the trees. Furthermore, we examined whether fluctuations in the field could be attributed to the trees using a direction-dependent regression analysis. The results showed to separate between two effects: First, a clear increase in NDVI appeared at a close distance from the trees, which is dependent on tree height. This is schematically shown for two tree-stripes. Second, at greater distances, fluctuations in the NDVI appear to be caused by the trees, but without any discernible systematic trends. There also seems to be considerable inconsistency in the variations in plant height. The discussion addresses the potential reasons for the close-range NDVI increase and the suitability of UASs to investigate AFS. The relationship between NDVI and maize yield is also addressed. It is concluded that the effects of the trees on crop growth and vitality are present, but rather marginal to clearly affect maize yields in the given location.
Trees play a vital role in combating climate change by sequestering carbon and helping farmers adapt to and become more resilient to future climatic changes. Understanding the factors influencing households’ tree-planting decisions is essential for shaping policies and initiatives aimed at increasing on-farm tree cover, improving farmers’ incomes, and achieving national climate and land restoration goals. This study explores the determinants of farmers’ tree-growing decisions in Kiambu County, Kenya. Data was collected through interviews with 120 households and analyzed using descriptive statistics, Probit, and double-hurdle models to assess the factors driving tree planting and diversification aspirations. Results reveal that 97% of farmers grow trees for their products, while 26% do so for ecosystem services. A majority (93%) are aware of climate change, with 66% and 71% willing to plant more trees for climate mitigation and adaptation, respectively. Probit analysis shows that factors such as land ownership, dependency ratio, labor availability, number of farms, and the belief in trees' importance to households significantly (p ≤ 0.05) encourage tree planting. Furthermore, education, availability of land for tree planting, and food security influence the decision to diversify tree species. Perceived benefits, livestock ownership, and access to piped water positively affect future tree-planting efforts. However, a one-level increase in food insecurity reduces tree species diversification by 0.88. Farmers are primarily motivated to plant trees that provide direct product benefits. Therefore, strengthening education, land ownership policies, and food security measures is crucial for promoting sustainable tree-growing initiatives.
The growing global population has resulted in an increased demand for agricultural products. The second-largest source of releases of greenhouse gases is agriculture, which includes land use, agricultural production, and animal husbandry. Consequently, there has been a rise in GHG emissions. The three main greenhouse pollutants (often referred to as GHGs) that are contributing to the phenomenon of global warming and its many catastrophic effects are carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O), and methane (CH4). Despite being generated in lesser amounts than the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and the gases nitrous oxide (N2O) have a higher potential to contribute to global warming. This paper presents an extensive review on the factors affecting greenhouse gas emissions, including organic (crop species, animal dung, composted manure, and biosolids) and inorganic (such as fertilizers containing phosphate, nitrogen, and potassium) variables. Major sources of agricultural GHG emissions include agricultural soils, field burning of agricultural wastes, enteric fermentation, manure management, and liming. Strategies to mitigate GHG emissions from agriculture encompass improving crop residue management, enhancing nitrogen use efficiency in plants, optimizing nutrient management, implementing sustainable livestock production and feeding practices, adopting climate-smart agriculture, and reducing methane emissions. This paper deals with the future trends in carbon reduction.
Agroforestry refers to the integrated land use management that involves mixture of trees with agricultural crops, pastures, and livestock to harness the ecological and economic interactions among these components (Nair, 1993; Young, 1997). According to Smith et al. (2013), agroforestry is a method of farming that involves the cultivation of crops, tree farming, and the rearing of livestock. This practice is one of the potential alternatives for lowering the amount of carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere. Agroforestry is crucial for increasing carbon sequestration rates and reducing greenhouse gas emissions in the agricultural sector. It also provides various ecosystem services, such as soil nutrient management, erosion control, biodiversity conservation, and maintaining air and water quality. Agroforestry has a crucial role in enhancing farmers’ livelihoods by enhancing food production, providing fuelwood, fodder, and organic matter through tree litter, which maintains soil moisture. Carbon sequestration in agroforestry systems is crucial for mitigating climate change, as it stores organic carbon in soil for several years, thereby slowing or even reversing the increase in atmospheric CO2 concentration (Lorenz and Lal, 2014). The increase in atmospheric CO2 due to fossil fuel emissions is contributing to climate change, which is one of the world’s greatest challenges today. Overall agroforestry has immense potential in regulating micro and regional climatic conditions, enhancing resilience to extreme weather events, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions in agro-ecosystems across the globe.
Eddy covariance (EC) measurements can provide direct and non-invasive ecosystem measurements of the exchange of energy, water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2). However, conventional eddy covariance (CON-EC) setups (ultrasonic anemometer and infrared gas analyser) can be expensive, which recently led to the development of lower-cost eddy covariance (LC-EC) setups (University of Exeter). In the current study, we tested the performance of an LC-EC setup for CO2 and H2O flux measurements at an agroforestry and adjacent grassland site in a temperate ecosystem in northern Germany. The closed-path LC-EC setup was compared with a CON-EC setup using an enclosed-path gas analyser (LI-7200, LI-COR Inc., Lincoln, NE, USA). The LC-EC CO2 fluxes were lower compared to CON-EC by 4 %–7 % (R2=0.91–0.95), and the latent heat (LE) fluxes were higher by 1 %–5 % in 2020 and 23 % in 2021 (R2=0.84–0.91). The large difference between latent heat fluxes in 2021 seemed to be a consequence of the lower LE fluxes measured by the CON-EC. Due to the slower response sensors of the LC-EC setup, the (co)spectra of the LC-EC were more attenuated in the high-frequency range compared to the CON-EC. The stronger attenuation of the LC-EC led to larger cumulative differences between spectral methods of 0.15 %–38.8 % compared to 0.02 %–11.36 % of the CON-EC. At the agroforestry site where the flux tower was taller compared to the grassland, the attenuation was lower because the cospectrum peak and energy-containing eddies shift to lower frequencies which the LC-EC can measure. It was shown with the LC-EC and CON-EC systems that the agroforestry site had a 105.6 gCm-2 higher carbon uptake compared to the grassland site and 3.1–14.4 mm higher evapotranspiration when simultaneously measured for 1 month. Our results show that LC-EC has the potential to measure EC fluxes at a grassland and agroforestry system at approximately 25 % of the cost of a CON-EC system.
Togo's cotton growers have integrated “cotton under maize” into their production system in their quest for innovative solutions. This practice is of heuristic interest insofar as agricultural policies are constantly being improved. The aim of this paper is to analyze the social logics underlying this innovative cultivation practice. Analysis of qualitative data collected from 254 randomly selected cotton growers in the Plateaux region reveals that farmers prioritize the security and social prestige of their households over the financial enrichment provided by cotton. This strategy, although detrimental to the overall performance of the sector, enables them to guarantee the viability of their farms despite their technical and organizational constraints.
Agroforestry is considered an important strategy for mitigating against, and adapting to, climate change. Questions yet remain regarding the potential impacts of different tree species on water/carbon cycling at different locations, scales and under different climatic conditions. There is an urgent need for numerical models capable of quantifying agroforestry impacts on a host ecosystem services including carbon sequestration and soil water/river flow regulation. A key challenge in modelling agroforestry systems is that they depend heavily on soil moisture as the main driver of many biogeochemical processes. Soil moisture itself is highly variable with soil properties (and therefore with location) but also with depth. Given that target sites for agroforestry are often ungauged, location-specific agroforestry modelling must inevitably rely only on data available from satellites and/or nearby weather stations which do not typically cover the subsurface, i.e., there is an incommensurability between data-availability and system complexity. To overcome this, we propose RSEEP, a new ecohydrological model that only requires rainfall, potential evapotranspiration, and surface soil moisture for its calibration. We demonstrate RSEEP’s capability in water cycling for a site in Scotland where soil moisture observations are available for different depths and vegetation types. We then couple RSEEP to the well-known RothC soil carbon model to (i) test RothC’s sensitivity to water cycling method, and to (ii) simulate water-carbon dynamics of three different silvo-pastoral agroforestry systems (all at 400 stems/ha density) in Scotland; these systems are: with evergreen conifer (Scots Pine), deciduous conifer (Hybrid Larch), and deciduous broadleaf (Sycamore) trees. We find that not including more accurate soil moisture accounting methods in RothC can significantly overestimate soil carbon stocks. Under the current future climate pathway (RCP6.0), 40 years after planting trees, above+below ground carbon storage can be 2–5 times (100–250 t/ha) higher under silvo-pasture than under pasture depending on species, with Larch having the highest potential and Sycamore the lowest. Larch also exhibits the highest potential for preserving soil moisture under drier conditions, but Pine shows the highest potential for river flow regulation under both wet and dry conditions at our site. The choice of species is therefore important and should be made site-specifically and based on the ecosystem service and management priorities/objectives. Examining our scenarios under drought- and flood-relevant conditions and scales is a logical next step.
