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Sex Differences in Personality Traits and Gender-Related Occupational Preferences across 53 Nations: Testing Evolutionary and Social-Environmental Theories

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Abstract

Using data from over 200,000 participants from 53 nations, I examined the cross-cultural consistency of sex differences for four traits: extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism, and male-versus-female-typical occupational preferences. Across nations, men and women differed significantly on all four traits (mean ds = -.15, -.56, -.41, and 1.40, respectively, with negative values indicating women scoring higher). The strongest evidence for sex differences in SDs was for extraversion (women more variable) and for agreeableness (men more variable). United Nations indices of gender equality and economic development were associated with larger sex differences in agreeableness, but not with sex differences in other traits. Gender equality and economic development were negatively associated with mean national levels of neuroticism, suggesting that economic stress was associated with higher neuroticism. Regression analyses explored the power of sex, gender equality, and their interaction to predict men's and women's 106 national trait means for each of the four traits. Only sex predicted means for all four traits, and sex predicted trait means much more strongly than did gender equality or the interaction between sex and gender equality. These results suggest that biological factors may contribute to sex differences in personality and that culture plays a negligible to small role in moderating sex differences in personality.

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... These gendered notions are strong determinants of occupational choices in society, to the extent that many occupations are dominated by one gender (Browne, 2006;Luoto, 2020;Pettinger, 2005). Indeed, meta-analytic reviews and cross-cultural studies have revealed large gender differences in occupational interests, with women (men) typically reporting a greater interest in people-oriented (things-oriented) occupations (Lippa, 2010;Su et al., 2009). A cross-cultural study across 53 nations investigated gender differences in occupational interests and found women (men) to be more interested in people (things) in all the studied nations (Lippa, 2010). ...
... Indeed, meta-analytic reviews and cross-cultural studies have revealed large gender differences in occupational interests, with women (men) typically reporting a greater interest in people-oriented (things-oriented) occupations (Lippa, 2010;Su et al., 2009). A cross-cultural study across 53 nations investigated gender differences in occupational interests and found women (men) to be more interested in people (things) in all the studied nations (Lippa, 2010). As a result, women are over-represented in people-oriented jobs (Lippa et al., 2014), even in the most gender equal societies in the world, such as in Scandinavia (Almås et al., 2020). ...
... Strategies such as gender quotas also risk reducing people's freedom of choice by emphasizing equality of outcome at the expense of equality of opportunity. Indeed, if interventions based on gender quotas are implemented such that more women (men) are prioritized in male-dominated (female-dominated) occupations, some men and women may not get the chance to work in gender-congruent occupations, despite their willingness to do so and the strong empirical evidence for (large) gender differences in occupational interests (Lippa, 2010;Su et al., 2009). ...
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This field study examined how customer-employee interactions are affected by the congruency between an employee’s gender and the perceived gender image of the consumption context in one of the most gender equal cultures in the world (Scandinavia). Mystery shoppers had a service encounter with an employee across a set of physical commercial settings that were classified according to their gender image. The mystery shoppers noted the gender of the employee, provided employee evaluations, and indicated word-of-mouth (WOM) ratings. Shoppers who had a gender congruent service encounter (e.g., a female employee in a “feminine” consumption context) reported more favorable employee evaluations and WOM ratings than shoppers who had a gender incongruent service encounter (e.g., a female employee in a “masculine” consumption context), with the impact of gender congruency on WOM ratings mediated by employee evaluations, particularly with respect to competence inferences. These findings highlight the ethical dilemma of a positive gender congruency effect, as it can generate superior consumer responses but also risks resulting in gender occupational segregation.
... Furthermore, one of the first cross cultural study on gender difference reported that men scored lower than women in N in all 37 countries and higher than women in E in 30 countries (Lynn & Martin, 1997). Each cross-cultural study echoed previous findings by consistently reporting A and N as the traits having the largest gender difference (Costa et al., 2001;McCrae et al., 2005;Schmitt et al., 2008;Lippa, 2008;Bleidorn et al., 2013). For instance, medium (d = .26; ...
... d = .41) differences were found for N (respectively, Costa et al, 2001;Schmitt et al., 2008;Lippa, 2008). Furthermore, medium to large (d = .27; ...
... d = .56) difference were found for A (respectively, Costa et al, 2001;Schmitt et al., 2008;Lippa, 2008; for a review see Lippa, 2010). Many studies investigated sex differences in personality, whether it was with an adolescent sample (De Bolle et al., 2015), adults (South, Jarnecke, & Vize, 2018), an elderly sample (Chapman, Duberstein, Sörensen, & Lyness, 2007), or across ten aspects of the FFM (Weisberg, DeYoung, & Hirsh, 2011), results seem to mirror cross cultural findings, even though adolescence appears to witness some variability. ...
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This paper aims to provide a holistic review for STEM educators or policymakers of gender diversity. Domains in which gender differences are found, such as depression, personality traits (Five Factor Model and Dark Triad) and vocational interests are examined in order to draw a comprehensive picture of the STEM gender segregation in rich and gender egalitarian countries. Three models addressing how gender differences of personality traits amplify in gender egalitarian countries are reviewed. Notably, evolutionary, social and attributional explanations. Meta-analytic and cross-cultural evidences gathered in this paper argue that the evolutionary model of gender differences appears to be consistently replicated, contrary to social role theory. However, attributional explanations remain unrefuted. Furthermore, two of the most popular arguments explaining the STEM gender disparity are discussed and rejected. Notably, gender differences in spatial cognitive abilities and in mathematical abilities, which are both important predictors of entry into STEM majors. Finally, examples of promising interventions for STEM diversity (e.g. frame of reference) are presented, among other auspicious interventions around STEM interests, spatial ability or brain plasticity (i.e. growth mindset), as well as some unsuccessful counterparts.
... However, among adults across 53 nations sex differences in Big Five personality were unrelated to gender equity for four of five dimensions (Lippa, 2010). ...
... The neuroticism measure employed by Lippa (2010) comprised ten items whose content is closely similar to those to Radloff's (1977) CES-D measure of depressive symptoms. Across 53 nations, sex differences in neuroticism were unrelated to gender equity, and mean neuroticism was highest in samples from less economically developed nations (Lippa, 2010). Across large samples from 22 nations, NEO measures of neuroticism were also not significantly predicted by gender equity (Mac Giolla & Kajonius, 2018). ...
... The data analyzed by Schmitt et al. (2008) were collected in approximately 2001 to 2002, with that collected by Costa et al. (2001) and Kashima et al. (1995) being drawn from the preceding decade. The studies by Lippa (2010) and Mac Giolla and Kajonius (2018) sampled adults rather than students, with their data collected in 2005 and between 2006 and 2011 respectively. We have substantial evidence of recent cultural change in many nations from successive waves of the World Values Survey (Li & Bond, 2010;Inglehart & Oyserman, 2004;Welzel, 2013), focused particularly on increased individualism and endorsement of emancipative values. ...
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Sex differences in aspects of independent versus interdependent self-construal and depressive symptoms were surveyed among 5,320 students from 24 nations. Men were found to perceive themselves as more self-contained whereas women perceived themselves as more connected to others. No significant sex differences were found on two further dimensions of self-construal, or on a measure of depressive symptoms. Multilevel modeling was used to test the ability of a series of predictors derived from a social identity perspective and from evolutionary theory to moderate sex differences. Contrary to most prior studies of personality, sex differences in self-construal were larger in samples from nations scoring lower on the Gender Gap Index, and the Human Development Index. Sex differences were also greater in nations with higher pathogen prevalence, higher self-reported religiosity, and in nations with high reported avoidance of settings with strong norms. The findings are discussed in terms of the interrelatedness of self-construals and the cultural contexts in which they are elicited and the distinctiveness of student samples.
... Some of the SNS gender differences can be attributable to differences in personality traits. Gender differences in personality have been well-documented in large-scale (Kajonius & Johnson, 2018;Lehmann, Denissen, Allemand, & Penke, 2012) and cross-cultural studies (Costa, Terracciano, & McCrae, 2001;Lippa, 2010b;Schmitt, Realo, Voracek, & Allik, 2008). Some studies have even documented temperamental differences beginning in early childhood (Else-Quest, Hyde, Goldsmith, & Van Hulle, 2006). ...
... Some studies have even documented temperamental differences beginning in early childhood (Else-Quest, Hyde, Goldsmith, & Van Hulle, 2006). In general, findings show that among the Big-5 personality traits, women, in comparison with men, are notably higher in Neuroticism (Costa et al., 2001;Kajonius & Johnson, 2018;Lehmann et al., 2012;Lippa, 2010aLippa, , 2010bSchmitt et al., 2008) and Agreeableness (Costa et al., 2001;Kajonius & Johnson, 2018;Lehmann et al., 2012;Lippa, 2010aLippa, , 2010bSchmitt et al., 2008), and are somewhat higher in Extraversion (Lehmann et al., 2012;Lippa, 2010aLippa, , 2010bSchmitt et al., 2008) and Conscientiousness (Lippa, 2010a;Schmitt et al., 2008). ...
