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The effect of different proportions of carob pod meal in the diet on the performance of calves and goats
Abstract
Four trials with 24 and 38 British Friesian male calves, 39 male Damascus kids and 36 lactating Damascus goats were conducted over a period of 9 months, 6·5 months, 3 months and 12 weeks respectively to study the effects of carob pod meal on growth rate or milk yield. Carob pod meal was used to replace barley at rates from 0 to 30% of the diet. Urea was added to the diets of some of the treatments as a source of supplementary nitrogen.
The final weights and average daily gains of the calves and kids fed on carob pod meal were as good as those of the controls but their feed intakes and feed conversion ratios were higher. The differences in fat-corrected milk between the goats fed on carob pod meal and the controls were not significant. The results showed that carob pod meal constituting up to 30% of the diet had no depressing effects on the growth rate of calves and kids or on the performance of dairy goats, and that the calves and kids could compensate for the lower energy content of carob pod meal by increasing their feed intake.
... Η προσθήκη χαρουπιών σε ποσοστό άνω του 25% στο σιτηρέσιο γαλακτοπαραγωγών αγελάδων δεν μεί ωσε την παραγωγή του γάλατος (Piccioni 1989). Επί σης, η χρήση των χαρουπιών σε παχυνόμενα μοσχάρια δεν επηρέασε την αύξηση του σωματικού βάρους τους και την απόδοση σε σφάγιο (Louca & Papas 1973). ...
... Ακόμη, σε πειραματισμό με αίγες σε γαλακτοπα ραγωγή, η αντικατάσταση του αλεσμένου κριθαριού από χαρούπια σε ποσοστό άνω του 30% δεν μείωσε σημαντικά τη γαλακτοπαραγωγή τους (Louca & Papas 1973). Σε άλλη μελέτη που διεξήγαγαν οι Silanikove et al. (1996) σε αίγες οι οποίες διατράφηκαν ημερη σίως με χαρούπια, βελανίδια και φυστίκια, που προ σέφεραν συμπυκνωμένες ταννίνες σε ποσότητα 1,1 g/kg Σ.Β., 1,8 g/kg Σ.Β. ...
The carob tree belongs to the nutrient plants and it is known since antiquity as a native plant of Greece. Its scientific name Ceratonia siliqua, originates from the Greek word "keraton" which means "horn", and which indicates the shape of its fruit. The carob tree is an evergreen, long-lived, polygamous, monoecious or dioecious. It is easily cultivated and thrives in all types of soil, except the humid and non-affluent. The wood, the bark and the leaves of carob have different uses. The fruit of the carob tree, the carob, is a lobe and it is 10-30 cm long and 2-3 cm wide with a brown and leathery exocarp and a fleshy and juicy mesocarp, in which 8 to 16 oval, flattened, hard and shiny reddish seeds are enclosed. The collection of the fruits must be finished before the winter rains. The fruits fall from the tree by themselves or by caning. A 6 years old carob tree can produce 2.25 kg carobs, while a 12 years old tree can produce 45 kg or more. The annual Greek carob production for the year 2005 was 14,816 tons, while the average yield was 9.8 kg/tree. The world carob production is about 315,000 tons/year. The carobs have low total fat and crude protein content, but high sugar content. The carobs' characteristic odor is due to their isobutyric acid content (1.3%). Furthermore, they include an unusually large amount of tannins, 16-20% of which are polyphenols and 27-50% of which are bound with cellulose. The tannins are a complex group of secondary metabolites of plants and are separated from other polyphenol compounds due to their ability to create sediment with proteins. The presence of tannin in feed reduces the nutrients' digestibility and has a negative effect on body weight gain. However, tannins can also have positive effects depending on their biological potency, because they have the ability to prevent bacterial, fungal and yeast growth. Carobs and their by-products have a considerable fibre content (average 8%) and therefore they can be included in supplementary ruminant rations up to 20% - 30%. Experiments carried out by adding carobs in broiler feeds resulted in decreased body weight gain and increased feed conversion ratio, probably because of the high cellulose and tannin content of the carob. Nevertheless, if the broiler's ration is enriched with fats or oils and synthetic amino acids, these birds show normal weight gain, but with a high feed conversion ratio. The carobs can be included up to 10% - 20% in the ration of pigs. Also, since the carobs have high sugar content, they can increase the feed consumption of the piglets and they can replace other sugar feeds with high sugar content (dextrose, starch, milk powder) without adversely affecting the feed intake. Greece produces a considerable quantity of carobs every year, therefore a part of this production could be utilized as animal feed
... The protein has a low digestibility because it is bound with tannins and fibre (Loo 1969). Some researchers have suggested that condensed tannins account for observed growth-depressing effects on animals fed with a diet high in carob meal (Kamarinou et al. 1979) while others believe that this effect is due to its low energy content for which animals can compensate by increasing consumption (Louca and Papas 1973). Constituents of the seed are (by weight): coat (30-33%), endosperm (42-46%) and embryo or germ (23-25%) (Neukom 1988). ...
... Pods also contain from 0.46 to 1.46% crude fat (Binder et al. 1959) and 2.6-6.7% tannins by dry weight (Louca and Papas 1973; Marakis et al. 1988). The pulp is the main constituent of the pod. ...
... En la alimentación, en condiciones intensivas durante 12 semanas, de cabras lecheras de raza "Damasco", Louca y 95. Papas (1973) encontraron resultados parecidos a los obtenidos en el vacuno, al utilizar O, 15 y 30% de Pulpa de Garrofa en la x-ación (con y sin Urea en el caso del 30%, al 17% de PB en la ración). Así, aunque la producción total de leche y la cantidad total de grasa producidas, mostraron una tendencia a su disminución (211, 198 y 182 litros; 8.6, 7.8 y 7.9 kg), sólo significativa en la ración del 30% con Urea, el consumo total de alimento no se vio modificado (176 kg/cabra). ...