Direct sewage discharge may enhance soil nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions, worsening the greenhouse effect. However, the effects of sewage discharge into bogs on N2O flux, drivers and influencing mechanisms remain unclear. Additionally, investigating the impact of reclaimed water on N2O flux is important for bog replenishment and water shortage alleviation. This study simulated sewage from different sources into a bog and analyzed N2O fluxes, soil (organic carbon, total nitrogen, ammonium nitrogen, nitrate nitrogen, total phosphorus, available phosphorus, pH and electrical conductivity), plant (species richness and biomass) and microorganisms (ammonia-oxidizing archaea, napA, nirS, nirK and nosZ genes). Results showed that the reclaimed water did not significantly change N2O flux, while 50% tap water mixed with 50% domestic sewage and domestic sewage significantly increased the N2O flux. Among soil factors, available nitrogen and pH were key in influencing N2O flux. Among plant parameters, species richness was the primary factor affecting N2O flux. Nitrogen transformation functional genes contributed the most to the increase in the N2O fluxes, with an increase in domestic sewage input leading to a higher abundance of these genes and subsequent N2O emissions. Therefore, domestic sewage should be considered, as it significantly increases N2O emissions by affecting the soil, plants and microorganisms, thereby increasing the global warming potential. This study’s findings suggest that using treated reclaimed water for bog replenishment could be an environmentally friendly approach to wetland management.
In addition to the removal of excess mineral nitrogen (N) via root uptake, trees in agroforestry systems may mitigate negative effects of high N fertilization of adjacent crops by enhancing complete denitrification of excess mineral N aside from root uptake. Presently, little is known about the potential for NO3⁻ reduction through denitrification (conversion to greenhouse gas N2O and subsequently to non-reactive N2) in contrasting agroforestry systems: riparian tree buffer versus tree row of an upland alley-cropping system. Our study aimed to (1) quantify gross N2O emissions (both N2O + N2 emissions) and gross N2O uptake (N2O reduction to N2), and (2) determine their controlling factors. We employed the ¹⁵N2O pool dilution technique to quantify gross N2O fluxes from 0 to 5 cm (topsoil) and 40 to 60 cm (subsoil) depths with seasonal field measurements in 2019. The riparian tree buffer exhibited higher topsoil gross N2O emissions and uptake than the alley-cropping tree row (P < 0.03). Gross N2O emissions were regulated by N and carbon (C) availabilities and aeration status rather than denitrification gene abundance. Gross N2O uptake was directly linked to available C and nirK gene abundance. In the subsoil, gross N2O emission and uptake were low in both agroforestry systems, resulting from low mineral N contents possibly due to N uptake by deep tree roots. Nonetheless, the larger available C and soil moisture in the subsoil of riparian tree buffer than in alley-cropping tree row (P < 0.05) suggest its large potential for N2O uptake whenever NO3⁻ is transported to the subsoil.
Industrially managed annual monocultures are the primary agricultural system used to grow most crops in developed countries. These systems necessitate the destruction of natural ecological complexity for their management and contribute substantially to the environmental problems facing society in the 21st century, including climate change, biodiversity and habitat loss, water pollution, topsoil loss, and desertification. Agroforestry is a promising set of alternative practices that involve integrating trees into agricultural systems to optimize biophysical system interactions and achieve a range of environmental and economic benefits. Much of the agroforestry literature has focused on potential adopters rather than farmers who have implemented agroforestry, but researchers and farmers alike stand to gain from insights into farmer experiences. This study aims to address that gap through qualitative interviews with farmers in New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland who utilize production-oriented agroforestry. Perceived benefits of agroforestry included: improved climate resilience; lifestyle and mental health benefits; improved water management; improved soil health; increased presence of wildlife; improved livestock wellbeing; improved business resilience; provision of food, fuel, or fiber; improved ecological connectivity; reduced need for purchased inputs; low labor requirements; improved yields; improved pasture or crop health; and high product quality. Perceived challenges included: early setbacks; negative interactions within agroforestry systems; high labor requirements; difficulty mechanizing; tree establishment work; delayed or uncertain yields; novel crop challenges; meat processing challenges; difficulty planning for the future; high startup costs; and high management complexity. Farmers identified the value of both farmer–farmer networking and government support in the form of flexible and context-specific grant funding, system examples, business planning, and technical assistance. Many of the challenges farmers face can be overcome with agroforestry system designs that optimize early cash flow, balance labor productivity and environmental outcomes, and allow for harmonious integration of animals and appropriate-scale machinery.
Agroforestry is a multifunctional land use system that represents a promising approach to mitigate the environmental impact of agriculture while enhancing the resilience of agricultural systems and ensuring sustainable food production. However, the tree rows in agroforestry systems, particularly in alley cropping systems (ACS), can affect crop productivity on adjacent agricultural fields through various mechanisms. Hence, concerns about declining yields and reduced farm profitability persist and explain the reluctance of farmers to implement ACS on their land. In this review, we examine the available literature on the effects of temperate ACS on yields of various agricultural crops to evaluate if and to what extent crop yields in ACS are affected by tree presence. We identified that ACS crop yields often vary substantially across different species, geographical locations, weather conditions and ACS designs. Our analysis also revealed that several parameters are modified in ACS by the presence of tree rows affecting crop yields positively or negatively and that ACS design aspects play a crucial role in determining crop productivity.
Zusammenfassung
Aufgrund der Größe der betroffenen Landflächen, den bei ihrer Nutzung emittierten und sequestrierten Treibhausgasen (THG) und des teilweise ungünstigen Zustands von Böden in Hinblick auf ihren Gehalt an organisch gebundenem Kohlenstoff (C) kommt der Landnutzung a priori eine wichtige Rolle bei Mitigationsbemühungen zu. Zur Minderung des Klimawandels ist eine Verringerung der atmosphärischen CO2-Konzentration erforderlich, die durch eine Abnahme der THG-Emissionen und durch Aufnahme und langfristige Speicherung von atmosphärischem Kohlenstoff in Biomasse und Boden erreicht werden kann (Chenu et al., 2019; Mayer et al., 2018; Paustian et al., 2016; Vos et al., 2018). Der Erhaltung bzw. idealerweise Erhöhung der organischen Substanz des Bodens durch geeignete Bodenschutzmaßnahmen kommt entscheidende Bedeutung zu.