... Some studies have even documented temperamental differences beginning in early childhood (Else-Quest, Hyde, Goldsmith, & Van Hulle, 2006). In general, findings show that among the Big-5 personality traits, women, in comparison with men, are notably higher in Neuroticism (Costa et al., 2001;Kajonius & Johnson, 2018;Lehmann et al., 2012;Lippa, 2010aLippa, , 2010bSchmitt et al., 2008) and Agreeableness (Costa et al., 2001;Kajonius & Johnson, 2018;Lehmann et al., 2012;Lippa, 2010aLippa, , 2010bSchmitt et al., 2008), and are somewhat higher in Extraversion (Lehmann et al., 2012;Lippa, 2010aLippa, , 2010bSchmitt et al., 2008) and Conscientiousness (Lippa, 2010a;Schmitt et al., 2008). ...
... Gender differences in personality were found in many studies but results of the research were inconsistent [58][59][60][61][62]. For example, Mac Giolla and Kajonius [59] showed that women scored higher than men on all of the Big Five traits of personality and that these differences were larger in more gender-equal countries. ...
... For example, Mac Giolla and Kajonius [59] showed that women scored higher than men on all of the Big Five traits of personality and that these differences were larger in more gender-equal countries. However, in other studies, no gender differences were found in openness [58,[60][61][62], conscientiousness [58,62], or extroversion [61]. Thus, more research is needed to explain mechanisms of gender differences and disparities in particular previous research. ...
... For example, Mac Giolla and Kajonius [59] showed that women scored higher than men on all of the Big Five traits of personality and that these differences were larger in more gender-equal countries. However, in other studies, no gender differences were found in openness [58,[60][61][62], conscientiousness [58,62], or extroversion [61]. Thus, more research is needed to explain mechanisms of gender differences and disparities in particular previous research. ...
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Background: This study examined the relationship of academic performance with the Big Five traits of personality, academic motivation, and gender in a cross-cultural context. Methods: Participants in the study were 424 university students of physical education (PE) departments from Poland (53%) and Ukraine (47%). Undergraduates completed a brief version of the International Personality Item Pool (Mini-IPIP) to assess the Five-Factor model of personality, the Academic Motivations Scale (AMS), and grade point average (GPA). Results: Polish PE students scored higher in emotional stability and extroversion and had a higher GPA than Ukrainian PE undergraduates. Gender differences were found in both personality traits and academic motivation scales. Intrinsic motivation may predict academic performance. Conscientiousness and intellect emerged as mediators of the relationship between intrinsic motivation and academic performance and gender was found as a moderator in the relationship between conscientiousness and academic success. Conclusions: Women are more motivated regarding academic achievements than men. In addition to intrinsic motivation, the most important factors for academic grades are some personality traits, gender, and cultural differences. Openness and conscientiousness in men are mediators between intrinsic motivation and academic performance. The results of this study may be useful for PE academic teachers to improve the motivation of their students.
... Gender socialization theories (Ruble & Martin, 1998) argue that the proximate cause of sex differences in behavioral traits are sex-differentiated socialization pressures and practices. These are predicted to generate different behavioral traits in boys and girls, with more gender unequal societies generating larger sex differences than more gender-equal ones (Lippa, 2010). ...
... Thus, we predicted that gender-egalitarian societies with less rigid gender roles (i.e., those scoring higher on national indicators of gender equality and gender development) would have higher rates of bisexuality and homosexuality than gender-nonegalitarian societies with more rigidly defined gender roles. Because economic development (a potential proxy variable for capitalism) is often positively associated, across nations, with gender-egalitarian attitudes (e.g., Lippa, 2010), we further hypothesized that, across nations, economic development would also be associated with higher rates of bisexual and homosexual identities and attractions. ...
... A total of 255,114 people responded to at least some items in each of the six sections of the survey. A number of published studies have used the BBC data to investigate cross-cultural variations in various traits, and the results of these studies have been consistent with other cross-cultural studies (Lippa, 2009(Lippa, , 2010Lippa, Collaer, & Peters, 2010). ...
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The prevalence of women’s and men’s heterosexuality, bisexuality, and homosexuality was assessed in 28 nations using data from 191,088 participants from a 2005 BBC Internet survey. Sexual orientation was measured in terms of both self-reported sexual identity and self-reported degree of same-sex attraction. Multilevel modeling analyses revealed that nations’ degrees of gender equality, economic development, and individualism were not significantly associated with men’s or women’s sexual orientation rates across nations. These models controlled for individual-level covariates including age and education level, and nation-level covariates including religion and national sex ratios. Robustness checks included inspecting the confidence intervals for meaningful associations, and further analyses using complete-cases and summary scores of the national indices. These analyses produced the same non-significant results. The relatively stable rates of heterosexuality, bisexuality, and homosexuality observed across nations for both women and men suggest that non-social factors likely may underlie much variation in human sexual orientation. These results do not support frequently offered hypotheses that sexual orientation differences are related to gendered social norms across societies.
... There are clear sex preferences in the Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) domains (Lippa, 2010), and we expect the same sex preferences to underlie the formal care domains. Although sex ratio in STEM occupations has become less unbalanced in recent years, the sex differences remain in social disciplines such as Health and Welfare which has a greater proportion of female Ph.D. graduates (59%), contrasting with engineering, manufacturing, and construction (28%) (European Commission, 2016). ...
... Consistent with this notion, males and females show abilities and preference for things and people, respectively (Lippa, 1998). Meta-analytic studies revealed sex differences in terms of occupational preferences where females show preferences for people oriented jobs, while males for object oriented jobs (Su et al., 2009), and these sex-specific preferences were observed in all 53 nations of a review study where the size of the sex differences were uncorrelated with global variation in gender equity (Lippa, 2010). This indicates that sex differences in occupational preferences are universal across cultures and do not diminish in more gender egalitarian cultures. ...
... For instance, sexrole theory predicts that sex stereotyping about cognitive abilities and preferences is developed through socialization and nations that are more sex equal would have lower sex differentiated occupational pursuit (e.g., Riska, 2011). Yet, the sex differences appear universal, and unrelated to sex egalitarianism (Charles and Bradley, 2009;Lippa, 2010). In particular, the pursuit of STEM occupations observed the largest differences in sex egalitarian countries (e.g., Germany, Sweden, and Switzerland), and the smallest differences were observed in the least sex egalitarian countries (e.g., Colombia, Indonesia, and Tunisia) (Charles and Bradley, 2009). ...
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Men and women exhibit clear differences in occupational choices. The present article elucidates sex differences in terms of formal care occupational choices and care styles based on evolutionary psychological perspectives. Broadly (1) the motivation to attain social status drives male preference for occupations that signals prestige and the desire to form interpersonal affiliation underlies female preference for occupations that involve psychosocial care for people in need; (2) ancestral sex roles leading to sexually differentiated cognitive and behavioral phenotypic profiles underlie present day sex differences in care styles where men are things-oriented, focusing on disease management while women are people-oriented, focusing on psychosocial management. The implications for healthcare and social care are discussed and recommendations for future studies are presented.
... proposing an explanation about the nature of these GD in rich and gender egalitarian countries will be presented in addition to the statistical interpretation addressing it. Agreeability (A), which is nearly universally female dominated (Costa et al., 2001;Lippa, 2008;Schmitt, Realo, Voracek & Allik, 2008), and communal values are intercorrelated (Trapnell & Paulhus, 2012, Abele et al., 2016. Together, they can be highly responsible for the FUMIF (Eccles, 2007;Block, Croft & Alyssa, 2018;Smith, Brown, Thoman & Deemer, 2015;Ying, 2017). ...
... Thus, although attributional explanations remain valid, artefactual explanations do not seem to fully justify the observed GD in personality traits and why they vary across cultures (Schmitt et al., 2008;Lippa, 2008 (2012) propose to measure the distance between two fictional towns: Hightown and Lowtown. Their distance can be measured on three (orthogonal) dimensions: longitude, latitude and altitude. ...
... Surprisingly, Lippa (2008) reported a positive correlation of GDP only for A, however the author addressed the incoherence of his results compared to previous cross-cultural findings in his discussion. ...
... Feingold (1994) coded non-five-factor scales into facets, which map onto the FFM as it exists today (Neuroticism: anxiety and impulsiveness; Extraversion: gregariousness, assertiveness, activity; Openness: ideas; Agreeableness: trust and tender-mindedness; Conscientiousness: order), finding that women were more tender-minded, anxious, and trusting than men, but were less assertive than men across countries. In research conducted since, women have tended to score higher than men on dimensions of Neuroticism and Agreeableness (Costa et al., 2001;Feingold, 1994;Lippa, 2010;Schmitt et al., 2008;Weisberg, DeYoung, & Hirsh, 2011), highlighting a trend -namely that men and women display significant differences in personality along these two dimensions across countries. ...