... El empleo de las mismas proporciones (0.15 y 30%) de Pulpa de Garrofa, en raciones de cebo de cabritos (14-15% PB) de raza "Damasco" y 22 kg de peso, durante 90 días de engorde, no afectó significativamente a la velocidad de crecimiento (220, 210 y 220 g/día respectivamente) ni al rendimiento a la canal (58, 59 y 58%), pero por el contrario aumentó el consumo de alimento (1.11, 1.12 y 1.26 kg/dia) y el indice de conversión (5.1, 5.5 y 5.9 kg de pienso/kg de peso), a razón de 0.4 unidades por cada 15% de Pulpa de Garrofa (Louca y Papas, 1973). ...
... The protein has a low digestibility because it is bound with tannins and fibre (Loo 1969). Some researchers have suggested that condensed tannins account for observed growth-depressing effects on animals fed with a diet high in carob meal (Kamarinou et al. 1979) while others believe that this effect is due to its low energy content for which animals can compensate by increasing consumption (Louca and Papas 1973). Constituents of the seed are (by weight): coat (30-33%), endosperm (42-46%) and embryo or germ (23-25%) (Neukom 1988). ...
... Pods also contain from 0.46 to 1.46% crude fat (Binder et al. 1959) and 2.6-6.7% tannins by dry weight (Louca and Papas 1973; Marakis et al. 1988). The pulp is the main constituent of the pod. ...
This is one of the more than 20 crop monographs that a BMZ, Germany funded and IPGRI coordinated project has produced on the promotion of the conservation and use of neglected and underutilized crops. For more details see the full text.
... Most studies on carob pulp feeding have been carried out on lambs or kids, whereas few studies are available on milking animals. Louca and Papas (1973) fed lactating goats with 15% and 30% of carob pod in a concentrate mixture. Only the higher level of inclusion significantly reduced milk yield, whereas no effect was evident with 15%. ...
The current study examined the effect on milk traits and composition of the replacement of barley grain with carob pulp as a supplement for grazing ewes with different genotypes at the β-lactoglobulin (BLG) locus. Forty-six Valle del Belìce lactating ewes were chosen for the feeding trial and split into control and carob groups based on the BLG p.Tyr38His polymorphism. The carob group received a supplement of 250 g/d of carob pulp, whereas the control group received 250 g/g of a barley whole grain-based concentrate. There were no milk yield or gross composition variations related to the BLG genotype. Nevertheless, milk fatty acid composition was influenced by the BLG polymorphism. Compared to the AB genotype, milk from BB sheep had higher concentrations of linoleic, linolenic acids, and total polyunsaturated fatty acids. The addition of carob pulp did not significantly modify fat and protein-corrected milk, whereas reduced protein and urea concentration, increased the fat content but worsened the milk quality in terms of fatty acid composition, increasing saturated and medium chain fatty acids. The genotype × feed interaction had no appreciable effect on milk composition or quality.
• HIGHLIGHTS
• Diet, genotype, and their interaction affect the milk traits and quality.
• Carob pulp reduced protein, urea and worsened fat quality.
• The genotype positively influenced the milk fat quality.
... Carob pod pulp is used as cattle feed in addition to barley floor [25,26]. Carob flour obtained by grinding terrified dried pods after shelled, is widely used in dietary food industry due to its high content in sugars, free gluten and phenols which is recommended for oeucolic persons [17,[27][28], it is also used in preparation of milk flour [29][30][31], drinks, citric acid, jams, sirup, honey [13,15,32] as substitute of cacao in chocolate and biscuits [29]. ...
... However, the activities of glutathione peroxidase, glutathione S-transferase, catalase and superoxide dismutase were increased [15]. The nutritive value of carob pods and their positive impact on the growth performance and health state of mammals have also been investigated [16][17][18]. Particularly, results obtained in marine animal showed the effects of dietary carob syrup on tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) growth performance. In addition, hematological, serum biochemical and immunological parameters have also been demonstrated by Yilmaz el al. [19]. ...
Ceratonia siliqua L. pods have been classically used in Mediterranean folk medicine as a potential source of natural antibacterial and antioxidant agents. The in vitro antiradical, immunostimulant, antibacterial and cytotoxic properties, as well as phytochemical composition of the ethanolic and aqueous extracts obtained from carob pods harvested at three ripening stages were assessed. Fructose, glucose, and sucrose, as quantified in both extracts, showed varied yields according to the ripening stage and solvent type. Likewise, significant differences were shown in bioactive compounds content depending on extraction solvent and ripening stage. Moreover, gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata L.) leucocyte viability and functions were not altered after being incubated for 24 h with the extracts of carob pods. On the other hand, the ethanolic extracts (0.75 and 1 mg mL⁻¹), exhibited an interesting cytotoxic effect on a tumoricidal fish cell line (PLHC-1 cell). Besides, the ethanolic extract (1 mg mL⁻¹) displayed a moderate bactericidal activity against different examined bacteria. Photobacterium damselae was found to be the most sensitive to different carob pod extracts, except for the aqueous extract obtained from ripened pods. While Vibrio harveyi and Vibrio anguillarum exhibited a strong resistance against the aqueous extracts. Our data indicate that the carob pods are an excellent source of natural bioactive molecules that would be used to prevent and treat several marine animal diseases.
Graphical Abstract
... The results of these studies agree with Frutos (1988) who found the best germination (99.1%) using sulphuric acid at 80%. Increasing temperature between base and optimum temperatures made better rate of germination and total germination percentage, but temperatures above optimum reduce the germination percentage [7]. ...