Eddy covariance (EC) measurements can provide direct and non-invasive ecosystem measurements of the exchange of energy, water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2). However, conventional eddy covariance (CON-EC) setups (ultrasonic anemometer and infrared gas analyser) can be expensive, which recently led to the development of lower-cost eddy covariance (LC-EC) setups. In the current study we test the performance of a LC-EC setup for CO2 and H2O flux measurements at an agroforestry and adjacent grassland site in a temperate ecosystem in northern Germany. The closed-path LC-EC setup was
compared with a CON-EC setup using an enclosed-path gas analyser (LI-7200, LI-COR Inc., Lincoln, NE, USA). The LC-EC CO2 fluxes were lower compared to CON-EC by 7-13% (R2 = 0.91-0.95) and the latent heat fluxes were higher by 2-3% in 2020 and 23% in 2021 (R2 = 0.84-0.90). The large difference between latent heat fluxes in 2021, seems to be a consequence of the lower LE fluxes measured by the CON-EC. Due to the slower response sensors of the LC-EC setup, the (co)spectra of the LC-EC were more attenuated in the high-frequency range compared to the CON-EC. This stronger attenuation of the
LC-EC requires a larger spectral correction and as a consequence larger differences between spectral correction factors of different spectral correction methods. At the agroforestry site where the flux tower was taller compared to the grassland, the attenuation was lower, because the cospectrum peak and energy-containing eddies shift to lower frequencies which the LC-EC can measure. With the LC-EC and CON-EC systems was shown that the agroforestry site had a 2.3 times higher carbon uptake compared to the grassland site and both had an equal evapotranspiration when simultaneously measured for one month. Our results show that LC-EC has the potential to measure EC fluxes at various land-use systems for approximately 25% of the costs of a CON-EC system.
Understanding the soil moisture dynamics and evapotranspiration (ET) patterns in the tree-crop interface is crucial for effective design and management of agroforestry systems, particularly in water-limited environments. In this chapter, we conducted a comprehensive analysis of soil moisture conditions, ET, and their key influencing factors in agroforestry. Subsequently, we developed an integrated ET and soil water balance model to unravel the underlying mechanisms governing soil moisture dynamics. Furthermore, we investigated the soil moisture conditions and ET relationships in an apple tree-cocksfoot agroforestry system established in the Loess Plateau of China. Our findings indicate that the ET and soil water balance coupling model successfully captured the intricate water cycling processes within agroforestry systems. This model holds promise for evaluating water utilization efficiency and informing the design and management of agroforestry systems across diverse environmental contexts. We emphasize the significance of appropriate field management practices, such as maintaining low coverage of understorey crop species, to mitigate the potential negative impacts of interspecific competition on tree performance in agroforestry under water-limited environments. We encourage the adoption of agroforestry systems incorporating well-managed understorey crops to enhance water productivity while providing valuable ecological services.
Agroforestry systems (AFS) represent combinations of trees, arable crops, and/or pastures. Being assemblages of diverse life-forms, they exhibit complex biophysical interactions. For instance, the multistrata canopies shade the understory crops by intercepting a significant amount of the incoming solar radiation. Optimizing understory productivity, thus, requires understanding the elements that affect the canopy transmittance of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) and its spatiotemporal dynamics. We systematically reviewed the peer-reviewed literature involving 145 tropical and subtropical tree + crop combinations. The theoretical underpinnings of interspecific interactions in developing agroforestry stands were elucidated using a conceptual model. Additionally, the linkage between subcanopy PAR levels and yield was established for 11 arable crops. PAR reaching the understory and the subcanopy yield levels were tremendously variable across AFS. Relative yields ranged from 6 to 188% of the sole crops. Stage of stand development, canopy architecture, and management factors are cardinal determinants of canopy light extinction, understory PAR availability, and yield. The yield of shade-tolerant crops either increased (“over-yielding”) or remained the same as PAR levels decreased within certain limits, albeit with intraspecific variations. The tree-crop interaction effects on yield were positive, negative, or neutral. In total, 19 cases showed positive responses, 29 were neutral, and 113 were negative, with a few overlapping responses depending on the tree, crop, and management. This implies that the key to ecological intensification is component selection and management. Agroforestry, while containing the loss of, maintaining, or even increasing understory yields, thus maximizes overall (tree + crop) outputs and land equivalent ratio.
We conducted an experiment to investigate the effects of juglone (5-hydroxy-1, 4-napthoquinone) on the growth and physiology of hydroponically grown corn (Zea mays L.) and soybean (Glycine max L. Merr.) seedlings. Three different concentrations of juglone (10^-6 M, 10^-5 M, and 10^-4 M) along with a control were applied. Within 3 days, juglone exhibited significant inhibitory effects on all measured variables including shoot and root relative growth rates (RGR\rm_{s} and RGR\rm_{r}), leaf photosynthesis (P\rm_{net}), transpiration (E), stomatal conductance (g\rm_{s}), and leaf and root respiration. In general, soybean was found to be more sensitive to juglone than corn. RGR\rm_{r}was the most inhibited variable for both species, and reductions of 86.5 and 99% were observed in corn and soybean, respectively, with 10^-4 M juglone concentrations. Among the physiological variables measured, P\rm_{net} showed the greatest impact of toxicity though the other physiological parameters were also impacted. We conclude that both corn and soybean are sensitive to juglone and observed growth reductions in corn and soybean in black walnut alley cropping may partly be due to juglone phytotoxicity. Determination of actual phytotoxicity will require quantification of soil solution juglone levels, particularly in areas where soil solid-phase levels are high in close proximity to trees.
Windbreaks are a major component of successful agricultural systems throughout the world. The focus of this chapter is on temperate-zone, commercial, agricultural systems in North America, where windbreaks contribute to both producer profitability and environmental quality by increasing crop production while simultaneously reducing the level of off-farm inputs. They help control erosion and blowing snow, improve animal health and survival under winter conditions, reduce energy consumption of the farmstead unit, and enhance habitat diversity, providing refuges for predatory birds and insects. On a larger landscape scale windbreaks provide habitat for various types of wildlife and have the potential to contribute significant benefits to the carbon balance equation, easing the economic burdens associated with climate change. For a windbreak to function properly, it must be designed with the needs of the landowner in mind. The ability of a windbreak to meet a specific need is determined by its structure: both external structure, width, height, shape, and orientation as well as the internal structure; the amount and arrangement of the branches, leaves, and stems of the trees or shrubs in the windbreak. In response to windbreak structure, wind flow in the vicinity of a windbreak is altered and the microclimate in sheltered areas is changed; temperatures tend to be slightly higher and evaporation is reduced. These types of changes in microclimate can be utilized to enhance agricultural sustainability and profitability. While specific mechanisms of the shelter response remain unclear and are topics for further research, the two biggest challenges we face are: developing a better understanding of why producers are reluctant to adopt windbreak technology and defining the role of woody plants in the agricultural landscape.
Ecosystem engineers are organisms that directly or indirectly modulate the availability of resources to other species, by causing physical state changes in biotic or abiotic materials. In so doing they modify, maintain and create habitats. Autogenic engineers (e.g. corals, or trees) change the environment via their own physical structures (i.e. their living and dead tissues). Allogenic engineers (e.g. woodpeckers, beavers) change the environment by transforming living or non-living materials from one physical state to another, via mechanical or other means. The direct provision of resources to other species, in the form of living or dead tissues is not engineering. Organisms act as engineers when they modulate the supply of a resource or resources other than themselves. We recognise and define five types of engineering and provide examples. Humans are allogenic engineers par excellence, and also mimic the behaviour of autogenic engineers, for example by constructing glasshouses. We explore related concepts including the notions of extended phenotypes and keystone species. Some (but not all) products of ecosystem engineering are extended phenotypes. Many (perhaps most) impacts of keystone species include not only trophic effects, but also engineers and engineering. Engineers differ in their impacts. The biggest effects are attributable to species with large per capita impacts, living at high densities, over large areas for a long time, giving rise to structures that persist for millennia and that modulate many resource flows (e.g. mima mounds created by fossorial rodents). The ephemeral nests constructed by small, passerine birds lie at the opposite end of this continuum. We provide a tentative research agenda for an exploration of the phenomenon of organisms as ecosystem engineers, and suggest that all habitats on earth support, and are influenced by, ecosystem engineers.