... Although some consistency has emerged with respect to the presence of gender-based effect size differences on the Neuroticism and Agreeableness dimensions of personality, the differences between men's and women's scores on other dimensions are less consistent. For example, Weisberg et al. (2011) and Lippa (2010) reported that women scored higher than men on Extraversion, whereas Costa et al. (2001) did not find a significant overall difference between men's and women's scores on this dimension. The magnitude of effect sizes reported for personality dimensions in specific countries also varies widely across studies. ...
... (Costa et al., 2001;McCrae et al., 2005;Schmitt et al., 2008). Higher levels of gender equality and economic development have been associated with larger univariate gender differences in several FFM personality dimensions (Lippa, 2010). Also, Schmitt et al. (2008) found that effect sizes in Agreeableness were larger for participants from Caucasian backgrounds and gender differentiation was related to national wealth and prosperity. ...
Article
Researchers have been interested in cross-cultural gender differences in personality for decades. Early research on the five factor (FFM) model of personality focused on estimating the difference between men and women on personality dimensions, however results have varied. Using a large cross-country sample of personality data and advanced analytic techniques, we uncover accurate estimates of cross-country gender differences in personality. Relatively small (δÌ¿^ < |.10|) cross-country gender differences emerged on most FFM dimensions, with the largest differences emerging for Emotional Stability (δÌ¿^ = .38) and Agreeableness (δÌ¿^ = -.17). After controlling for socioeconomic indicators, gender indicators, and Type I error, only country-level Individualism accounted for unique variance in effect size differences for Emotional Stability. Implications and future directions are discussed.
... Significant gendered personality differences have been affirmed from both biological (Alexander, Wilcox, & Farmer, 2009;Campbell, Shirley, & Candy, 2004;Hines, 2006;Tapp, Maybery, & Whitehouse, 2011) and social perspectives (Bussey & Bandura, 1999;Eagly, Wood, & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2004;Wood & Eagly, 2002). Moreover, gendered personality differences hold across variant cultures and societies (Costa, Terracciano, & McCrae, 2001;Lippa, 2010;Schmitt, Realo, Voracek, & Alik, 2008). ...
... The effect of gendered differences along the things-people dimension has been affirmed as a global phenomenon as well. Lippa (2010) investigated four main personality traits (extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism and male/female occupational choice) in a meta-analysis involving samples from 53 countries and over 200,000 participants. Lippa found significant gendered differences in all countries for all four traits. ...
Article
The gender imbalance in the teaching profession occurs worldwide and declining male representation is a cause of concern. While some studies have looked into causes to explain disproportionate male representation, the notion that females may possess higher levels of teaching dispositional traits than males has not been empirically pursued in any depth. To address this, we investigated the effect of gender on 324 first year pre-service teachers’ dispositions toward teaching. Using the Teacher Disposition Scale (TDS) (West et al., 2018) to measure teaching dispositions, a Rasch analysis (Andrich, 1988) on the data indicated females were significantly more disposed toward being effective teachers than males on the core teacher dispositional traits of teacher efficacy, and interpersonal and communication skills. These findings provide initial evidence using a rigorous psychometric approach in the understanding of the significant effect of gender on teaching dispositions.
... Previous research has shown that the reliability of such scales is best computed using ipsatized items, which are computed by subtracting from individual item scores the participant's mean score for all ten items. Ipsatizing items controls for "elevation response set" (see Lippa, 2008bLippa, , 2010b. Scale reliabilities reported here were computed using ipsatized items. ...
... Effects sizes are presented for both raw and age-corrected measures. The group differences revealed in Table 4 were generally consistent with those documented by previous research (e.g., see Lippa, 2005Lippa, , 2009Lippa, , 2010aLippa, , 2010b. Table 5 shows intercorrelations of key predictor variables, computed separately for men and women. ...
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A diverse U.S. sample comprising 1437 men and 1474 women was assessed on sexual orientation, masculinity–femininity of occupational preferences (MF-Occ), self-ascribed masculinity–femininity (Self-MF), Big Five personality traits, sex drive, and sociosexuality (positive attitudes toward uncommitted sex). Discriminant analyses explored which traits best distinguished self-identified heterosexual, bisexual, and homosexual individuals within each sex. These analyses correctly classified the sexual orientation of 55% of men and 60% of women, which was substantially better than a chance rate (33%) of assigning participants to one of three groups. For men, MF-Occ and Self-MF distinguished heterosexual, bisexual, and gay men, with heterosexual men most gender typical, gay men most gender atypical, and bisexual men intermediate. Independently, higher sex drive, sociosexuality, and neuroticism and lower conscientiousness distinguished bisexual men from other groups. For women, gender-related interests and Self-MF distinguished lesbians from other groups, with lesbians most gender atypical. Independently, higher sociosexuality, sex drive, and Self-MF distinguished non-heterosexual from heterosexual women. These findings suggest that variations in self-reported sexual orientation may be conceptualized in terms of two broad underlying individual difference dimensions, which differ somewhat for men and women: one linked to gender typicality versus gender atypicality and the other linked to sex drive, sociosexuality, and various personality traits.
... After specifying the growth-curve models, we modeled the influence of gender on the intercept and slope variables. Gender is important to consider because there are small-to-moderate gender differences in certain personality traits, and men and women are disproportionally represented in occupational fields (Lippa, 2010). Gender was dummy-coded (women 0, men 1). ...
... In Table 3, positive values indicate that men scored higher, and negative values indicate that men scored lower. The pattern of gender differences was generally consistent with past research (Lippa, 2010), and the models displayed good or acceptable fit-for Sample 1, root-mean-square error of approximation (RMSEA) .04-.06, comparative fit index (CFI) ...
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This research examined whether personality changes from adolescence to young adulthood predicted five early career outcomes: degree attainment, income, occupational prestige, career-satisfaction, and job-satisfaction. The study used two representative samples of Icelandic youth (N1 = 485; N2 = 1,290) with personality traits measured over 12-years (age ~17- to-29 years). Results revealed that certain patterns of personality growth predicted career outcomes over and above adolescent trait levels and crystallized ability. Across both samples, the strongest effects were found for growth in emotional stability (income and career-satisfaction), conscientiousness (career-satisfaction), and extraversion (career- and job-satisfaction). Initial trait levels also predicted career success, highlighting the long-term predictive power of personality. Overall, findings show that personality has important effects on early career outcomes—both through stable trait levels and how people change over time. We discuss implications for public policy, theoretical principles of personality development, and young people making career decisions.
... Kişilik özelliklerinin, evlilik uyumu üzerindeki belirleyici etkisi erkek ve kadın gruplar açısından farklılaşmaktadır (Koydemir, Selışık ve Tezer, 2005). Birçok çalışmada Beş Faktör Kişilik Modeli'yle elde edilen değerlendirmelerde cinsiyet grupları arasında farlılıklar olduğu ve bu farklılıkların kültüre bağlı olarak değişim gösterdiği bildirilmektedir (Costa ve ark., 2001;Del Giudice, Booth ve Irwing, 2012;Lippa, 2010;Schmitt, Realo, Voracek ve Allik, 2008;Vecchione, Alessandri, Barbaranelli ve Caprara, 2012;Vianello, Schnabel, Sriram ve Nosek, 2013;Weisberg, DeYoung ve Hirsh, 2011). Örneğin, kadınların, endişeli, huzursuz, hassas, kırılgan, kıskanç ve duygusal tutarsız olma ile karakterize edilen duygusal denge faktörünün yüksek ucunda; geçimlilik, işbirliğine yatkınlık, insanlara güvenme, merhametli ve elsever olma gibi özelliklerle karakterize edilen uzlaşılabilirlik / uyumluluk faktörünün ise düşük ucunda yer almalarına bağlı olarak uyum düzeyleri erkeklerden daha düşük olmakta, bu durum ise eşlerinin uyumu üzerinde negatif bir etki oluşturmaktadır. ...
... Bu çalışmada ele alınan 17 boyutun 13'ünde eşler arasında farklılık tespit edilmiş, ayrıca kadınların, 12 alt boyutta erkek grubundan, erkeklerin ise bir alt boyutta kadın grubundan puan ortalamasının daha yüksek olduğu görülmüştür. Elde edilen sonuçlar, ilgili çalışmalarda bildirilen (Costa ve ark., 2001;Del Giudice ve ark., 2012;Lippa, 2010;Schmitt ve ark., 2008;Vecchione ve ark., 2012;Vianello ve ark., 2013;Weisberg ve ark., 2011) bulgular ile oldukça benzerdir. Kadın ve erkekler arası farklılıklar daha önce sunulanlarla uyumlu olduğuna göre elde edilen sonuçlar evlilik uyumunun incelenmesinde işlevsel olmaktadır. ...