This study was carried out to determine the effects of different pre-sowing treatments including cold water, hot water, sulphuric acid 98% and sulphuric acid 50% on seed germination of Ceratonia siliqua L. at different temperatures (5, 15, 25, 35, 40,and 50°C). The following germination parameters were determined: Germination Percentage (GP), Mean Germination Time (MGT),Germination Rate Index(GI),and root length. A two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted for final germination with pre-sowing treatment, temperature, and their interaction as fixed effects, and replicate as a random effect. The result showed various treatments differently affected the germination of C. siliqua L. seeds. Upon emergence, germination was continuous but to varying degrees. Significant variation was observed for both pre-sowing treatments and different temperatures. The hot water and sulphuric acid 98% showed excellent germination response at 25 and 35°C compared to other temperatures, however, the germination was delayed greatly when the temperature was higher than 40°C. The result showed sulphuric acid 50% had the least MGT value of 14 days , while the hot water had the highest MGT value. Sulphuric acid 98% at 25 °C showed the longest root length, while sulphuric acid 50% showed the lowest root length. The GI among sulphuric acid 98% and hot water treatments showed better performance than other treatment.
It is concluded that response of GP, MGT, GI, and root lengths vary with pre-sowing treatments at different temperatures. The present study will be useful to screen other pre-sowing treatments with range of temperatures. Further work is required to develop the pre-sowing treatments to ensure high germination ratio in the field.
Keywords: Pre-sowing treatments; Germination Percentage; Temperature.
... Les gousses du caroubier ont été traditionnellement utilisées non seulement dans ants (Louca et Papas, 1973) et des non ruminants (Sahle et al., 1992), tion humaine. Une étude récente menée par Sánches et al. (2010) démontre que la gousse du caroubier est une matière première appropriée à la production de bioéthanol, en raison de sa forte teneur en sucre (50%) et la facilité de son extraction. ...
... Les gousses du caroubier ont été traditionnellement utilisées non seulement dans ants (Louca et Papas, 1973) et des non ruminants (Sahle et al., 1992), tion humaine. Une étude récente menée par Sánches et al. (2010) démontre que la gousse du caroubier est une matière première appropriée à la production de bioéthanol, en raison de sa forte teneur en sucre (50%) et la facilité de son extraction. ...
... It is also used as an ornamental plant along roadsides and in gardens (Batlle and Tous 1997). In producing countries, carob pods have traditionally been used not only in feeding ruminant animals (Louca and Papas, 1973) or non-ruminant (Sahle et al., 1992), but also in human food. The pulp is used in the human food industry, thanks to its high content of sugars and phenolic compounds. ...
... Its cultivation is environmentally and economically valuable in marginal and prevailing calcareous soils of the Mediterranean region (Batlle and Tous, 1997). This multipurpose tree species was traditionally used for its pods providing fodder for ruminants (Louca and Papas, 1973) and non-ruminants (Hillcoat et al., 1980). More recently the products derived from the carob pods (pulp and seed) have also been considered in human food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries (Barracosa et al., 2007). ...
... In a previous experiment, average daily gain of fattening lambs was improved when carob pulp was included up to a dietary level of 30% as a substitute for citrus pulp (Guessous et al., 1988). Performance of growing calves was also improved by replacing barley with carob pulp at a dietary level of 30% (Louca & Papas (1973). In contrast, deleterious effects of a diet containing carob pulp were recorded on lamb growth and meat quality (Priolo et al., 2000). ...
The aim of this work was to evaluate the nutritive value of carob pulp for rabbits using the in vitro digestibility and gas production techniques with inocula from caecal content of rabbits. Experimental diets contained 0% (D1), 10% (D2), 20% (D3) and 100% (D4) carob pulp on a dry matter (DM) basis and were incubated in glass syringes for 72 h at 39 °C. Carob pulp contained 313 g neutral detergent fibre/kg DM with a high acid detergent fibre (263 g/kg DM) content, resulting in a low hemicellulose content of 50 g/kg DM. Potential gas production ranged from 123 (D1) to 179 (D4) mL/g DM and was similar for the D1 (123 mL/g DM), D2 (126 mL/g DM) and D3 (130 mL/g DM) treatments. The lowest pH value of 6.47 and the highest organic matter degradation (OMD, 64.3%) were observed in the 100% carob pulp (D4) treatment, while its inclusion at 10% and 20% tended to improve the OMD of the diets. These results show that carob pulp is well fermented by the caecal micro-organisms of rabbits. Although its inclusion at 20% did not improve in vitro fermentation and degradation of the commercial concentrate, it was concluded that carob pulp has potential as an unconventional feed resource for rabbits. Its utilization could have a positive effect on intestinal microbiota owing to its high content of soluble fibre.
... These results seem to indicate that females use, at least partially their body reserves to compensate the low energy content of carob pulp and therefore, milk production is not affected . The use of similar diets for Friesian calves or growing kids showed that dietary carob pulp had no depressing effects on growth performance and carcass yield if animals were capable of consuming more feed to compensate the energy deficit (Louca and Papas, 1973). Animals fed on carob diets showed a poor feed conversion ratio. ...
... The carob tree grows as a sclerophyllous evergreen shrub or tree up to 10 m high, with a broad semispherical crown and a thick trunk with brown rough bark and sturdy branches. Carob pods are used as fodder for ruminants (Louca and Papas 1973) and non-ruminants (Sahle et al. 1992).The seed of the carob tree contains galactomannon, a commercially valuable carbohydrate that is used as thickener, emulsifier and stabilizer in many commercial products (Lewington 1990). Wood is reported to be used in making furniture and carts. ...
Mature seeds of carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua L.) were germinated on hormone free MS medium. Efforts were made to develop multiple shoots by using axillary buds of in vitro grown seedlings on MS medium fortified with different concentrations of BA singly and BA in combination with IAA or GA 3. Axillary buds produced single shoot with a moderate amount of callus at the base of the explant after culturing on MS medium with BA alone. Multiple shoots were regenerated when explants when cultured on MS medium fortified with BA + IAA or BA + GA 3. MS medium supplemented with 1.5 mg/1 BA + 0.5 mg/1 GA3 was found more effective in multiple shoot regeneration than all other combinations. Regenerated multiple shoots were excised and cultured on half strength of MS medium containing different concentrations of IBA for root induction. Best root development was obtained in half strength MS medium containing 0.5 mg/1 IBA. About 70% of the regenerated plantlets survived in natural conditions.