In commercial free-range broiler (meat chicken) systems, many birds never leave the houses, making them ‘free-range’ in name only and suggesting that the environment provided is not preferred habitat. We investigated the factors that affect the numbers of birds ranging in 40 flocks, each of 20000 growing broiler chickens, Gallus gallus domesticus, in 14 houses on seven commercial farms and at three seasons of the year. The number of birds found to be ranging outside was positively correlated with the amount of tree cover the range area contained, the time of day and the season of the year. Few birds were seen ranging in the winter but even in summer, the maximum number observed outside during daylight hours at any one time was less than 15% of the total flock. We measured habitat preference of the chickens, using a statistical method previously used for wild birds, and argue that this ‘in situ’ measurement of habitat preference could be widely used in a variety of situations and that it thus constitutes an important noninvasive and nonintrusive method for assessing animal welfare on commercial farms. Copyright 2003 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd on behalf of The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour.
end of each plot. The switchgrass buffer removed 95% of the sediment, 80% of the total-nitrogen (N), 62% of the nitrate-nitrogen ((NO.sub.3)-N), 78% of the totalphosphorus (P), and 58% of the phosphate-phosphorus ((PO.sub.4)-P). The switchgrass/woody buffer removed 97% of the sediment, 94% of the total-N, 85% of the (NO.sub.3 )-N, 91% of the total-P, and 8o% of the (PO.sub.4)-P in the runoff. There was a significant negative correlation between the trapping effectiveness of the buffers and the intensity and total rainfall of individual storms. While the 7 m (23 ft) switchgrass buffer was effective in removing sediment and sediment-bound nutrients, the added width of the 16.3 m (53.5 ft) switchgrass/woody buffer increased the removal efficiency of soluble nutrients by over 20%. Similar or even greater reductions might have been found if the 16.3 m (53.5 ft) buffer had been planted completely to native warm-season grasses. In this buffer, combinations of the dense, stiff, native warm-season grass and woody vegetation improved the removal effectiveness for the nonpoint source pollutants from agricultural areas.
During the past three decades, agroforestry has become recognized the world over as an integrated approach to sustainable land use because of its production and environmental benefits. Its recent recognition as a greenhouse gas–mitigation strategy under the Kyoto Protocol has earned it added attention as a strategy for biological carbon (C) sequestration. The perceived potential is based on the premise that the greater efficiency of integrated systems in resource (nutrients, light, and water) capture and utilization than single-species systems will result in greater net C sequestration. Available estimates of C-sequestration potential of agroforestry systems are derived by combining information on the aboveground, time-averaged C stocks and the soil C values; but they are generally not rigorous. Methodological difficulties in estimating C stock of biomass and the extent of soil C storage under varying conditions are compounded by the lack of reliable estimates of area under agroforestry. We estimate that the area currently under agroforestry worldwide is 1,023 million ha. Additionally, substantial extent of areas of unproductive crop, grass, and forest lands as well as degraded lands could be brought under agroforestry. The extent of C sequestered in any agroforestry system will depend on a number of site-specific biological, climatic, soil, and management factors. Furthermore, the profitability of C-sequestration projects will depend on the price of C in the international market, additional income from the sale of products such as timber, and the cost related to C monitoring. Our knowledge on these issues is unfortunately rudimentary. Until such difficulties are surmounted, the low-cost environmental benefit of agroforestry will continue to be underappreciated and underexploited.
Due to their potential to enhance soil biodiversity and fertility, tree-based intercropping (TBI) systems are recognized as promising agrotechnologies. However, few studies have examined the effects of TBI on the diversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi. To investigate this aspect, and to compare TBI with a more typical forest plantation (FO) system, a field experiment using soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr. cv. SO3-W4) and poplar (Populus nigra L. × P. maximowiczii cv. A. Henry ‘Max 5’) was conducted on an arable field site in southwestern Québec. The species of AM fungi colonizing the roots were assessed by PCR-RFLP and DNA sequence analyses of SSU rRNA genes. A total of 13 different phylotypes were identified. Phylogenetic analyses demonstrated that these belonged to the genera Glomus (11), Acaulospora (1) and Scutellospora (1). The AM fungal diversity, as expressed by the Shannon–Wiener indices, were 0.82 ± 0.08 for the soybean and 0.70 ± 0.11 for poplar under the TBI system, and 0.53 ± 0.08 for poplar under the FO system. The study also investigated the distribution of AM fungal spores in the soil, and this differed in the two systems. Under the TBI system, spore abundance increased with increasing distance from the poplar trunk, while it remained relatively constant under the FO system. Our results also show that neighbouring trees and soybean plants hosted different AM fungal communities, suggesting that TBI systems may enhance AM fungal richness compared to monocultures.
The ecological principles that define the competitive and complementary interactions among trees, crops, and fauna in agroforestry systems have received considerable research attention during the recent past. These principles have not yet, however, been adequately integrated and synthesized into an operational approach. This paper reviews the ecological and ecophysiological bases for interspecific interactions based on data from site-specific research and demonstration trials from temperate agroforestry systems, primarily from temperate North America. The review shows that information on ecological interactions in several temperate agroforestry systems is inadequate. It is recommended that the future research should focus on exploring new species and systems that have received little attention in the past. Priority research areas should include cultural practices and system designs to minimize in-terspecific competition and maximize environmental benefits such as improved water quality. Potential for genetic modification of components to increase productivity and reduce competition also needs to be explored. Process-oriented models may be used increasingly to predict resource-allocation patterns and possible benefits for a suite of site and species combinations.
1. Facilitating adaptive responses of organisms in modified landscape will be essential to overcome the negative effects of climate change and its interaction with land use change. Without such action, many organisms will be prevented from achieving the predicted range shifts they need to survive.
2. Scattered trees are a prominent feature of many modified landscapes, and could play an important role in facilitating climate change adaptation. They are keystone structures because of the disproportionally large ecological values and ecosystem services that they provide relative to the area they occupy in these landscapes. The provision of habitat and connectivity will be particularly relevant.
3. Scattered trees are declining in modified landscapes due to elevated tree mortality and poor recruitment often associated with intensive land use. The continuing global decline of scattered trees will undermine the capacity of many organisms to adapt to climate change.
4. Synthesis and applications. The sustainable management of scattered trees in modified landscapes could complement other strategies for facilitating climate change adaptation. They create continuous, though sparse, vegetation cover that permits multi-directional movements of biota across landscapes and ecological networks. They have the capacity to span ecosystems and climatic gradients that cannot be captured in formal reserves alone. The management of scattered trees should be an integral part of conservation objectives and agricultural activities in modified landscapes. Public investment, through mechanisms such as agri-environmental schemes, in rotational grazing, temporary set-asides, tree-planting and regulations that reduce clearing and early mortality among standing trees will improve the capacity of biota to adapt to climate change.
Agroforestry systems are believed to provide a number of ecosystem services; however, until recently evidence in the agroforestry
literature supporting these perceived benefits has been lacking. This special issue brings together a series of papers from
around the globe to address recent findings on the ecosystem services and environmental benefits provided by agroforestry.
As prelude to the special issue, this paper examines four major ecosystem services and environmental benefits of agroforestry:
(1) carbon sequestration, (2) biodiversity conservation, (3) soil enrichment and (4) air and water quality. Past and present
evidence clearly indicates that agroforestry, as part of a multifunctional working landscape, can be a viable land-use option
that, in addition to alleviating poverty, offers a number of ecosystem services and environmental benefits. This realization
should help promote agroforestry and its role as an integral part of a multifunctional working landscape the world over.
The environmental services that agroforestry practices can provide, and especially their potential contribution to the conservation
of biodiversity, have only recently attracted wider attention among agroforestry and conservation scientists. This new view
is consistent with the ecosystem approach to natural resource management advocated by the Convention on Biological Diversity.
This collection of six papers, which is based on a Workshop held in June–July 2004, brings together studies of biodiversity
impacts of traditional agroforestry practices from Central and South America, Africa and Asia. The contributions highlight
the considerable potential of traditional agroforestry practices to support biodiversity conservation, but also show their
limits. These include the importance of sufficient areas of natural habitat and of appropriate hunting regulations for maintaining
high levels of biodiversity in agroforestry land use mosaics, as well as the critical role of markets for tree products and
of a favourable policy environment for agroforestry land uses. In combination the case studies suggest that maintaining diversity
in approaches to management of agroforestry systems, along with a pragmatic, undogmatic view on natural resource management,
will provide the widest range of options for adapting to changing land use conditions.