Article
Personality traits are considered as one of the important factors that determine adjustment between couples. The aim of the present study is to evaluate whether personality scales can be used as alternative tools for measuring marital adjustment. For this purpose, the Five Factor Personality Inventory (5FPI), which is based on the five-factor model of personality, was administered to couples married for more than one year, using the 360-degree appraisal technique. Thus, it was aimed to determine the similarities and the differences in the personality profiles formed by the couples’ appraisals of themselves and their spouses. A total of 502 people (251 couple), 251 women between the ages of 20-57 and 251 men between the ages of 24-71 participated in the study. Marriage duration of the couples who participated in the study varied between 1 and 35. Participants completed the 5FPI long self-report form for themselves and an observer form for their spouses. Accordingly, after obtaining separate group profiles for women and men, women’s appraisals of themselves and men’s appraisals of their spouses, and men’s appraisals of themselves and women’s appraisals of their spouses were compared using the multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA). The examination of the men’s group profile showed differences between the appraisals of women for their spouses and the appraisals of men for themselves in terms of personality traits such as tolerance, calmness, soft heartedness / altruism, being organized, conscientiousness / decisiveness, analytical thinking, openness to change / new experiences. Along similar lines, there were differences between the women’s appraisals for themselves and men’s appraisals for their spouses in terms of personality traits such as soft heartedness / altruism, analytical thinking, sensitivity, openness to newness. Key words: personality, Five Factor Model of Personality, 360-degree appraisal, marital adjustment
... Diğer yandan kişilik özelliklerinde gözlenen kadın-erkek faklılığının küçük de olsa farklı kültürlerde farklılıklar gösterdiği belirtilmektedir. Bu farklılıklarda, farklı kültürlerde tanımlanmış sosyal normların ve cinsiyet rollerinin etkili olduğu vurgulanmaktadır (Costa ve ark., 2001;Lippa, 2010;Schmitt ve ark., 2008;Vianello ve ark., 2013). Kadın ve erkek arasında gözlenen kişilik özelliği farklılıklarında özellikle batı ve doğu kültürleri arasında farklılık olduğu belirtilmektedir (Costa ve ark., 2001;Schmitt ve ark., 2008;Weisberg ve ark., 2011). ...
... Bu çalışmalarda, kadınların Dışadönüklük, Yumuşakbaşlılık / Geçimlilik, Öz-Denetim / Sorumluluk, Duygusal Denge faktörlerinde erkeklerden daha yüksek puanlar aldıkları belirtilmektedir. Özellikle Yumuşakbaşlılık / Geçimlilik ve Duygusal Denge faktörlerindeki farklılığa vurgu yapılmaktadır(Costa, Terracciano ve McCrae, 2001;Lippa, 2010; Schmitt, Realo, Voracek ve Allik, 2008; Vianello, Schnabel, Sriram ve Nosek, 2013; Weisberg, DeYoung ve Hirsh, 2011). Türkçe konuşan katılımcı gruplarda da benzer sonuçlar paylaşılmıştır(Saltukoğlu ve Tatar, 2018; Somer ve ark., 2002;2004;Tatar, 2009;2016; Tatar, Şahintürk, Saltukoğlu ve Telvi, 2013; Tatar, Saltukoğlu, Dal ve Atay, 2013; Tatar, Saltukoğlu ve Teoman, 2017). ...
Article
Objectives: In the present study, it was aimed to examine personality characteristics of the employees in terms of job performance and job satisfaction depending on the Five Factor Model of personality. For this purpose, the personality traits that predict job performance and satisfaction were determined. Methods: A total of 4975 people (2142 female and 2833 male) from 278 different occupational groups have participated in the study. It was observed that participants ranged in age from 19 to 85 years. Working years of participants ranged between 1 and 63 years. Job performance and job satisfaction evaluations were gathered separately; personality assessments were conducted through the long form of the Five Factor Personality Inventory. In addition, personality characteristics of groups that were formed in terms of job performance and job satisfaction levels were compared. Results: In the first place, in order to predict job performance and job satisfaction levels multiple linear regression analyses were performed. Results showed that several personality factors and sub-dimensions predict both job performance and job satisfaction significantly. Afterwards, personality profiles of the participants were compared in terms of their levels of job performance and job satisfaction with MANOVA. The high job performance and job satisfaction group differed in many personality dimensions from the low job performance and job satisfaction group.
... Averaging across studies, Su et al. (2009) found an effect size of d ¼ 0.93 for the people vs. things sex difference. This is notably larger than most human sex differences (Hyde, 2005;Lippa, 2010;Stewart-Williams & Thomas, 2013a, 2013b, and indeed than most effects in psychology (Eagly, 1995). To get an intuitive sense of the magnitude of the difference, if one were to pick pairs of people at random, one man and one woman, the man would be more things-oriented than the woman around 75% of the time. ...
... Second, the same sex differences in occupational preferences have been found in every society where psychologists have looked for them. In one large study (N 200,000), Lippa (2010) found the differences in 53 out of 53 nations: a level of crosscultural unanimity almost unheard of within psychology. Importantly, the gender gap in occupational preferences was no larger in nations with higher levels of gender inequality, suggesting that gender inequality is not a major determinant of the gap. ...
Article
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It is a well-known and widely lamented fact that men outnumber women in a number of fields in STEM (science, technology, engineering and maths). The most commonly discussed explanations for the gender gaps are discrimination and socialization, and the most common policy prescriptions target those ostensible causes. However, a great deal of evidence in the behavioural sciences suggests that discrimination and socialization are only part of the story. The purpose of this paper is to highlight other aspects of the story: aspects that are commonly overlooked or downplayed. More precisely, the paper has two main aims. The first is to examine the evidence that factors other than workplace discrimination contribute to the gender gaps in STEM. These include relatively large average sex differences in career and lifestyle preferences, and relatively small average differences in cognitive aptitudes – some favouring males, others favouring females – which are associated with progressively larger differences the further above the average one looks. The second aim is to examine the evidence suggesting that these sex differences are not purely a product of social factors but also have a substantial biological (i.e. inherited) component. A more complete picture of the causes of the unequal sex ratios in STEM may productively inform policy discussions.
... Gay men report higher levels of neuroticism than heterosexual men (for recent meta-analysis, see Allen & Robson, 2020). 2 Neuroticism has been associated with strong relationship attachment and heightened empathy (Ashton et al., 1998); such traits would presumably facilitate kin-directed altruism among androphilic males, helping them to pass on their genes indirectly via kin (VanderLaan et al., 2011b). Similar to separation anxiety, neuroticism has been found to be associated with gender expression; for example, among heterosexual samples, masculinity negatively correlates with neuroticism (Lippa, 2010;Marušić & Bratko, 1998), and among both heterosexual and gay men increased recalled childhood gender nonconformity (GNC) positively correlates with neurotic traits (Lippa, 2008). 3 Thus, both childhood separation anxiety and adulthood neuroticism may be increased among a subset of gay men who are also more gender-nonconforming. ...
... however, the range reported is d= −.40 to +1.05. 3 Marušić and Bratko (1998) reported a negative correlation between a measure of masculinity (i.e., Bem's Sex Role Inventory) and neuroticism among heterosexual males, r= −.37, and among heterosexual females, r= −.27. Lippa (2010) found a negative correlation between neuroticism and male-versus-female-typical occupational preferences, r= −.48, in a large sample of predominantly heterosexual males and females. Lippa (2008) reported a positive correlation for neurotic traits ("anxious and easily upset") with childhood GNC in heterosexual men, r= .16, ...
Article
Male androphilia (i.e., male sexual attraction to adult males) is considered an evolutionary paradox because it is partially influenced by genes and associated with decreased reproduction. Traits associated with attachment to genetic relatives (i.e., kin) could prompt increased kin-directed altruism, thereby offsetting decreased reproduction by helping kin reproduce. These traits include childhood separation anxiety and adulthood neuroticism, which have been associated with feminine gender expression. In prior research, gay men with a receptive (Bottom or Versatile) anal sex role (ASR) reported greater childhood gender nonconformity (GNC) than those with an insertive (Top) ASR. We examined whether ASR groups also differed on recalled childhood separation anxiety and adulthood neuroticism. The Separation Anxiety Scale-Revised and Big-Five Personality Inventory - short form were completed by 350 gay and 146 heterosexual men. For neuroticism, ASR preference groups differed from heterosexual men but not from one another. Gay men who preferred a Bottom or Versatile ASR reported higher recalled childhood separation anxiety than Tops and heterosexual men. Recalled childhood GNC mediated ASR group differences with heterosexual men on childhood separation anxiety. These results indicate that subgroups of gay men delineated by ASR differ on an evolutionarily relevant developmental trait, childhood separation anxiety.
... For this purpose, they feel need to monitor their husband's Facebook and keeping tabs on them (Helsper & Whitty, 2010). Past research also showed that women experience negative emotions as compared to men (Johnson & Shulman, 1988) that may be sex-linked stereotypes showing women experiencing more anxiety, fear, distress (Grossman & Wood, 1993), and neuroticism (Lippa, 2010;Schmitt, Realo, Voracek, & Allik, 2008) as compared to men. In current study, participants' opinion about impact of Facebook on marital relationship was also sought through an open-ended question. ...