... Pollen diameter is 28-29 μm at the poles and 25-28 μm at the equator (Ferguson, 1980; Linskens and Scholten, 1980). The carob pods have traditionally been used as animal and human food and recently it is used mainly for gum extraction (Louca and Papas, 1973). Carob powder consists of 46% sugar, 7% protein and small amounts of numerous minerals and vitamins (Whiteside, 1981). ...
Plant community of Ceratonia siliqua L. at Wasfi Al-Tal forest reserve was investigated during 26 September to 23 December 2004 to asses the utilization of Ceratonia siliqua L (Carob) for Apis mellifera (Honey bee). Nectar production rate was measured by emptying flowers, covering them for 24 hours with nylon mesh bags, and then sampling their nectar contents. The Ceratonia siliqua L. plant showed good results regarding the nectar volume and concentration and there was good honey bee visitation for pollen and nectar. Male trees were higher than the female ones regarding nectar volume and concentration, the mean volume for male trees was 17.4ml±9.7sd whereas, for the female ones it was only 4.25ml±4.9sd. The mean volume for the nectar concentration for male trees was 63.97%± 10.19sd whereas, for the female ones it was only 29.25%±34 sd.
... Nowadays, carob is also found in most areas in the Americas, Africa, Asia and Australia with suitable Mediterranean-like climate (Winer, 1980). Carob pods have traditionally been used as fodder for animals and for human consumption (Louca and Papas, 1973;Renfrew, 1973). Before sugar cane and sugar beets were widely available, carob provided ingredients for popular beverages and a wide variety of food products. ...
The sugar feeding of Aedes albopictus was studied. In outdoor cages they fed avidly on carob (Ceratonia siliqua L., Caesalpiniaceae) seed pods soiled with sugary exudates. Feeding was either from the surface or by piercing the tissue which is indicated by the presence of plant tissue residues in the gut. More than 90% were sugar positive and about a third had plant tissue residues in the gut after overnight exposure. Similar exposure to clean undamaged seed pods resulted in about two thirds sugar positive mosquitoes and all of these had plant-tissue residues in the gut. In an irrigated, field site, with abundance of sugar sources in the summer 68% of the females and 75% of the males were sugar positive whereas, 1.2% of the females and no males had plant tissue in the gut. The proportion of sugar positive mosquitoes was similar in the autumn and plant tissue was not found in 150 females and 13 males. In the dry site in the summer 42% females and 33% males were sugar positive while 22% females and 33% males contained plant tissue. In the autumn 73% females and 80% males were sugar positive while 2% females and none of the males contained plant tissue.
Sixty-six carob accessions from 19 sites throughout Algeria were analysed by leaf, pod and seed characteristics to assess their genetic diversity and identify the Algerian carob cultivars that could be used as germplasm for breeding programs. We compared Algerian accessions with carobs from different Mediterranean countries, and the results showed a high level of morphological similarity between Algerian and Spanish carob pods. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed highly significant differences (p ˂ 0.001) between accessions for all the quantitative traits. Correlation analysis between variables indicated that seed yield could be improved by selecting light, thin and narrow carob pods. Multiple correspondence analysis explained a total variance of 30.22 % and illustrated three distinct leaf classes. Principal component analysis (PCA) proposed two main groups of variables, one based on seed performance and the other targeting pod potential. Hierarchical classification (HC) with seven clusters revealed considerable genetic diversity among the Algerian carob accessions studied, and indicated that the type of bioclimate did not influence their distribution, suggesting that morphometric traits are probably controlled more by genes that by bioclimate. Linear discriminant analysis (LDA), clustering and heatmap plotting identified 11 potential cultivars, 10 female and one hermaphroditic.
The study was conducted in the coastal strip of Solouq Plain, one of the most important
rangeland areas in the north-eastern part of Libya (Cyrenaica). The area has a long history of overutilisation,
which has been perceived to alter rangeland condition. The study aimed to evaluate the
current state of the rangeland ecosystem by investigating the characteristics of the vegetation and
soil seedbank. Plant species were identified, biomass was calculated, and soil seedbank was estimated.
From the vegetation survey, a total of 82 plant species belonging to 64 genera and 21 families were
identified, comprised of 48.8% therophytes, 34.2% chamaephytes, 6.1% cryptophytes and
hemicryptophytes each, and only 4.8% phanerophytes. The general mean value for biomass was 74.1
g/m-2, the highest mean value was in winter (220.7 g/m-2), and the lowest was in autumn (16.8 g/m-2),
with significant difference among seasons (p-value = 0.005). The soil still retains sufficient seed
density that can drive the regeneration of native species and play an important role in rehabilitation
and sustainable management of the area. The overall mean value for seed density was 6077 seed m-2;
The highest density was in summer (15101 seed.m-2), and the lowest was in winter (676 seed.m-2) with
significant difference among seasons (p-value = 0.000). It is evident that the vegetation and soil
seedbank are typical for arid areas, and the rangelands are in a poor state with the dominant of
therophytes and chamaephytes and low portion of palatable species, and improvement may need active
rehabilitation intervention.
Keywords: anthropogenic factors, biomass, life-form spectra, rangeland degradation.