Recent reports clearly indicate that odor emitted from concentrated livestock production facilities in the Midwest of the US is a significant social problem that negatively impacts rural and state economies, human health, and the quality of rural life. A potential incremental approach to dealing with livestock odor is the use of shelterbelts arranged in strategic designs near and within livestock facilities. This review outlines the various ways that shelterbelts can be effective technology which bio-physically mitigates odor thereby reducing social conflict from odor nuisance. The biophysical potential of shelterbelts to mitigate livestock odor arises from the tree/shrub impacts on the central characteristics and physical behavior of livestock odor. As the majority of odors generated in animal facilities that are detectable at appreciable distances travel as particulates, there is compelling evidence that shelterbelts can ameliorate livestock odor by impeding the movement of these particulates. Because the odor source is near the ground and the tendency of livestock odor is to travel along the ground, shelterbelts of modest heights (i.e. 20–30ft) may be ideal for odor interception, disruption, and dilution. Shelterbelts can be adapted to fit almost any production situation. Depending on shelterbelt health, these trees can provide long term, year round odor interception, with increasing effectiveness over time. Additionally, more is becoming known about how landscape aesthetics affect how people might perceive livestock odor, suggesting that landscape elements such as shelterbelts can lead to aesthetic improvements and perhaps more positive opinions of livestock odor and the farm systems that create them.
Agroforestry systems have often been neglected in Europe because administrative structures within many national governments
have considered that only agriculture or forestry are legitimate within their remit. This has resulted in the loss of agroforestry
systems in European countries and an impoverishment of the benefits that they provide. This paper argues that agroforestry
systems are a complex interaction of agricultural and forestry elements which can be classified according to their components,
spatial and temporal arrangement, agro-ecological zone, and socio-economic aspects. A further breakdown can be made on the
basis of ecosystem functions, and their associated goods and services. The ecosystem functions of agroforestry systems can
be grouped under production (the creation of biomass), habitat (the delivery of biodiversity), regulation (maintenance of
essential processes and life support systems) and culture (cultural heritage, landscape enhancement and recreation). The importance
of the multi-functionality of agroforestry systems in terms of their management input and the range of their outputs is stressed
and it is proposed that land use decisions should be made within the broader ecosystems perspective so that greater social
well-being can be derived from rural areas in Europe.
These proceedings contain 123 papers which are divided into 5 main sessions. The first session includes the characterization of silvopastoral systems in a global context while the second session deals with the effects of the management tools on the productivity and quality of silvopastoral systems. The ecological implications of the silvopastoral systems is discussed in the third session, with emphasis on the biodiversity and sustainable management aspects. The fourth session, on the other hand, examines the main economical, social and cultural aspects of silvopastoral systems. Lastly, the fifth session evaluates the perspectives of these systems in a global and European context.
The practice of growing two or more crops together is widespread throughout the tropics and is becoming increasingly practised in temperate agriculture. The benefits of nutrient exchange, reduced weed competition and pathogen control can generate substantial improvements in growth and yield. In this book John Vandermeer, a leading worker on the subject, shows how classical ecological principles, especially those relating to competition and population ecology, can be applied to intercropping. Despite the large amount of research activity directed towards the subject over the last 20 years, the practice of intercropping has, until now, received very little serious academic attention. The Ecology of Intercropping is unique in approaching the question of intercropping from a theoretical point of view. In addition the details of the approach will take as their starting point well-accepted ecological theory. Using this basis the author shows how the approach can be used to design and evaluate intercropping systems to improve agricultural yields.
Agroforestry refers to land use systems in which trees or shrubs are grown in association with agricultural crops, or pastures and livestock. From its inception, it has contained a strong element of soil management. Well-designed and managed agroforestry systems have the potential to control runoff and erosion, maintain soil organic matter and physical properties and promote nutrient cycling. By these means agroforestry can make a suitable contribution to sustainable land use. This new edition summarises the present state of knowledge and research of agronomy systems: the plant-soil processes; soil conservation and erosion control; soil management and nutrient cycling. It is essential reading for all concerned with agroforestry whether as students, research scientists or for practical purposes of development.
Landscapes are frequently seen as fragments of natural habitat surrounded by a 'sea' of agriculture. But recent ecological theory shows that the nature of these fragments is not nearly as important for conservation as is the nature of the matrix of agriculture that surrounds them. Local extinctions from conservation fragments are inevitable and must be balanced by migrations if massive extinction is to be avoided. High migration rates only occur in what the authors refer to as 'high quality' matrices, which are created by alternative agroecological techniques, as opposed to the industrial monocultural model of agriculture. The authors argue that the only way to promote such high quality matrices is to work with rural social movements. Their ideas are at odds with the major trends of some of the large conservation organizations that emphasize targeted land purchases of protected areas. They argue that recent advances in ecological research make such a general approach anachronistic and call, rather, for solidarity with the small farmers around the world who are currently struggling to attain food sovereignty. Nature's Matrix proposes a radically new approach to the conservation of biodiversity based on recent advances in the science of ecology plus political realities, particularly in the world's tropical regions. © Dr Ivette Perfecto, Dr John Vandermeer and Dr Angus Wright, 2009. All rights reserved.
Windbreaks are a major component of successful agricultural systems throughout the world. The focus of this chapter is on temperate-zone, commercial, agricultural systems in North America, where windbreaks contribute to both producer profitability and environmental quality by increasing crop production while simultaneously reducing the level of off-farm inputs. They help control erosion and blowing snow, improve animal health and survival under winter conditions, reduce energy consumption of the farmstead unit, and enhance habitat diversity, providing refuges for predatory birds and insects. On a larger landscape scale windbreaks provide habitat for various types of wildlife and have the potential to contribute significant benefits to the carbon balance equation, easing the economic burdens associated with climate change. For a windbreak to function properly, it must be designed with the needs of the landowner in mind. The ability of a windbreak to meet a specific need is determined by its structure: both external structure, width, height, shape, and orientation as well as the internal structure; the amount and arrangement of the branches, leaves, and stems of the trees or shrubs in the windbreak. In response to windbreak structure, wind flow in the vicinity of a windbreak is altered and the microclimate in sheltered areas is changed; temperatures tend to be slightly higher and evaporation is reduced. These types of changes in microclimate can be utilized to enhance agricultural sustainability and profitability. While specific mechanisms of the shelter response remain unclear and are topics for further research, the two biggest challenges we face are: developing a better understanding of why producers are reluctant to adopt windbreak technology and defining the role of woody plants in the agricultural landscape.
Interactions between organisms are a major determinant of the distribution and abundance of species. Ecology textbooks (e.g., Ricklefs 1984, Krebs 1985, Begon et al. 1990) summarise these important interactions as intra- and interspecific competition for abiotic and biotic resources, predation, parasitism and mutualism. Conspicuously lacking from the list of key processes in most text books is the role that many organisms play in the creation, modification and maintenance of habitats. These activities do not involve direct trophic interactions between species, but they are nevertheless important and common. The ecological literature is rich in examples of habitat modification by organisms, some of which have been extensively studied (e.g. Thayer 1979, Naiman et al. 1988).
Vegetation filters of fast-growing trees such as willows and poplars are becoming important as an alternative to conventional treatment of wastewater and landfill leachate. Short-rotation willow coppice is a non-edible crop and has many of the requirements for a suitable vegetation filter. The filtering capacity (e.g., of nitrogen) is very high, and the crop promotes denitrification in the root zone. It has a highly selective uptake of heavy metals, especially cadmium, which enables remediation of contaminated soils. In addition, willows have a high evapotranspiration rate facilitating high loads, e.g., of polluted landfill leachate. Because of the pathogens present in municipal wastewater and sludge, special attention must be paid to storage and distribution of wastewater. In many cases vegetation filters are more cost-effective than conventional treatment methods and also facilitate recycling of valuable resources in society.