Article
The impact of Social Networking Sites (SNS), especially, Facebook in marital relationships is increasing in Pakistan. A model based on negative-effect hypothesis about SNS use was designed to test the effect of Facebook use intensity on marital satisfaction among married Facebook users. Sample comprised of 302 married Facebook users from capital city of Pakistan. Data were conveniently collected through using Urdu versions of Interpersonal Electronic Surveillance Scale (Tokunaga, 2011), Trust in Close Relationships Scale (Rempel, Holmes, & Zanna, 1985), Facebook Jealousy Scale (Muise, Christofides, & Desmarais, 2009), Comprehensive Marital Satisfaction Scale (Blum & Mehrabian, 1999), and six items for Facebook Use Intensity. Marital satisfaction as assumed was found to have significant positive relationship with trust in relationship and significant negative relationship with Facebook related jealousy and online surveillance. Findings revealed a process whereby Facebook related jealousy and online surveillance were the mediators for the trust and Facebook use intensity as predictors in predicting marital satisfaction. Men were found to be more satisfied and have more trust on their wives as compared to women. Women possessed more jealous feelings and indulged in more surveillance of their spouses on Facebook as compared to male counterparts. This conceptualization showed the causal relationship between intensity of Facebook usage and marital satisfaction that can help in studying the impact of growing technology upon marital relationships in Pakistani context.
... As time progressed, the samples of studies adding to these finding became larger. Lippa (2010) reported a negative correlation between UN gender development indices and sex differences in the personality trait "Agreeableness". This places personality variables in line with other, more biological measures like systolic blood pressure, which also shows greater sex differences in more developed countries (Hottenga et al., 2005). ...
Article
Sex differences in personality were found to be larger in more developed and more gender-equal societies. However, the studies that report this effect either have methodological shortcomings or do not take into account possible underlying effects of ecological variables. Here, a large, multinational (N = 867,782) dataset of personality profiles was used to examine sex differences in Big Five facet scores for 50 countries. Gender differences were related to estimates of ecological stress as well as socio-cultural variables. Using a regularized partial-correlation approach, the unique associations of those correlates with sex differences were isolated. Sex differences were large (median Mahalanobis' D = 1.97) and varied substantially across countries (range 1.49 to 2.48). Global sex differences are larger in more developed countries with higher food availability, less pathogen prevalence, higher gender equality and an individualistic culture. After controlling for confounds, only cultural individualism, historic pathogen prevalence and food availability remained. Sex differences in personality are uniquely correlated to ecological stress. Previously reported correlations between greater sex differences and socio-cultural liberalism could be due to confounding by influences of ecological stress.
... Personality traits also seemingly develop differently in males and females as a result of social environment experiences (Srivastava et al., 2003) and biological differences (Shaffer, 2009). Gender differences in personality traits have been documented in many studies (e.g., Costa Jr. et al., 2001;Ellis, 2011;Feingold, 1994;Lippa, 2010;Lynn and Martin, 1997;Schmitt et al., 2017;Vecchione et al., 2012;Weisberg et al., 2011). Females often report higher Neuroticism, Extraversion, Agreeableness and Openness to Feelings than males (Costa Jr. et al., 2001;Weisberg et al., 2011). ...
Article
Attachment experiences have been acknowledged as playing a fundamental role in personality functioning and psychopathology development across the lifespan. Although previous research has examined the associations between attachment styles/dimensions and personality traits, it has not focused on the maladaptive personality traits included in Section III of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5). The current study aimed to explore the associations and gender differences between the maladaptive personality traits of the Alternative DSM-5 Model for Personality Disorders and the two dimensions of adult attachment style (Anxiety and Avoidance). A socio-demographic questionnaire and the Portuguese adaptations of the Personality Inventory for the DSM-5 (PID-5) and the Experiences in Close Relationships (ECR) were applied to 106 Portuguese adults in a nonclinical sample. Gender differences in some personality traits, but not in the attachment dimensions, were found. Negative Affectivity particularly associated with Attachment Anxiety and Detachment especially correlated with Attachment Avoidance for both males and females. Attachment Anxiety and Avoidance were also found to account for less than half of the variance in all DSM-5 domains. These results appear to reinforce that attachment is closely related to personality and psychopathology. Limitations, future directions and clinical implications are discussed.
... To what extent this applies to groups within the same society remains an open question. For example, sex differences tend to be large (Verweij et al. 2016;Del Giudice et al. 2012) and consistent across nations (Feingold 1994;Lippa 2010). ...
... Domains that involve spatial processing tend to exhibit the largest sex differences in terms of average performance, interest, and the proportion of males to females involved in professions to which such abilities are central (Lippa 2010b;Valla and Ceci 2014;Wai et al. 2018;Su and Rounds 2015). Examples of such professions include controlling tools and vehicles (e.g., aircrafts, cranes, excavators, trucks, and submarines) mechanical construction and repair (e.g., buildings, roads, bridges, and infrastructure in general), engineering and the STEM fields in academia (Peers 2016), and ball games and other sports that involve spatial ability, such as shooting and racing (partly reviewed in Li 2014). ...
... This does not mean that exceptions are unimportant, or that sex should only be viewed through a categorical lens. For example, there are methods for ranking individuals of both sexes along a continuum of masculinity-femininity or male-female typicality (e.g., Lippa, 2001Lippa, , 2010aPhillips et al., 2018; more on this in Section 2.2.1). Variations in gender identity and sexual orientation can and should be studied in all their complexity regardless of whether sex is a biological binary. ...
Chapter
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This chapter offers a concise, systematic introduction to quantification in sex differences research. The chapter reviews the main methods used to measure sex differences and similarities, including standardized distances (Cohen’s d and Mahalanobis’ D), indices of overlap, variance ratios, and tail ratios. Some less common approaches (e.g., relative distribution methods, taxometrics) are also reviewed and discussed. The chapter examines the strengths and limitations of each method, considers various statistical and methodological factors that may either inflate or deflate the size of sex differences, and discusses the available options to minimize their influence. Other topics addressed include the effective visualization of sex differences/similarities, and the rationale for treating sex as a binary variable despite the complexities of sex-related identity and behavior.
... Research suggests that men may be willing to accept great risk and even reject any social support in order to 'prove themselves' in the eyes of others (Vandello and Bosson 2013). In light of this, future research may explore other possible variables that might account for men's preferences, including their orientation towards status (Huberman, Loch, and Önçüler 2004) or their stronger preference for 'thing-oriented activities' compared to women's greater preference for 'people-oriented activities' (Lippa 2010). However, in spite of these sex differences, all indirect paths were significant, thereby indicating that the relationships hold: the match between participant sex and sex-type of the venture evaluated predicts increased venture desirability and all the intervening variables. ...
Article
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This research explores the social-cognitive factors which lead both women and men to pursue ventures consistent with their gendered social identity, therefore, reinforcing the gender gap in entrepreneurship. We measured the self-assessments of individuals presented with experimentally manipulated entrepreneurial opportunities that were either consistent or inconsistent with their self-reported gender. A theoretical model derived from Social Role Theory is presented and tested. It posits that a gender match (mismatch) with the entrepreneurial opportunity results in higher (lower) reported self-efficacy, anticipated social resources, and venture desirability and lower (higher) venture risk perceptions. The experimental data are tested in a sequential mediation SEM model. We find evidence that self-efficacy and anticipated social resources mediate the effect of gender congruency on perceived risk and venture desirability. The results provide insight into the insidious barriers that play a role in reproducing a gender gap in entrepreneurial outcomes by ‘nudging’ women into lower-return ventures in less lucrative industries.
... Co se týče rozdílů osobností žen a mužů, psychologické studie potvrzují, že ženy mají oproti mužům vyšší míru přívětivosti a neuroticismu [Lippa 2010a[Lippa , 2010bFeingold 1994]. V případě pětifaktorového modelu osobnosti se genderové rozdíly projevují jemněji a jsou zaznamenatelné až na úrovni subškál některých osobnostních rysů (viz Tabulka 1). ...
Article
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Focusing on a subject largely neglected in mainstream Czech social stratification research so far, this study seeks to examine to what extent tertiary educational attainment and educational mobility are affected by personal factors, such as personality traits, physical attractiveness, and self-esteem. It is based on data drawn from a large-scale representative survey carried out in the Czech Republic (Neglected Human Capital Dimensions 2015) as the second follow-up to the OECD PIAAC project. The results show that physical attractiveness plays a significant role in tertiary educational attainment, especially in the humanities and social-science disciplines. As for personality traits, Openness to Experience and Extraversion are more beneficial for humanities degrees, whereas Neuroticism significantly decreases a person's chances of obtaining a degree in science. Conscientiousness and Self-esteem have a positive impact on upward educational mobility. The study also finds that there are some gender differences in the strength of the effect of personality factors, and that this is especially true for the trait of Agreeableness.
... It was reported in previous studies that there are differences between female and male individuals in terms of personality traits [34,35,36,37,38,39,40]. However, it was also reported that these differences changes according to culture as well [41]. ...