The carob tree, Ceratonia siliqua L, is a characteristic constituent of the evergreen, "maquis" and "garigue" vegetation type in low-altitude areas in the Mediterranean Basin. All over these territories, this dioecious and thermophilous tree has been extensively cultivated for its pods. These trees are used for both human consumption and as a sugar-rich animal feed. However, currently the main interest is seed production for gum extraction from the endosperm, which is used as a stabilizer in numerous commercial food products. Most cultivars are female, and require the presence of pollen donors in the orchards. The carob is mainly insect-pollinated (flies, bees, and wasps), but is also wind-pollinated, depending on the habitat. The carob tree shows some outstanding features, like rusticity and drought resistance, and produces under reduced orchard management, and thus is well suited for part-time farming. Carob's main limitation is its frost sensitivity. In addition, modern carob orchards start bearing earlier (fourth year after budding) than traditional carob plots, and they increase yield steadily in response to minimum cultural care and deficit irrigation. This crop has received little attention until now, but currently it is being reemphasized as an alternative in dryland (500mm) or in supplementary drip irrigation areas with a Mediterranean climate for diversification and revitalization of coastal agriculture. This chapter describes carob's economic importance worldwide and their genetic resources and it also reviews various aspects of its taxonomy, botany, origin, ecology, properties, uses, diversity, and breeding. All the life cycle descriptions are referred to the northern hemisphere climatic conditions. In addition, a full account of the crop-producing areas, agronomy, limitations, industry market, and prospects is presented.
Carob bean is the fruit of Ceratonia siliqua L, an evergreen sclerophyllous perennial and long-producing tree, which naturally grows on barren, rocky and dry regions of the Mediterranean basin and other parts of world, with similar climate. Deseeded carob pod (husk), although rich in water-soluble sugars (mainly sucrose), has a very low protein content and high levels of tannins (mainly condensed), which minimize the nutritional value of carob beans. The present review attempts to appraise the current status and future potentials of the carob bean in food as well as feed industry and environment upgrading.
The carob tree belongs to the nutrient plants and it is known since antiquity as a native plant of Greece. Its scientific name Ceratonia siliqua, originates from the Greek word “keraton” which means "horn", and which indicates the shape of its fruit. The carob tree is an evergreen, long-lived, polygamous, monoecious or dioecious. It is easily cultivated and thrives in all types of soil, except the humid and non-affluent. The wood, the bark and the leaves of carob have different uses. The fruit of the carob tree, the carob is a lobe, and it is 10-30 cm long and 2-3 cm wide with a brown and leathery exocarp and a fleshy and juicy mesocarp, in which 8 to 16 oval, flattened, hard and shiny reddish seeds are enclosed. The collection of the fruits must be finished before the winter rains. The fruits fall from the tree by themselves or by caning. A 6 years old carob tree can produce 2.25 kg carobs, while a 12 years old tree can produce the 45 kg or more. The annual Greek carob production for the year 2005 was 14,816 tons, while the average yield was 9.8 kg / tree. The world carob production is about 315,000 tons / year. The carobs have low total fat and crude protein content but high sugar content. The carobs’ characteristic odor is due to their isobutyric acid content (1.3%). Furthermore, they include an unusually large amount of tannins, 16-20% of which are polyphenols and 27-50% of which are bound with cellulose. The tannins are a complex group of secondary metabolites of plants and are separated from other polyphenol compounds due to their ability to create sediment with proteins. The presence of tannin in feed reduces the nutrients’ digestibility and has a negative effect on body weight gain. However, tannins can also have positive effects depending on their biological potency, because they have the ability to prevent bacterial, fungal and yeast growth. Carobs and their by-products have a considerable fibre content (average 8%) and therefore they can be included in supplementary ruminant rations up to 20% - 30%. Experiments carried out by adding carobs in broiler feeds resulted in decreased body weight gain and increased feed conversion ratio, probably because of the high cellulose and tannin content of the carob. Nevertheless, if the broiler’s ration is enriched with fats or oils and synthetic amino acids, these birds show normal weight gain, but, with a high feed conversion ratio. The carobs can included up to 10% - 20% in the ration of pigs. Also, since the carobs have high sugars content, they can increase the feed consumption of the piglets and they can replace other sugar feeds with high sugar content (dextrose, starch, milk powder) without adversely affecting the feed intake. Greece produces a considerable quantity of carobs every year, therefore a part of this production could be utilized as animal feed.
124 references to the carob tree between 1879 and 1980 are listed according to subject area. The list is comprehensive but slightly selective. Reports of cultivation and related techniques are classified by main regions: Africa, Australia, Cyprus, India, Italy, Middle East, Portugal, South America, and U.S.A. Other headings include: botany, anatomy and physiology, pests and diseases, pomology, composition and utilisation. The latter contains sub-sections dealing with gums and animal feeds. General papers and reference works are also included in the bibliography.
Research was reviewed on structural characteristics of digestive systems, feeding, nutrition, body characteristics, lactation, milk composition, growth, production, reproduction, management systems, and farm economics of goats in the Near and Middle East. Damascus goats are the largest in the area; Kil goats, native to Turkey, are with 16 million the most numerous although least productive in milk and meat. Angoras are raised for mohair. Birth weights, growth rates, kidding rates, and milk yields are most in Damascus goats, followed by Malta and Kilis goats, with Kil and Angora goats last. Different milk nursing, kid and doe feeding systems are discussed. Urea can substitute successfully for part of the protein in rations. Kid carcasses are leaner and tastier than similar lamb carcasses. Carob pods and distillers dried grains can be used successfully in goat rations in relatively large proportions. Single-purpose goats made more money than dual purpose goats, and larger goat farms (200 goats) were more profitable than smaller units (80 goats). Practical research data, written in native languages, are hidden in little accessible annual reports in Turkey, Cyprus, and others.
