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Points and Lines: Thematic Parallelism in the Letter of James and the Testament of Job
Abstract
This study re-examines the proverbial ‘patience of Job’, its function in the letter of James, and the hypothesis that the author derives the motif from the pseudepigraphical Testament
of
Job. Particular attention is paid to the use and abuse of the category of parallelism in the study of the NT and the literature of antiquity. While there is not sufficient evidence to settle the source-critical question, the recontextualization of the Job tradition in James sheds light on the relationship between eschatology and ethics in early Christianity and Hellenistic Judaism.
New Testament authors frequently engage with Old Testament characters for various reasons: to be exemplars, to learn from them, to motivate the readers, to encourage the readers, only to name a few. This practice of engagement prompts various spiritualities (‘lived experiences’) in both the reading of those texts and in the lifestyles of readers. In this research, the epistle of James has been chosen to investigate the spirituality of endurance emerging from and generated by the reference to the endurance of Job in James 5:11 as a protagonist of ‘faith’, ‘wisdom’ and ‘endurance’ for his readers. The consequent modus operandi of this research includes: firstly, an Introduction of orientation; secondly, a brief outline of the socio-historical circumstances of the Greco-Roman world; thirdly, a discourse analysis of James 5:7–12 to introduce the spirituality of endurance; fourthly, the exploration of various literary devices present in this pericope, which both engender spiritualities emerging from the reference to Job, and facilitate a reader’s experiential participation in ‘how the Lord is compassionate and merciful’ (Jm 5:11) during personal difficult circumstances.Contribution: The first contribution points out how sufficiently and successfully James has incorporated several aspects from the Book of Job (life characteristics and circumstances) to strengthen the faith of his readers and to encourage them to endure in their difficult socio-economic circumstances. A second contribution points out and applies various literary devices that emerge from the Greco-Roman rhetoric in the text. These devices engender spiritualities surrounding the reference to Job in this pericope. This is to assist readers to take advantage of these linguistic devices, wisely and carefully applied by James, to experience the ‘outcome [τέλος] of the Lord’ (Jm 5:11) by means of faith, prayer, hope, patience and endurance during difficult circumstances.
Scholarly confusion about what James had in mind when describing Job as an example of hypomone (fortitude) has been the subject of much debate. This scholarly article argues that James intentionally raises the figure of Job as a representation for those who experience suffering. The study adopts a hermeneutic approach to explore the linguistic and theological dimensions underlying the choice of Job as the main symbol of the issue of suffering. The findings indicate that James evidently utilizes the figure of Job as a symbol of solidarity and hope for his congregational community who are facing suffering. Job is portrayed as a figure who is steadfast and hopeful in the face of suffering, providing an example for people who are suffering to always be patient and have faith in God's plan. Through the reference to Job, James wanted to affirm the afflicted congregation that they are not alone, but there is solidarity from God and others who are also experiencing similar suffering. This gives optimism that the suffering will end and God will restore their condition. This study also found that James' choice of the figure of Job has a deep theological meaning, which is to affirm the belief in a loving and merciful God, who has the best plan for His people even through the path of suffering.
Although the letter of James was written to an urban audience, it incorporates examples from nature and agricultural motifs, such as springs and trees (3:11–12), field labourers and harvesters (5:4), and the patient farmer (5:7) who bears similarity to the steadfast Job (5:11) and prayerful Elijah (5:17–18), into the text. This article argues that this agrarian imagery is a literary trope—sometimes subtle and at other times obvious—that serves as a contrast to negative phenomena associated with the city. The opposition apparent in James coheres with the tendency among Graeco-Roman writers to contrast the rural/natural with the urban/artificial. Such a pattern of images supports some of the letter's moral directives.
The soteriology of James should not be evaluated or described in terms of any other soteriology in the New Testament. In the past this has led to a very negative indictment of James, like Luther's statement that James is a “book of straw”. Many modern day scholars still judge James negatively in terms of other New Testament writings as being not sophisticated, not Christological and so on. In this article I argue that this is indeed correct to judge James like this: The letter does not present a sophisticated theology or soteriology or Christology and is closely aligned to Jewish Wisdom writings. But this is not a negative, as so many seems tot believe. James is theologically not on the same par as Paul or the majority of the other New Testament writings. It represents a much earlier stage of theological development. It is a window on a faith under construction, and if James is viewed in this light, the book's unique contribution to the Christian faith can be fully appreciated.
The dissertation argues that the disablement and “repair” of Job’s body in T. Job mark the transformations of his masculine identity over the course of the narrative. In the chapters leading up to his ordeal, Job represents the preeminent male figure in ancient society—an able-bodied king who realizes his masculinity through his mastery over the social world. With the onset of his ordeal, Job’s authority quickly evaporates, as Satan destroys the system of brokerage through which Job once demonstrated his public dominance. Satan finally assails Job with a debilitating plague, signaling Job’s loss of control over his own physical body; the final demise of his former masculine identity is complete. But the writer does not leave Job emasculated in a paralyzed and diseased body. Rather, Job turns inward to realize his masculinity by enduring the pains of his body through the practice of self-control. So valuable is his new masculine identity, that Job, in ironic fashion, not only resists the efforts of his able-bodied antagonists (i.e. Satan and the four kings) to take control of his docile body, but ultimately shames them in turn. With Job’s physical restoration at the narrative’s denouement, however, the narrative most clearly promotes its conception of what authentic masculinity entails. While Job can claim to his children that he is a man of endurance (1:3), his restoration both as a benefactor and an able-bodied man indicates that the hegemonic masculine ideal has not been entirely replaced. Rather, this final portrait of Job promotes a hybrid form of masculinity which necessitates mastery over both his soul and others. In so doing, T. Job reinforces to its readership that full-functionality really is a defining feature of authentic masculinity.
Das Testament des Hiob (im folgenden TH) ist 1967 von S. P. Brock2 neu ediert worden. Damit liegt jetzt eine maßgebliche Text-ausgabe vor, die zwar auch wie die alte von M. R. James3 aus dem Jahre 1897 den Parisinus graecus 2658 fol 72r-97r (11. Jh.) zugrunde legte, aber doch über die Varianten des Vaticanus graecus 1238 fol 340r-349v (vom Jahre 1195) hinaus noch eine weitere Handschrift Messanensis von St. Salvator 29 fol 35v-41v (vom Jahre 1307) aufnahm und, wo es sich empfahl, auch die altslawischen Versionen be-rücksichtigte.