Article
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Since the HEXACO framework of personality is relatively newer than other models, the number of studies conducted relying on this model is fewer respectively. For this reason, the purpose of the present study is to examine the sports participation and personality relation in non-athlete adults based on the above-mentioned personality model and to compare personality profiles of the individuals who do and who do not engage in sports. The people who agreed to take part in this study were 1013 people in total, 537 of them were female and 476 were male. The main effect in the whole group was statistically significant. When the result is considered for the factors separately, statistically significant differences were detected among the groups for the Honesty-Humility factor, for the Emotionality factor, for the Extraversion factor and for the Openness to Experience factor. The Main Effect was statistically significant in the female group. Statistically significant differences were determined among the groups for the Emotionality factor, for the Extraversion factor, for the Conscientiousness factor and for the Openness to Experience factor. When only the male group was considered, it was determined that the Main Effect was statistically significant. Statistically significant differences were detected among the groups for the Emotionality factor, for the Extraversion factor and for the Openness to Experience factor. When the study is evaluated in general terms, it is seen and can be said that there is a relation between doing sports and personality traits in a Turkish-speaking participant group. Keywords: Sports, Non-athlete, Six-factor Model of Personality, HEXACO
... Por otro lado, se ha apuntado (Croson y Gneezy, 2009;Lippa, 2010) que la brecha salarial también podría estar originada, al menos parcialmente, por las diferentes preferencias de hombres y mujeres a la hora de optar por unos u otros empleos, supuestamente en concordancia con sus distintos rasgos e intereses personales, aunque esta es una vertiente explicativa ajena en general a la perspectiva de la economía y la sociología del trabajo. Se ha documentado, por ejemplo, que las mujeres, en promedio, muestran una mayor aversión al riesgo, menor aprecio por la competición y menor asertividad en la negociación de condiciones laborales (Rigdon, 2012), todo lo cual tendería a deprimir sus salarios en comparación con los de los hombres. ...
Article
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Resumen. En este artículo se parte de una distinción entre los conceptos de brecha salarial y discriminación salarial por razón de sexo, y se revisan las dos principales metodologías para estudiarlas: la aproximación econométrica y la inspección por muestreo. Se lleva a cabo un análisis de la estadística oficial de la Inspección de Trabajo del Ministerio de Empleo y Seguridad Social sobre la discriminación salarial de las trabajadoras, con especial atención a los resultados de las campañas para la detección de la discriminación salarial que se realizan desde 2009. Como resultado de este análisis, se pone de manifiesto que el volumen de discriminación salarial detectada es del todo insuficiente para explicar la brecha salarial encontrada en las Encuestas de Estructura Salarial. Palabras clave: brecha salarial; discriminación salarial; econometría; encuesta; muestreo. [en] When numbers speak. Analysis and assessment of the official statistics on gender wage discrimination in Spain (2005-2016) Abstract. In this article we assume that “gender pay gap” and “gender wage discrimination” indeed are different concepts and we carry out a revision of the two main methodologies to deal with them: econometrics approach and sampling inspection. We analyse the official statistics of the Ministery of Labor and Social Security´s inspection on gender wage discrimination, paying special attention to the campaigns for detecting female wage discrimination, conducted from 2009. The results of this analysis bring to light that the volume of the detected wage discrimination is not enought at all to explain the gender pay gap found in the spanish Wage Structure Surveys. Key words: econometrics; sampling; survey; pay gap; wage discrimination
... Females are slightly more orderly, while men are somewhat more industrious in comparison (the extremely hyper-industrious individuals, in particular, tend to be men). 215 If the goal is to gain a more nuanced understanding of sex-related differences, it is important to analyze each sub-trait in more depth than just merely look at the raw average scores drawn from personality questionnaires. More importantly, it is crucial to distinguish which traits that are more important than others in regard to proper personality development. ...
Research
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This is a monograph in a rather early stage. It was mostly written in 2018. I have used some of the ideas for later peer-reviewed articles on Korean culture that have been published, but mostly this is a a book about feminism as I considered it necessary to synthesize the literature in a rather novel way and provide a more balanced account on feminism(s) from a historical and contemporary perspective.
... One of the largest cross-cultural studies using Big Five is done on data from 76 countries and their responses on NEO PI R, which is considered as the gold standard of testing by some (Allik et al., 2017). This research has led to immense applications in business, personnel selection, training, skill acquisition, clinical psychology and others applied areas (Al-Qirim et al., 2020) (Bagby, Costa, Widiger, Ryder, & Marshall, 2005) (Lippa, 2010) (Hirsh & Peterson, 2008) (Cruz, da Silva, & Capretz, 2015) (Rehman, 2016) (Lynn & Martin, 1997) (Abood, 2019). Current research has increased not only our general understanding of normal personality traits but also maladaptive versions of human personalities, also known as personality disorders. ...
Preprint
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The IPIP-NEO-300 is a 300-item, freely available personality inventory based on the OCEAN Model of 30 distinctive personality traits. The inventory measures human personality preferences and groups them into five distinct factors, namely Openness to Experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism. The inventory has been translated into many languages before, but there was no translation and norms available for the Urdu language. This article reports the translation, creation of a web version, data collection (N=869), and reliability of an Urdu version of IPIP-NEO-300. We also conducted a CFA Analysis and Measurement Invariance test. Full measurement invariance was met for the full model, and partial measurement invariance was met for Neuroticism (metric and scalar) and extraversion (metric). In general, all models fit well and suggest that the Urdu IPIP-NEO-300 aligns well with the English IPIP-NEO-300. In some cases, the Urdu inventory performed better (e.g., higher internal consistency) than the English inventory.
... Findings that female students tend to achieve higher grades than males (O'Dea et al. 2018;Voyer and Voyer 2014) have been attributed to both sociocultural and biological influences (Voyer and Voyer 2014). One possibility is that females are somewhat higher than males in the personality trait of conscientiousness (Else-Quest et al. 2006;Lippa 2010;Schmitt et al. 2008), which leads them to invest more effort in their studies. This can explain the gender difference found in the present study. ...
Article
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Student tasks are assigned frequently in higher education to facilitate learning. For the students, the task grade is one of the motivating components for successfully performing a task. In this study, we presented students with a hypothetical task under different but equivalent grade computations (framings). Based upon principles derived from behavioral economics, the grade computations were framed as a loss or gain and explicitly or implicitly. Responding to each of these framings, 365 undergraduates reported their level of task engagement, task completion, and their anticipated regret for not completing the task (student outcomes). Findings revealed that when the task grade was framed as producing a potential loss in points, respondents reported higher student outcome levels than when framed as producing a potential gain in the grade. Furthermore, framing the grade’s consequence explicitly (without requiring the students to calculate it) had a stronger positive effect on student outcomes than when framing it implicitly.
... 1 to 4, representing the response categories "not at all," "not much," "some," and "very much." In accordance with prior research on gender-typed occupational interests (e.g., Dinella et al., 2014;Lippa, 2010), ipsatization was applied to correct for an elevated response set (tendency for individuals to show interest in many or few occupations); individuals' mean scores of all items were subtracted from scores of each item. Summary scores for the two subscales were then computed by averaging ipsatized item scores. ...
Article
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There are significant gender differences in both play behavior and occupational interests. Play has been regarded as an important medium for development of skills and personal characteristics. Play may also influence subsequent preferences through social and cognitive processes involved in gender development. The present study investigated the association between gender-typed play behavior in early childhood and gender-typed occupational interests in early adolescence. Participants were drawn from a British longitudinal population study, the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. Participants were recruited based on their parent-reported gender-typed play behavior assessed at age 3.5 years. There were 66 masculine boys and 61 masculine girls, 82 feminine boys and 69 feminine girls, and 55 randomly selected control boys and 67 randomly selected control girls. At age 13 years, the participants were administered a questionnaire assessing their interest in gender-typed occupations. It was found that masculine children showed significantly more interest in male-typical occupations than did control or feminine children. Compared with control children, feminine children had marginally significantly lower interest in male-typical jobs. Masculine children also had significantly lower interest in female-typical jobs than did control or feminine children. The associations were not moderated by gender and were observed after taking into account sociodemographic background, parental occupations, and academic performance. The degree of gender-typed play shown by preschoolers can predict their occupational interests 10 years later following transition into adolescence. Childhood gender-typed play has occupational implications that transcend developmental stages.
... Further, a large number of studies noted the effect personality traits have on the cognitive ability of older adults [285]. Aside from age, the current model neglects the gender [286] or cultural [239] differences of participants. ...
Thesis
Teams play a crucial role in many product development activities. However, teams - as complex socio-technical systems - are challenging to study in a real-world setting. Computational models and simulations offer easily controllable and cost-effective tools for supporting team studies. Computational models prove especially valuable in studies on the sufficient conditions for the emergence of various team properties and behaviours. As a consequence, the computational models offer a possible explanation of the observed phenomena and provide means for theory-testing and hypothesis generation. To support cognitive studies on product development teams, this dissertation develops a multi-agent system capable of representing various aspects of product development teams. Building on the existing theories, empirical studies and current teamwork models, this work derives a detail theoretical model of a designer, its cognition, its tasks, and interactions with others. The thesis then implements the theoretical model in a multi-agent system directed at studies of the emergence of team properties and behaviours – in particular, team learning and adaptation. Extensive testing of the derived computational model concludes the goal of obtaining a multi-purpose research tool for studies of product development teams and confirms the appropriateness of the chosen simulation technique – agent-based modelling - for the intended research goal.