Data from 30 studies with 173 treatment mean observations of lactating goats were used to determine metabolizable protein (MP) requirements for lactation (MPl). Milk protein yield (MkP) was calculated from milk yield and protein concentration. MP was estimated from dietary ingredient composition and a feedstuff database of CP degradability properties and ruminal fermentable energy concentration. MPl was estimated with a factorial method by subtracting MP used for maintenance, which was the sum of scurf (0.2g/kg BW0.6), endogenous urinary (1.03g/kg BW0.75) and metabolic fecal CP losses (2.67% DM intake) divided by an efficiency of use of MP for maintenance of 1.0. Also, MP was adjusted for BW change (14.3% protein), assuming an efficiency of MP use for protein accretion of 0.59 and that mobilized tissue protein was used for lactation with the same efficiency as MP from the diet or microbial cells. The equation for the regression of MPl (g/day) against MkP (g/day) was: MPl=15.2(S.E.=7.77)+1.30(S.E.=0.090)×MkP(n=163,adjusted-R2=0.56); the intercept was not different from zero (P>0.05). The slope of a no-intercept equation (regression line forced through the origin) was 1.45 (S.E.=0.033). In conclusion, these results suggest a MPl requirement for goats of 1.45g/g of MkP or a milk protein efficiency of 0.69. Because of the approach employed, application of this MPl requirement should not include provision of additional MP as a safety factor. With the large number of observations in this database, this requirement estimate should be of value in expressing protein needs and predicting performance of lactating goats, although future research to refine assumptions may improve accuracy.
A database of 349 treatment mean observations, representing 3404 goats from 73 publications between 1973 and 2003, was used to determine metabolizable protein (MP) requirements for maintenance (MPm) and growth (MPg) of goats. Published CP degradation properties of feedstuffs and proportions of dietary ingredients were used to estimate MP intake (MPI, g/day), which was regressed against ADG, with both variables scaled by BW0.75. Goats were classified as meat (≥50% Boer; 60 observations), dairy (selected for milk production; 129 observations) and indigenous (160 observations) biotypes. Because of differences (P
Data from 44 studies with 243 treatment mean observations, representing 2476 goats in various stages of lactation, were used to estimate the requirement and efficiency of use of ME for milk production. Development and evaluation data subsets comprised, respectively, 68 and 32% of observations. ME intake was also adjusted for energy lost in excretion of excess nitrogenous compounds in urine (MEExN), as 62.21kJ/g of N intake above endogenous urinary N (0.165g/kg BW0.75). Adjusted ME intake was partitioned into that used for maintenance and activity in pen or stall settings (MEm; by two methods), ME secreted in milk and ME gained as BW. For Method 1, MEm = 1.1×315kJ/kg BW0.75/km, with km or efficiency of ME use for maintenance = 0.503 + (0.019×ME,MJ/kg DM). For Method 2, estimates of MEm in a companion study for dairy (501.3kJ/kg BW0.75) and other goat biotypes (422.7kJ/kg BW0.75) were used. When BW increased, ME intake was adjusted for tissue accretion (efficiency = 0.75) to derive dietary ME used in milk secretion (MEl-d). Milk yield was corrected to 4% fat [4%FCM;MJ/kg = 1.4694 + (0.4025 × % milk fat)]. For does decreasing in BW, FCM from the diet (FCMd) was estimated by adjusting for use of mobilized tissue energy (23.9kJ/g; efficiency = 0.84). No particular equations explained considerably more variability in observed FCM or NE for lactation than other equations. Based on no-intercept regressions (MEl-d against FCMd) with Method 1, the dietary ME requirement for lactation was 4598 (S.E. = 106.6) and 4937 (S.E. = 106.5)kJ/kg FCM with and without adjustment for MEExN, respectively. With Method 2 and no-intercept equations, the dietary ME requirement for lactation was 4882 (S.E. = 105.2) and 5224 (S.E. = 105.8) kJ/kg FCM with and without adjustment for MEExN, respectively. Prediction accuracy was similar between methods and improved slightly by correction for ADG. In conclusion, with the large amount of data employed in this study, these estimates and this factorial approach seem useful to predict energy requirements of lactating goats, with potential for future enhancements based on research of the factorial approach assumptions.
Databases were constructed to determine ME requirements for maintenance (MEm) and BW gain (MEg) of preweaning, growing and mature goats by regressing ME intake (MEI) against ADG. Goats were categorized as dairy, meat (≥ 50% Boer) or indigenous biotypes. The preweaning database included 98 treatment means representing 1016 goats and the growing goat database consisted of 333 treatment means. Because of differences among biotypes of growing goats in intercepts and slopes (P < 0.05), separate regressions were performed. The meat subset included 60 observations from 11 publications, representing 548 goats; the dairy subset had 116 observations from 25 publications with 1851 goats; and the indigenous subset consisted of 157 observations from 34 publications and 1024 goats. Dairy and indigenous subsets were randomly split into independent sets for equation development and evaluation. The mature goat database included 69 treatment means from 23 publications and represented 495 goats. Small numbers of observations removed after initial regressions to improve fit did not markedly alter intercepts or slopes. Equations were as follows: preweaning: MEI (kJ/kg BW0.75) = 484.6 (S.E. = 61.46) + (13.37 [S.E. = 1.95] × ADG [g/kg BW0.75]) (n = 61; R2 = 0.44); meat: MEI (kJ/kg BW0.75) = 457.0 (S.E. = 22.30) + (25.23 [S.E. = 1.74] × ADG [g/kg BW0.75]) (n = 57; R2 = 0.79); dairy: MEI (kJ/kg BW0.75) = 573.7 (S.E. = 46.20) + (23.56 [S.E. = 3.10] × ADG [g/kg BW0.75]) (n = 56; R2 = 0.52); indigenous: MEI (kJ/kg BW0.75) = 500.0 (S.E. = 11.94) + (18.59 [S.E. = 1.64] × ADG [g/kg BW0.75]) (n = 76; R2 = 0.63); and mature: MEI (kJ/kg BW0.75) = 462.2 (S.E. = 24.95) + (28.52 (S.E. = 5.05) × ADG [g/kg BW0.75]) [n = 69; R2 = 0.32]. Intercepts and slopes from regressions of observed against predicted MEI with evaluation data sets, based on equations for preweaning and growing dairy and indigenous goats, were not different from 0 to 1, respectively. When final equations for the different growing goat biotypes were tested, the intercept for dairy goats differed (P < 0.05) from that of meat and indigenous goats, and the slope for indigenous goats tended (P = 0.16) to differ from that of meat and dairy goats. Therefore, the following dummy variable equation was obtained (I1 = 1 for dairy and 0 for others; I2 = 1 for indigenous and 0 for others): MEI (kJ/kg BW0.75) = 488.5 (S.E. = 14.4) + (91.5 (S.E. = 18.69) × I1) + (23.09 (S.E. = 1.24) × ADG [g/kg BW0.75]) − (3.28 (S.E. = 1.98) × ADG [g/kg BW0.75] × I2) [n = 189; R2 = 0.74]. In summary, based on treatment mean observations from available publications and regression of MEI against ADG, MEm was 485, 489, 580, 489 and 462kJ/kg BW0.75, and MEg was 13.4, 23.1, 23.1, 19.8 and 28.5kJ/g ADG for preweaning, growing meat, growing dairy, growing indigenous and mature goats, respectively.