1. The diversity and abundance of airborne arthropods in a silvoarable agroforestry system with associated forestry and arable control areas in northern England was investigated with yellow water-pan traps. The agroforestry system consisted of alleys of arable crop (peas) separated by production hedges of 3-year-old furniture-timber trees (ash, cherry, sycamore and walnut) and hazel bushes. 2. The most common taxa were more abundant in the agroforestry system than in the adjoining arable control area containing the same arable crop. 3. The diversity of aerial arthropods as measured by the log-series index was also higher in the agroforestry system than in the arable control area. 4. Comparison of diversity around one tree species, sycamore, showed that trees grown at forestry density were better able to provide higher arthropod diversity at the beginning of the cropping season whereas those in production hedges were better later in the cropping season. 5. Studies on the population dynamics of insect pests and their natural enemies in the pea crop suggested that the production hedges can play an important part in attracting and maintaining populations of natural enemies close to an adjacent arable crop.
A paired watershed study consisting of agroforestry (trees plus grass buffer strips), contour strips (grass buffer strips), and control treatments with a corn (Zea mays L.)-soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] rotation was used to examine treatment effects on runoff, sediment, and nutrient losses. During the (1991-1997) calibration and subsequent three-year treatment periods, runoff was measured in 0.91-and 1.37-m H-flumes with bubbler flow meters. Composite samples were analyzed for sediment, total phosphorus (TP), total nitrogen (TN), nitrate, and ammonium. Calibration equations developed to predict runoff, sediment, and nutrients losses explained 66 to 97% of the variability between treatment watersheds. The contour strip and agroforestry treatments reduced runoff by 10 and 1% during the treatment period. In both treatments, most runoff reductions occurred in the second and third years after treatment establishment. The contour strip treatment reduced erosion by 19% in 1999, while erosion in the agroforestry treatment exceeded the predicted loss. Treatments reduced TP loss by 8 and 17% on contour strip and agroforestry watersheds. Treatments did not result in reductions in TN during the first two years of the treatment period. The contour strip and agroforestry treatments reduced TN loss by 21 and 20%, respectively, during a large precipitation event in the third year. During the third year of treatments, nitrate N loss was reduced 24 and 37% by contour strip and agroforestry treatments. Contour strip and agroforestry management practices effectively reduced nonpoint-source pollution in runoff from a corn-soybean rotation in the clay pan soils of northeastern Missouri.
A Paulownia-winter wheat intercropping experiment with the object of quantifying photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) and its effect on wheat yield was conducted 60 km south of Zhengzhou (35°N 113°E), Henan Province, PR China, from September 1991 to July 1992 using a tree and crop interface approach. The middle row of three 240 m long rows of 11-year-old trees was studied for its effects on the yield of irrigated and fertilized winter wheat. Photosynthetic photon flux density (Qp) was quantified using a split-plot design with four blocks. There were four distance (subplot) treatments (2.5 m, 5 m, 10 m and 20 m) and two direction (main plot) treatments laid out to the east and west of a north-south tree line. Results showed no difference in direction effects but Qp did affect total grain weight (P = 0.0047) between 2.5 m and 20 m. A regression equation was fit using the mean for each distance treatment: Y = 391.7 + 4.57X with r2 = 0.9310 indicating a yield increase of 4.57 g m−2 (45.7 kg ha−1) over a distance of 2.5 m to 20 m from the trees.
Soil bacterial and fungal dynamics were measured in an alley cropping system using direct microscopy techniques. The alley cropping system involved hedgerows of alder trees (Alnus rubra) and sweet corn (Zea mays) grown in the alleys. Trees were periodically coppiced and prunings were incorporated into the soil as green manure. Active fungal and bacterial biomass were greatest in tree rows and declined with distance from the trees. Active fungal biomass was greatest at the first year July sampling, ranging from 44μggdry soil−1 in the tree row to 22μggdry soil−1 in the middle of the alley. Bacterial biomass in all sampling locations peaked during May before coppicing of trees and cultivation of the alley. Bacterial and fungal biomass in the middle of the alley were similar to sweet corn monocropping plots throughout the growing season. The results suggested that the relatively low pruning biomass that can be produced and incorporated into the soil of temperate climate alley cropping systems compared to tropical alley cropping systems has little effect on microbial biomass. However, additional green manure in the form of leaf fall, additional below ground substrate from tree roots, and favorable conditions in untilled tree rows contribute to higher soil fungal and bacterial counts in and near the tree rows.
Cornfields studied in Iowa and Illinois were bounded either by predominantly herbaceous vegetation or by woodland. Fifty bird species were observed in woodland edges compared with 23 in herbaceous edges; bird abundance in woodland edges was >7 times that in herbaceous edges. Although the number of bird species and the number of birds were less in cornfields than in adjacent edge habitats, either bird species richness nor total bird abundance in cornfields was influenced significantly by the type of edge habitat (herbaceous vs. woodland). Bird species composition within cornfleids bordered by herbaceous habitat differed from that in cornfields adjacent to woodland habitat. More bird species and c5 times more birds used the perimeters of cornfields than the centers, demonstrating a significant edge effect. Consequently, bird abundance in cornfields decreases logarithmically as field size increases. Most of the bird species that used cornfields regularly or occasionally are ground-feeding omnivores during the breeding season; the species that rarely or never frequented cornfields are mainly insectivores that forage on woody vegetation. Continuing land-use practices that increase crop field size and eliminate woody vegetation from edge habitats will affect both the species richness and abundance of the avifauna associated with cornfields. -from Authors
The false spruce webworm, Cephalcia abietis L., causes severe defoliation of Norway spruce in the central European uplands. A concept for its integrated control is proposed, with two kinds of control. Fencing wild boars in an outbreaks site for one year at a density of about 1 animal/ha has provided a 70% reduction of ecnymph density in the ground. The entomophilic nematode Steinernema kraussei Steiner, an indigenous parasite of Cephalia eonymphs and pupae, is sensitive to soil acidity. Values below pH 4.0 are detrimental, but ranges between pH 5.0 and 7.0 are favourable. Considering extreme soil acidification as the reason for continuous suppression of the parasitic nematodes, the application of neutralizing fertilizers was tested in the field as a method to augment nematode populations. Three months after fertilizer treatment, nematode density in soil and parasitization rate of Cephalcia econymphs increased significantly. The usefulness of these methods for IPM of Cephalcia abietis is briefly discussed.
Windbreaks provide substantial benefits in the production of orchard and vineyard crops. Year-round protection is critical to the survival and proper development of trees and vines. Tall windbreaks may cause the microclimate within the orchard to become isolated from the atmosphere above the orchard. This decoupling enhances the orchard microclimate, thus improving conditions for pollination and fruit set which in turn result in greater yields. Reductions in windspeed within the orchard reduce the amount of mechanical damage caused by the whipping of leaves, branches, buds, flowers and fruits. This improves fruit quality and results in substantial economic gain. In addition, windbreaks reduce tree deformation and root breakage in young fruit trees.Proper windbreak design and careful selection of windbreak species will increase flexibility in orchard and vineyard management. Reduced windspeed allows for timely application and efficient use of pesticide. Water management is enhanced owing to more efficient water distribution and reduced evaporation. With proper design, windbreaks may also aid in frost management.
A frequently cited habitat diversification tactic is the use of prune tree refuges that support overwintering populations of Anagrus epos (Girault), a mymarid egg parasite of the western grape leafhopper, Erythroneura elegantula Osborn, in vineyards. Here we test the effect of prune trees on early-season abundance of adult A. epos in vineyards. A. epos was found in vineyards downwind of prune trees at more than twice the densities of vineyards lacking prune trees, despite significant variation in A. epos immigration from sources outside the pnme tree-vineyard system. Densities of A. epos overwintering within prune trees explained a significant amount of the variation in A. epos trap capture in vineyards. Furthermore, another factor associated with prune trees was found to influence A. epos abundance in vineyards: a windbreak effect created by the prune trees concentrated dispersing A. epos on the leeward side of the prune trees, thereby further enhancing A. epos numbers.