... Zároveň je třeba si uvědomit, že ač maskulinita a femininita mají mnoho různých složek, rozhodně to neznamená, že tyto koncepty neexistují nebo jsou zcela bezobsažné (Lippa, 2008). ...
Conference Paper
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The purpose of the study was to examine possible predictors of Passionate love (Hatfield & Sprecher, l986) in long--term heterosexual romantic relationships. The research sample consisted of 147 participants, currently being in a long-term relationship (Md= 102 months). The strongest relationship was found between Passionate Love and variables: Sexual Attraction, Enjoying Time Together, Relationship Happiness and Partner’s Attractiveness. Passionate Love and Length of Relationship correlated negatively. 47.8 per cent of variance of Passionate love can be explained by regression model, which includes following variables: Enjoying Time Together, Sexual Attraction, Jealousy, Relationship Happiness and Relationship Satisfaction. Relationship Happiness, Relationship Satisfaction and Enjoying Time Together are moderate predictors of Passionate love. Keywords: love; passionate love; Passionate Love Scale; predictors of passionate love; long-term relationships
... A more plausible explanation, in our view, is that people in less wealthy, non-Western nations have less scope to pursue careers that interest them and a greater need to choose a lucrative career over a fulfilling one (Stoet & Geary, 2018). Consistent with this idea, although sex differences in STEM career choice are smaller in less wealthy nations, sex differences in STEM-related interests are just as large (Lippa, 2010). The assumption that gaps necessarily imply barriers deserves greater scrutiny -especially given that overstating the barriers could turn some girls and women away from a STEM career (Stewart-Williams & Halsey, 2021, pp. ...
Article
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We respond to El-Hout et al.’s commentary on our paper ‘Men, Women and STEM: Why the Differences and What Should Be Done?’. El-Hout et al. challenge several aspects of the position we present in the paper and outline their recent work on the concept of ‘masculine defaults’: a plausible contributor to the gender gaps found in some STEM fields. For the most part, El-Hout et al. present our views fairly and accurately. In a number of places, however, they misdescribe them, especially when it comes to policy options. In this response, we clarify and expand on our earlier arguments and explore various interesting issues raised by El-Hout et al.’s commentary.
... First, women reported higher levels of all the Big Five except openness in a study of 55 societies by Schmitt et al. (2008). Second, in a study of extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism, women reported higher levels of all three traits across 53 societies (Lippa, 2008). Third, women reported higher levels of all Big Five across 26 societies in another study (Costa et al., 2001). ...
Article
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Past research has found notable gender differences in the Big Five personality and that these differences may arise from cultural and ecological contexts. Social media has become part of everyday life with people constantly switching between social media and offline contexts. The present research addressed whether gender differences in the Big Five are the same between offline and social media contexts and potential explanations behind these gender differences between contexts. Across two samples of college students (total N = 943), women reported higher levels of all the Big Five personality traits than men in both contexts, except there were no significant gender differences in offline extraversion. Gender differences in extraversion and agreeableness were more pronounced on social media compared to offline. Gender differences in neuroticism were less pronounced on social media compared to offline. The findings further suggested that the amount of time spent on social media, the number of connections on social media, and public self-consciousness may serve as potential explanations for why these gender differences in personality were not the same between the two contexts. The findings from this research inform how advances in digital technology transform gender differences across contexts.
... Covariates. On a priori grounds, we defined a set of six covariates as potential confounders: gender (Hawton, 2000;Lippa, 2010;Trull et al., 2010), age (Moran et al., 2012;Shah, 2007), socioeconomic status (Jonassaint et al., 2011;Rehkopf & Buka, 2006), prebereavement suicidal and nonsuicidal selfharm (Ansell et al., 2015;Ribeiro et al., 2016;Whitlock et al., 2013), prebereavement depression (Fergusson et al., 2003), and perceived social support (Tuisku et al., 2014). We measured these as follows: ...
Article
Personality disorder is associated with increased risk of suicidal behavior. The authors aimed to investigate the association between number of personality disorder traits and suicidality risk following sudden bereavement. A secondary analysis of cross-sectional data on 3,167 young adults in the United Kingdom who had experienced sudden bereavement investigated the association between number of traits (measured using a standardized screening instrument) and postbereavement suicide attempt and suicidal ideation. Using multivariable logistic regression, the authors found a linear relationship between number of traits and suicide attempt (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 1.36, 95% CI [1.23, 1.49]) and suicidal ideation (AOR = 1.31, 95% CI [1.25, 1.38]) following bereavement. This represented an increase in odds by 36% and 31%, respectively, for each additional personality trait. The authors suggest that individuals with a greater number of traits suggestive of a personality disorder diagnosis are at increased risk of suicidality after a negative life event.
... Research suggests that men may be willing to accept great risk and even reject any social support in order to 'prove themselves' in the eyes of others (Vandello and Bosson 2013). In light of this, future research may explore other possible variables that might account for men's preferences, including their orientation towards status (Huberman, Loch, and Önçüler 2004) or their stronger preference for 'thing-oriented activities' compared to women's greater preference for 'people-oriented activities' (Lippa 2010). However, in spite of these sex differences, all indirect paths were significant, thereby indicating that the relationships hold: the match between participant sex and sex-type of the venture evaluated predicts increased venture desirability and all the intervening variables. ...
... None of this means that conservatives would oblige anyone to choose a job or activity that they assume would fit them -they welcome if the freedom of choice is open to everyone, and everyone can do what they want to do. But it is merely futile and pointless if we try to change trends that apparently are according to our own choices (Lippa 2008). Freedom here is in opposition to equality if it is understood as numerical equality. ...
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When we say, horribile dictu, sing that “Love is in the air” or “All you need is love”, then we all assume to know what it means. We mean the most important, most valuable and also most painful human feeling. The word ’love’ does not denote the split between eros, filia and agape, or the split between the meanings of ’szerelem’ (erotic or romantic love) and ’szeretet” (filial or familial love). It is difficult to believe but love actually has its own discipline: Love Studies, the science of love. I want to call your attention to the novelty and political opportunities of this approach. Love Studies goes beyond the analysis of discourses and examines the practices and experiences associated with love, which promote the liberation and actualisation of humans. Human in this case is meant in the Nietzschean sense.
... Nos esportes ligados à natureza, segundo Barbara Humberstone (2007), as hierarquias de gênero tradicionais são comumente reforçadas; contudo, em alguns 07 casos, podem oferecer oportunidades de transgressão e resistência. Estudos apontam que as mulheres, ao longo da história, superam barreiras culturalmente impostas para se inserirem no campo dos esportes de aventura em diferentes modalidades (FIGUEIRA, 2008;KAY;LABERGE, 2004;KNIJNIK;HORTON;CRUZ, 2010;LARENDEAU;SHARARA, 2008;LIPPA, 2010;ROBERTSON, 2003;SCHWARTZ et al., 2013;SISJORD, 2013;THORPE, 2011). Entretanto, elas são praticamente invisíveis, e suas conquistas representam pouco, perto dos desafios que ainda enfrentam. ...
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Este artigo investigou a trajetória de vida esportiva das atletas da equipe de corrida de aventura (CA) Atenah, formada exclusivamente por mulheres. A CA é uma competição multiesportiva, formada por equipes mistas, com ao menos uma pessoa de gênero distinto dos demais membros. A pesquisa qualitativa de caráter descritivo consistiu em entrevista semiestruturada com cinco atletas da equipe Atenah. Observou-se que as atletas utilizam estratégias de “subversão” e “conservação”, segundo Bourdieu, e constituem “agências”, segundo a teoria de Dworkin e Messner. O fato de organizarem uma equipe exclusivamente feminina pode ser entendido como “estratégia de subversão” ou a constituição de “agência resistente”. Paradoxalmente, utilizaram “estratégias de conservação” para se manterem no esporte, configurando, assim, “agência reprodutiva”. Conclui-se que o apoio e incentivo da família foi fundamental para o sucesso das atletas, porém, o engajamento das mulheres na corrida de aventura pode ser ameaçado pelas instituições do casamento e da maternidade.
... To address gender differences and ensure effective training outcomes, training professionals or adult educators need to have a clear understanding on how and why genders are different. The literature has indicated men and women are different in personality traits, occupational preferences, social network communication and approach to information sharing due to social expectations on genders and family roles (Chuang, 2015;Dieckhoff and Steiber, 2011;Lippa, 2010;Thompson and Lougheed, 2012). Sin (2016) examined approximately 800 undergraduate students on gender differences in application of social media for opportunities and challenges in everyday life information. ...
Article
Purpose Women make up about half of the overall workforce, but they are still underrepresented in higher pay, leadership and senior-level positions. Literature indicated genders are different in information processing, values, learning styles, behaviors and leadership styles. A customized women-only training program (WOTP) has been implemented cross-disciplinary; yet, the literature has limited discussions on the principle and outcome of WOTP. The purpose of this paper is to explore the purpose, application, challenges, advantages and disadvantages of WOTP. Design/methodology/approach Social learning theory was applied to investigate the fundamental principle of WOTP. Findings The implication of WOTP to human resource development (HRD) discipline was discussed, and three propositions were created in this paper. Originality/value This paper is expected to contribute to adult education and HRD research and practices on promoting gender equality in the workplace and to provoke dialogue about a training strategy – WOTP.