Databases amassed from the literature were used to predict feed intake by lactating, Angora, growing and mature goats, using 221, 54, 282 and 99 treatment means, respectively. One prediction approach was based on a calculated constant overall efficiency of ME utilization (k) considering biotype (meat, ≥50% Boer; dairy; indigenous; Angora), BW (kg; all goats), 4% fat-corrected milk (FCM, kg; lactating), BW change or ADG (kg; lactating, growing and mature), dietary ME concentration (MEC, MJ/kg DM; all goats), tissue gain (TG, kg; Angora) and clean mohair fiber gain (FG, kg; Angora). For lactating goats, assumptions included efficiency of ME utilization for maintenance and activity: 0.503+(0.019×MEC); efficiency of ME use for gain (kg): 0.75; efficiency of use of mobilized ME for lactation: 0.84; efficiency of use of dietary ME for lactation: 0.589; tissue energy concentration (TEC): 23.9MJ/kg; ME requirement for maintenance and stall or pen activity (MEmREQ): 0.5013 and 0.4227MJ/kg BW0.75 for dairy and other goats, respectively; and all mobilized tissue energy used for lactation. After removing observations with residuals greater than 1.5×root mean square error (RMSE), k was 0.653 (S.E.=0.0014). Predicted DM intake (DMIP) including an adjustment (DMIAP) for the ratio of ADG:FCM (ADGFCM) was: DMI=0.0964(S.E.=0.0704)+(0.9334(S.E.=0.9314)×DMIP)−(0.1237(S.E.=0.05923)×ADGFCM) (R2=0.84;RMSE=0.2187;n=191). Mean k, estimated from a random development data set, resulted in unbiased prediction of intake for an evaluation data set without observations removed. Assumptions for Angora goats that differed from lactating goats were efficiency of ME use for tissue gain (TG; kg/day): 0.006+(0.0423×MEC); efficiency of use of ME (dietary and mobilized tissue) for clean fiber gain (FG): 0.151; TEC=4.972+(0.3274×kgBW); MEm: 0.473MJ/kgBW0.75; ME used for FG: FG×157MJ/kg; and all mobilized tissue energy used for FG. Mean k for Angora goats was 0.525 (S.E.=0.0112), and prediction accuracy was improved by adjusting for dietary CP concentration (PTCP, % DM): DMI=−0.1607(S.E.=0.11430)+(0.8227(S.E.=0.10851)×DMIP)+(0.0199(S.E.=0.00697)×PTCP)(R2=0.65;RMSE=0.1239;n=54). Assumptions for growing goats included: kg: 0.006+(0.0423×MEC); efficiency of use of mobilized tissue energy for maintenance: km; and MEmREQ: 0.489, 0.580 and 0.489MJ/kgBW0.75 for meat, dairy and indigenous goats, respectively. After removing observations with residuals greater than 2×RMSE, k was 0.634(S.E.=0.0020). Prediction accuracy was improved by adjusting for ratios of ADG to BW (ADGBW), BW0.75 (ADGMBW) and ADGMBW2: DMI=−0.0047(S.E.=0.1854)+(0.9637(S.E.=0.04928)×DMIP)−(70.27(S.E.=23.534)×ADGBW)+(38.71(S.E.=12.224)×ADGMBW)−(243.4(S.E.=121.73)×ADGMBW2)(R2=0.88;RMSE=0.1030;n=266). Mean k estimated from a random development data set resulted in unbiased prediction of intake for an evaluation data set without observations removed. Assumptions for mature goats were the same as those for growing goats except for a MEmREQ of 0.462MJ/kgBW0.75. k was 0.632(S.E.=0.00448), and prediction accuracy was improved by adjusting for PTCP, ADGBW and ADGMBW: DMI=−0.1241(S.E.=0.07374)+(0.7915(S.E.=0.06911)×DMIP)+(0.0214(S.E.=0.00381)×PTCP)−(535.2(S.E.=66.35)×ADGBW)+(247.3(S.E.=29.53)×ADGMBW)(R2=0.85;RMSE=0.1537;n=99). Because of the relatively large number of observations in this study, these methods should be useful for predicting voluntary intake of different diets by a variety of goats in or near thermoneutral conditions fed in pens or stalls.
Two trials with 44 and 30 British Friesian male calves were conducted over a period of 48 and 30 weeks respectively, to study the value of dried citrus pulp and grape marc as substitutes for part of the barley in calf-fattening diets. In each case the diets were fortified with additional crude protein to compensate for the lower digestible crude protein contents of these substitutes.
Including dried citrus pulp at 60% of the concentrate diet had no effect on calf performance or feed intake, and provided additional protein is supplied, citrus pulp appears to compare favourably with barley as an energy source.
Inclusion of grape marc at 15 and 30% of the diet tended to reduce live-weight gain at the higher level and to reduce killing-out percentage and increase feed intake at both levels, resulting in poor feed utilization. Its value as an energy source appears to be about half that of barley.