In order to obtain a better knowledge of the behaviour of the domestic pig, a small population was established in 1978 near Edinburgh in an enclosure with several types of habitat, including woodland and bog. Over a 3·5-year period 13 different groups were studied with each group typically containing a boar, four sows, a young sub-adult boar and an immature gilt. The sow and her piglets were allowed to determine the time of weaning and, apart from providing food for maintenance and reproduction, handling was kept to a minimum. The behaviour of these pigs, which included most of the behaviour of the European wild boar, is described in a general manner for the non-specialist.
Criteria for evaluating different intercropping situations are suggested, and the Land Equivalent Ratio (LER) concept is considered for situations where intercropping must be compared with growing each crop sole. The need to use different standardizing sole crop yields in forming LERs is discussed, and a method of calculating an ‘effective LER’ is proposed to evaluate situations where the yield proportions achieved in intercropping are different from those that might be required by a farmer. The possible importance of effective LERs in indicating the proportions of crops likely to give biggest yield advantages is discussed.
One of the key questions of primary importance to global agriculture and food security is how to optimize sustainable intensification to balance competing demands on land for food and energy production, while ensuring the provision of ecosystem services and maintaining or increasing yields. Integrating trees and agriculture through agroforestry has been attracting increasing interest as an agroecological approach to sustainable intensification. Trees have traditionally been important elements of temperate agricultural systems around the world, but there has been increasing separation of agriculture, forestry and nature over the past few decades. This paper discusses what we can learn from traditional agroforestry systems to help develop modern systems that integrate ecological farming and agroecological advances to achieve sustainable intensification. We also discuss the existing barriers to wider adoption of agroforestry, and identify how these barriers can be overcome to promote agroforestry as a mainstream land-use system.
Spiders are important predators of insect pests. Some species invariably dominate spider communities in crop fields over large parts of Europe, and are therefore considered as "agrobionts". It is however not clear if these species generally prefer arable habitats, or to what degree they utilize other habitats during times when crops are inhospitable. Here, spider abundances in 26 crop fields and 16 perennial habitats in Germany were compared during spring. Overall spider abundance in winter wheat was 75% lower than in perennial habitats, and species richness was reduced by 46%. Out of a total of 91 species, 73 had higher densities in perennial habitats, including the most dominant crop spiders Erigone atra and Tenuiphantes tenuis. Only one species (Oedothorax apicatus) was significantly more abundant in crops than in perennial habitats. Hence, the high dominance of most "agrobiont" species in crops was due to low densities of other species, and not to their own higher abundances. Therefore, perennial habitats adjacent to crop-fields could enhance spider populations and their potential for biological control in arable fields on a landscape level.
This chapter gives an account of surviving European agroforestry practices, and presents case studies that are representative of current agroforestry research in Europe. Shelterbelts are not included since they have already been reviewed extensively elsewhere, but they remain prominent agroforestry systems in the region. Neither is short rotation coppice for energy or fibre included as it is regarded as a monocrop rather than an agroforestry system. The main systems addressed are forest grazing, trees on pasture plantations (described as 'new' silvopastoral systems), silvoarable plantations (agrosilvicultural systems), and the use of fodder trees.
1. Phratora vulgatissima is the most serious pest of willow grown as short‐rotation coppice in Britain. The effects of genetically diverse plantations of willow on beetle density, damage and oviposition were studied in a field trial containing monocultures of willow varieties with different willow beetle susceptibility, and mixtures which differed in number and spatial configuration of varieties. In addition, P. vulgatissima adults were introduced to potted willows in cages in a glasshouse as either a monoculture or a mixture of three varieties, and damage and oviposition were recorded.
2. Beetle density, damage and oviposition in the field were generally lower in mixtures than in monocultures, especially with five varieties rather than three and random structural composition rather than regular. In the caged experiment, where beetles could not migrate, there were no significant differences between the monoculture and the mixture for mean damage or oviposition on the two susceptible varieties.
3. Over time, the average beetle density per tree in the field increased in the monocultures of susceptible varieties, yet decreased in the mixtures. The behavioural response of P. vulgatissima to vegetational diversity was consistent with the resource concentration hypothesis, with lower colonization in, and increased emigration from, mixtures compared with monocultures.
4. Genetically and spatially diverse willow mixtures provide a sound basis for pest management due to the propensity for movement by the beetles. As each movement necessitates the location of a new host plant, it is more difficult for beetles to find favourable varieties in a genetically diverse mixture than in a monoculture.
5. Adult P. vulgatissima occur in mobile aggregations, so pest and damage surveys must be intensive and cover a wide time interval. An option for pest management is a mixture of five willow varieties, at least one of which has low susceptibility to the willow beetle, grown in a random planting of varieties. The choice of variety is important, especially the susceptibility to the rust disease, as are physiological interactions between varieties that might affect beetle ecology.
1. Alternative farming practices such as set-aside and agroforestry are likely to be of continuing interest to European agriculture but may have associated problems, such as increased populations of crop pests such as slugs.
2. A silvoarable agroforestry experiment has been in progress since 1987 at Leeds University Farms at Bramham, West Yorkshire, UK. It consists of four replicate blocks, each with rows of trees separating alleys of arable crops; all four blocks have their own arable control areas in adjacent fields.
3. Pitfall trap catches within the experiment indicate that the slug population increased over the period 1991–94. The increase was greatest, and most consistent, within the tree rows in the agroforestry blocks. The increase was slower and less consistent in the arable controls and the arable areas within the agroforestry blocks.
4. In spring 1994, the slugs in each of the treatments in the agroforestry experimental area were sampled using pipe traps, refuge traps and pitfall traps. The number and diversity of slugs were highest in the grassed understorey beneath the rows of trees and significantly higher in the alleys between the rows of trees than in the arable control areas.
5. The levels of slug damage to a pea crop were assessed by surveys that recorded the number of emerging plants and the number of damaged leaves per plant. There were significant correlations between the number of slugs caught and the damage to the crop by slugs. It is concluded that slugs have the potential to be important pests of some crops in silvoarable agroforestry landscapes and that this could influence the choice of crops for this type of farming.
6. Major conclusions are emboldened in the Discussion.
1. Egg parasitoids in the genus Anagrus (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae) are important mortality factors for grape leafhoppers (Erythroneura elegantula; Homoptera: Cicadellidae) in California vineyards, yet must overwinter in habitats external to these vineyards. Existing evidence suggests that French prune trees, which harbour the overwintering host Edwardsiana prunicola, planted adjacent to vineyards may enhance early-season abundance of Anagrus.
2. Anagrus overwintering in French prune tree refuges were labelled with the trace element rubidium in four separate experiments. Rubidium-labelled Anagrus were captured in adjacent vineyards in two of the experiments, confirming that French prune trees contribute to early-season Anagrus populations. Anagrus from refuges were captured at the most distant sampling positions, 100 m from refuges.
3. Use of rare element labelling has, for the first time, enabled the relative contribution of different sources to early-season colonization by this parasitoid to be quantified. Refuges contributed 1% and 34% of Anagrus colonizing two of the experimental vineyards, respectively. The remainder originated from overwintering habitats external to the French prune/vineyard system.
4. The spatial patterns of Anagrus originating from external overwintering habitats suggest that the French prune trees are generating a ‘windbreak effect’. Anagrus dispersing within the windstream colonized vineyards at a higher-than-average rate immediately downwind of refuges.
5. The amount of colonization by Anagrus from external overwintering habitats was apparently related to the distance to presumed overwintering habitats. These findings demonstrate that both the number of natural enemies emerging from a refuge and the composition of the surrounding landscape are important in determining the impact of local, small-scale habitat manipulations.
The potential ecological benefits of an alternative agronomic practice such as alley cropping are numerous, but the practice is unlikely to be adopted unless it is economically viable. We investigated insect pest dynamics, crop yields, and small farm economics in an alley cropping practice of alfalfa and black walnut compared to conventionally grown alfalfa. We examined the mortality factors affecting alfalfa weevil, Hypera postica (Gyllenhal), under normal monocultural alfalfa management and under an agroforestry practice of intercropping alfalfa with black walnut trees at two alley widths, 12.2 and 24.4 m. Alfalfa yields were determined for three harvest cycles over 2 years in the same system. Black walnut and alfalfa financial models were used to determine the economic viability of alfalfa-black walnut alley cropping based on yield results. We found that alfalfa weevil mortality was significantly higher for two of the four sampling dates in alley cropped alfalfa compared to monocropped alfalfa. Alfalfa yield from wider alleyways was not significantly different from monocropped alfalfa for the first harvest date, but lower thereafter, while yield from narrower alleyways was significantly lower than both wider alleyways and monocropped alfalfa. Financial models indicated alley cropping alfalfa at wider alley widths provided positive cash flow. Our results suggest alley cropping alfalfa with black walnut provides both ecological and economic benefits.