In rain-fed cereal-producing areas of Morocco, stubble and straw from barley and wheat and forage grazed from fallow lands are important feeds for sheep. Supplementation to maintain BW of ewes pregnant while grazing stubble, methods to improve utilization of straw, annual forage legumes to complement grazing of fallow land, and by-product feeds in diets for weaned lambs have been tested in collaborative research trials. Pregnant ewes grazing cereal stubble for 10 to 12 wk at a modest stocking rate and unsupplemented, or at a heavier stocking rate and supplemented after 5 wk, gained about 3 kg; most of the gain occurred in wk 1 to 4 due to intake of residual scattered grain. Following the stubble-grazing period (coincident with late gestation), straw plus an energy supplement alone resulted in low lamb birth weight and survivability. Urea treatment increased N content of straw and holds potential. After the onset of winter rains, self-reseeding annual legume (Medicago spp.) pastures allowed lactating Timahdit ewes to gain 4 kg during 90 d postpartum. Their suckling lambs gained 260 g/d, thus doubling the weight of lamb weaned per ewe compared with those grazing unimproved fallow. Confined growing lambs fed diets with 40% sugarbeet pulp or 20% carob meal gained more than 200 g/d, reducing the time needed to reach market weight. These results demonstrate that marked improvements in performance and efficiency of sheep in Mediterranean rain-fed cereal/livestock systems are possible using locally available resources.
THE pods of the carob tree (Ceraionia siliqua), popularly known as “St. John’s bread,” are fed to livestock and consumed by people in most Mediterranean countries. Recently they have been used outside this region in milk replacers for young calves (Robinson, 1960) and as an antidiarrhetic for babies (Pretorius and Venter, 1959). On the other hand, reports have appeared on their low nutritive value for various species (see discussion). The literature on the use of carobs for chickens has been reviewed in a previous paper (Bornstein et al., 1963), which contains also the composition of carob pods and seeds.
In the latter paper it was postulated that the growth retardation accompanying feeding of diets containing 20–30% carob meal was due both to its low content of digestible nutrients, and to the presence of a hot-water-extractable appetite-depressing factor (possibly a tannin-like compound) which prevented a compensatory increase in feed consumption.…
Five trials were conducted to elucidate the cause of the growth-inhibitory effect of carob meal in chick rations, with special emphasis on estimating its productive energy value. The growth-depressing factor of carob meal could not be extracted with methanol, ethanol or ethyl acetate. Consecutive extractions with cold and hot water left a residue which did not affect growth. The cold-water extract had a slight, and the hot water extract a distinct, inhibitory effect on feed consumption, without affecting feed utilisation. This reduced feed intake may be due to the presence of tannin-like compounds, which seem to affect appetite.
Supplementation of diets containing carob with fat resulted in growth similar to that of the control. The data presented indicate that carobs do not contain any toxic factors and that their low caloric value is the major factor responsible for growth depression. The energy value of carobs should be calculated on the basis of their sugar content as the only nutrient available to the chicks.
Polyphenol fractions were prepared from ripe and green carobs and fed to growing rats. The significant growth depression observed in rats fed green carobs and the ethyl acetate-soluble polyphenols is attributed primarily to a decrease in feed consumption. Ripe carobs did not affect growth significantly, but the tannins isolated from ripe and, to a lesser extent, green carobs were responsible for a growth depression which was probably caused by protein binding. An increased nitrogen con tent was observed in the feces and the digestive tract of all groups fed the experi mental diets. This increase was shown to be due to an insoluble nitrogen fraction, the amount of which corresponded to the degree of growth depression. The activity of digestive enzymes in the cecum, particularly proteolytic, was greatly increased by all the experimental diets.
The food intake depression and subsequent decrease in growth of rats fed tannic acid was determined at the 4, 5 and 8% level. Pair feeding and supplementation with additional casein, choline or methionine were used to investigate the mechanism of growth depression. Depression of growth occurred due to factors in addition to those which reduce feed intake. No anemia or fatty livers were observed with 5% tannic acid in the diet. Supplementation with choline or methionine had no effect but supplementation with casein improved growth. The toxicity of the tannin decreased with increase in age and weight of rat. Older and heavier rats were able to recover and adjust to tannin in the diet.
Four completely pelleted rations consisting of the following alfalfa meal: ground shelled corn ratios—100:0, 80:20, 60:40, and 40:60—were fed to eight Holstein heifers in two 4 × 4 Latin-squares and to 40 crossbred lambs in a 67-day continuous feeding trial. Apparent digestibility determined with heifers indicated an increase in dry matter and gross energy digestibility coefficients as the per cent corn was increased in the diet. Daily dry matter consumption decreased as the corn increased, and daily energy consumption was similar for all rations.
Carob pod extract and its tannin and sugar fractions were compared with gallotannic acid and sucrose for their effect on the cellulolytic, proteolytic, protein biosynthetic, and deaminative activities of rumen microorganisms. The inhibitory effects of carob pod extract upon the cellulolysis and deamination were correlated mainly with its sugar, rather than its tannin components. On the other hand, proteolytic activity and protein biosynthesis were more significantly affected by the tannin fraction. In contrast to the tannin fraction of carob pod extract, gallotannic acid inhibited cellulolytic activity. The harmful effect of a low concentration of tannins on protein biosynthesis could be prevented by the addition of carbohydrates to the reaction mixture. At high tannin concentration (40 mug/ml), however, the addition of carbohydrates did not prevent the inhibition.
Effect of treating proteins of ground-nut and soya with tannins on their deamination in rumen of adult sheep
- F Leroy
- S Z Zelter
Carob beans for feeding pigs
- Neto
The use of barley, urea, lucerne and wheat straw for fattening Friesian calves
- A Louca
- A Papas
Trials for improving the nutritional value of carobs for chicks
- Bornstein
The carob varieties of Cyprus
- P I Orphanos
- J Papaconstantinou
Carobs vs. barley as dairy cattle feed
- Volcani