The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) of the United Nations (UN) are at the heart of the global development agenda. This chapter examines the role of agroforestry research and development (R&D) in light of the MDGs. It reviews some of the ways in which agroforestry is substantively assisting to achieve the goals and discusses how the agenda can be realigned to further increase its effectiveness in helping developing countries to meet their MDG targets. Promising agroforestry pathways to increase on-farm food production and income contribute to the first MDG, which aims to cut the number of hungry and desperately poor by at least half by 2015. Such pathways include fertilizer tree systems for smallholders with limited access to adequate crop nutrients, and expanded tree cropping and improved tree product processing and marketing. These advances can also help address lack of enterprise opportunities on small-scale farms, inequitable returns to small-scale farmers (especially women), child malnutrition, and national tree-product deficits (especially timber). The rate of return to investment in research on tree crops is quite high (88%); but enterprise development and enhancement of tree-product marketing has been badly neglected. The products, processing, and marketing of tree products and services, through tree domestication and the commercialization of their products is a new frontier for agroforestry R&D. A major role for agroforestry also is emerging in the domain of environmental services. This entails the development of mechanisms to reward the rural poor for the environmental services such as watershed protection and carbon sequestration that they provide to society. Agroforestry R&D is contributing to virtually all of the MDGs. But recognition for that role must be won by ensuring that more developing countries have national agroforestry strategies, and that agroforestry is a recognized part of their programs to achieve the MDGs.
Agroforestry is an appealing option for sequestering carbon on agricultural lands because it can sequester significant amounts
of carbon while leaving the bulk of the land in agricultural production. Simultaneously, it can help landowners and society
address many other issues facing these lands, such as economic diversification, biodiversity, and water quality. Nonetheless,
agroforestry remains under-recognized as a greenhouse gas mitigation option for agriculture in the US. Reasons for this include
the limited information-base and number of tools agroforestry can currently offer as compared to that produced from the decades-worth
of investment in agriculture and forestry, and agroforestry’s cross-cutting nature that puts it at the interface of agriculture
and forestry where it is not strongly supported or promoted by either. Agroforestry research is beginning to establish the
scientific foundation required for building carbon accounting and modeling tools, but more progress is needed before it is
readily accepted within agricultural greenhouse gas mitigation programs and, further, incorporated into the broader scope
of sustainable agricultural management. Agroforestry needs to become part of the agricultural tool box and not viewed as something
separate from it. Government policies and programs driving research direction and investment are being formulated with or
without data in order to meet pressing needs. Enhanced communication of agroforestry’s carbon co-benefit, as well as the other
benefits afforded by these plantings, will help elevate agroforestry awareness within these discussions. This will be especially
crucial in deliberations on such broad sweeping natural resource programs as the US Farm Bill.
Although silvopastoral systems involving pigs were once widespread in Britain, the practice has largely died out. However,
recent changes in pig production techniques, consumer demands and the economic climate within which farmers operate, have
led to renewed interest in both traditional and novel tree-pig systems. This paper describes a financial spreadsheet model
(MAST) that was developed to: provide a means of determining financial performance of integrating finishing pigs with natural
woodland; identify the likely importance of different as yet largely unresearched animal-tree interactions; and, determine
which interactions warrant attention in research and management. Preliminary analysis suggests that the financial performance
of this agroforestry enterprise could be superior to that of a pasture-based enterprise. The most important factors in determining
incremental performance are identified as sales premia for ‘forest-reared’ pork, changes to feed conversion ratios arising
from the provision of a heterogeneous microclimate, and the availability of cheaper land rents.
The potential of veterinary antibiotics (VAs) to impact human and environmental health requires the development and evaluation of land management practices that mitigate VA loss from manure-treated agroecosystems. Vegetative buffer strips (VBS) are postulated to be one management tool that can reduce VA transport to surface water resources. The objectives of this study were to (1) investigate oxytetracycline (OTC) and sulfadimethoxine (SDT) sorption to agroforestry buffer, grass buffer, and cropland soils, (2) evaluate differences in VA sorption to soils collected from different vegetative management and soil series, and (3) elucidate relationships between soil properties and VA sorption. Sorption/extraction isotherms for OTC were well-fitted by the Freundlich isotherm model (r
2 > 0.86). OTC was strongly adsorbed by all soils and the VA was not readily extractable. OTC and SDT solid to solution partition coefficients (K
d) values are significantly greater for soils planted to VBS relative to grain crops. Significant differences in OTC and SDT K
d values were also noted among the soil series studied. Linear regression analyses indicate that clay content and pH were the most important soil properties controlling OTC and SDT adsorption, respectively. Results from this study suggest that agroforestry and grass buffer strips may effectively mitigate antibiotic loss from agroecosystems, in part, due to enhanced antibiotic sorption properties.
Little information is available on soil respiration and microbial biomass in soils under agroforestry systems. We measured soil respiration rate and microbial biomass under two age classes (young and old) of a pecan (Carya illinoinensis) — cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) alley cropping system, two age classes of pecan orchards, and a cotton monoculture on a well-drained, Redbay sandy loam (a fine-loamy, siliceous, thermic Rhodic Paleudult) in southern USA. Soil respiration was quantified monthly during the growing season from May to November 2001 using the soda-lime technique and was corrected based on infrared gas analyzer (IRGA) measurements. The overall soil respiration rates ranged from 177 to 776 mg CO2 m–2 h–1. During the growing season, soil respiration was higher in the old alley cropping system than in the young alley cropping system, the old pecan orchard, the young pecan orchard, and the monoculture. Microbial biomass C was higher in the old alley cropping system (375 mg C kg–1) and in the old pecan orchard (376 mg C kg–1) compared to the young alley cropping system (118 mg C kg–1), young pecan orchard (88 mg C kg–1), and the cotton monoculture (163 mg C kg–1). Soil respiration was correlated positively with soil temperature, microbial biomass, organic matter, and fine root biomass. The effect of alley cropping on soil properties during the brief history of alley cropping was not significant except in the old systems, where there was a trend of increasing soil respiration with short-term alley cropping. Over time, different land use and management practices influenced soil properties such as soil temperature, moisture, microbial biomass, organic matter, and fine root biomass, which in turn affected the magnitude of soil respiration. Our results suggest that trees in agroforestry systems have the potential to enhance soil fertility and sustainability of farmlands by improving soil microbial activity and accreting residual soil carbon.
We tested the economic value of ecological knowledge in a midwestern USA alley-cropping system where row crops are planted in alleys between fine hardwood trees grown for veneer. Economic models were constructed to compare among agroforestry designs as well as to compare agroforestry with traditional forest plantation culture and row crop monoculture and rotational management. The general modeling approach was to quantify production inputs and outputs, estimate costs and revenues, simulate tree growth and crop productivity in agroforestry configurations, and estimate discounted cash flows. We incorporated scenarios that controlled both above- and below-ground competition through appropriate management as found in our previous research. This research showed the importance of below-ground competition in determining crop yields and the period of time that crop income could be expected from the agroforestry interplanting. Net present values and internal rates of return showed that agroforestry systems were generally more favorable investments than traditional agriculture and forestry. More importantly, the use of simple management techniques targeted at reducing below-ground competition allowed longer cultivation of row crops, greatly increasing returns to the landowner. Thus, the economic benefit of understanding the ecological interactions within agroforestry plantings dictates that accurate assessment of agroforestry alternatives will require the modeling of agroforestry as an integrated, interactive system.