... Because humans rely on culture to transmit learned knowledge (Dunbar, 2006), these theories have been valuable for characterizing the social systems by which gendered information is spread via culture and integrated into identity (Wood and Eagly, 2015). However, relative to evolutionary predictions derived from PIT, these theories have had difficulty explaining certain patterns, such as the observation that sex differences become more exaggerated in societies with greater gender egalitarianism (Lippa, 2009(Lippa, , 2010Schmitt et al., 2017). Likewise, sex differences in personality are greater in countries with more gender equality (Kaiser, 2019;Schmitt et al., 2017) and economic development (Falk and Hermle, 2018), suggesting that when people are free to express individual differences without the constraints of social pressure and stigma, people are more likely to embody sex-typical preferences and attitudes. ...
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This chapter outlines how Robert Trivers’ Parental Investment Theory (PIT) has progressed from its original publication in Sexual Selection and the Descent of Man through its expansive application to research in the evolutionary psychological sciences. I begin with an abridged redux of the theory’s claims and predictions as they appeared within the original 1972 publication. After, I review groundbreaking research inspired by PIT and evaluate how well the theory has been empirically supported in the past 50 or so years. I then note several major theoretical advancements and address conflicts with other prominent theories of mating and parenting behavior. The chapter closes with several future directions that may help PIT remain a robust and relevant framework for studying human psychology within an increasingly technologically and socially complex world.
... Obtaining an educational degree in a particular field of study is a decision that is guided by preferences and expectations about the nature of the job that a particular study leads to (Lippa 2010). Initial decisions about the field of study are often gendered (Gundert & Mayer 2012) and not only determine the amount of time spent in education, but also strongly shape an individual's labour market career and further family decisions (Begall & Mills 2012;Gesthuizen et al. 2011). ...
... For example, current studies show how female respondents better recall various landmarks than men (Galea and Kimura, 1993;James and Kimura, 1997), and they more readily explore new shopping locations (Kruger and Byker, 2009). Contrary to men, who are more threatened by out-groups and show heightened cognitive vigilance towards unfamiliar people, females have evolved to be more open to new acquaintances (Kenrick et al., 2005;Wrangham, 1987) and they have been found to be more extroverted (Lippa, 2010) and demonstrate more trust in strangers (Feingold, 1994). In sum, evolutionary arguments suggest that women should be more open to unknown brands that are offered in familiar locations (or product categories). ...
Two experimental studies were run to investigate whether, how and why women would respond differently than men to unknown (unfamiliar, new) brands. Female respondents were found to develop higher purchase intentions than males when exposed to unfamiliar brands, and these effects were replicated across four product categories and stimuli. The mechanisms which explain these effects were also tested (i.e., women were observed to place more trust in unknown brands than men). This paper contributes to the current literature and practice by providing insights about women as customers: they are more trustful towards new offerings and more likely to buy unknown brands than men. Share Link: https://authors.elsevier.com/a/1bfNa3SU%7EVho-p
... Gender role identity is a result of interaction between an individual's self-cognition associated with masculine and feminine traits and social context (Lips, 2017;Dean and Tate, 2017). Some scholars believed that masculinity and femininity of gender role identity were not only used for classification of individual traits but they also played an important role in gender-related interests and preferences (Lippa, 1998(Lippa, , 2010. In addition, researchers argued that it is gender role identity rather than gender that determines career attainment, including career advancement and career aspiration (O'Reilly and O 'Neill, 2004, Powell and Butterfield, 2003, 2013. ...
Article
Purpose The purpose of this study is to explore how gender and gender role identity separately and jointly affect managerial aspirations. Design/methodology/approach The study was cross-sectional in nature. Survey data were collected from Chinese Government sectors. Two-way analysis of variance was used to test the research hypotheses. Findings The results showed that gender role identity and combination of gender and gender role identity predict management aspirations while gender alone does not affect management aspirations. Androgynous individuals self-reported higher scores of managerial aspirations. Female managers who perceive themselves as androgynous and masculine tend to possess higher management aspirations. However, when they perceive themselves to exhibit feminine traits, they are more likely to hold lower management aspirations. Moreover, male managers with androgynous and feminine traits are inclined to have higher management aspirations. Research limitations/implications Due to cross-sectional survey data, research results may be biased by common method variance. In addition, because of a convenient sample, the research results may lack generalizability. Moreover, with participants from different organizations, the percentage of men and women in the organization and participants’ role conflicts between work and family life would impact the gender role identity of individuals. Future research should control for the gender composition of the workplace and participants’ role conflicts between work and family life. Practical implications The findings can help narrow the gender gap of managerial aspirations through focusing on gender role identity in selecting managers and designing the leadership training program, ultimately resulting in diminishing disparity in top leadership positions between men and women. Originality/value This study examines how gender and gender role identity separately and jointly affects managerial aspirations in the Chinese context.
... That is, the proportion of individuals with a diagnosis of major depression was approximately twice as large in female samples compared with male samples, on average. Similarly, many studies show that female participants tend to score higher on neuroticism scales than male participants [17][18][19] . The aforementioned reviews suggest various explanations for the sex difference in depression rates, which show that sex differences in reporting biases cannot be the main reason. ...
Article
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A body of literature reports higher rates of depression and neuroticism in female samples compared to male samples. Numerous studies have investigated the role of prenatal sex hormone exposure in this sex difference, using the ratio between the second and fourth digit of the hand (“2D:4D”) as a putative marker. However, the sample sizes of those studies were mostly small and results remained inconclusive. The aim of the present study is to test the suggested associations between depression, neuroticism and the 2D:4D ratio in a large, representative sample of over 3,000 German individuals. It was hypothesized that a higher 2D:4D (supposedly representing a more “feminine” prenatal hormone exposure) would positively predict (1) one’s history of depression as well as (2) neuroticism rates and (3) acute depressive symptom scores. Controlling for biological sex, we only found suggestive evidence for linear associations with neuroticism in the case of left hand 2D:4D ratios and the mean 2D:4D of both hands. However, additional analyses indicated that these results may have been spurious due to confounding. Our findings suggest that the 2D:4D ratio is not a relevant predictor of depression, while there was mixed evidence in the case of neuroticism.
... These are listed here and are graphically displayed in the tables below. In terms of gender, women have been seen to score higher on Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism (Lippa, 2010). In terms of age, cross-sectional studies of Big Five traits show older people to score higher on Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, and Emotional Stability (Soto et al., 2011). ...
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Objective: This study explores a personality inventory derived from the results of an indigenous lexical study of personality. From the 272 most commonly used personality descriptors in Khoekhoegowab, the most-spoken of extant Khoesan click languages of southern Africa, an 11-factor model of personality-trait structure was identified. Here, the Khoekhoegowab Personality Inventory (KPI) was created based on those results. Its psychometric properties, the convergent and divergent validity of its scales, and its incremental validity over Big Five and Six traits for predicting physical and mental health, religious practice and attitudes, and income are reported. Methods: Two to five key terms were selected for each of 10 KPI scales: Temperance, Prosocial Diligence, Gossip, Honesty/Morality, Temper, Implacability, Humility, Vanity, Resiliency vs. Agitation, and Courage vs. Fear. These 38 total items were administered to a large sample of adult speakers of Khoekhoegowab in Namibia (N = 632), together with five imported inventories translated into Khoekhoegowab: the 30-item Questionnaire Big Six (QB6), General Self-Reported Health, the Cascades Mental Health Assessment, the Satisfaction with Life Scale, the Duke Religion Index. The properties and intercorrelations of KPI subscales are explored, and their predictive ability for the other variables is compared to that of the QB6. Results: Due to the small number of items on each scale, poor internal consistency was anticipated, but the KPI scales' properties were somewhat better than those of the QB6. R-square change by the inventories as a whole, after accounting for age and gender, indicted that the KPI scales explained more variance than the QB6 scales in almost all criterion variables. Replication of established associations for Big Six traits was mixed: associations were largely as expected for Resiliency, Conscientiousness, and Honesty, but less so for Agreeableness and Extraversion. Conclusions: The KPI had some advantages over the QB6 in predicting physical and mental health. In particular, the four items of Resiliency vs. Agitation predicted lower scores on all physical and mental problem scales. Given psychological-care needs in Namibia, this might be used as a non-intrusive screener. Measurement challenges common to both surveys are discussed, possible solutions, and the utility of higher-order structures are discussed.
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Sex differences in fear and pain suggest the possibility of sex differences in an underlying threat reactivity (or punishment sensitivity) system. This system would prime vigorous behavioral responses to threatening input and give rise to stronger, more quickly changing feelings within threatening contexts. Two studies sought to model such processes. Study 1 focused on emotion-primed losses of motor control in response to aversive, threatening noise. Women, but not men, exhibited a reactivity pattern of this type. Study 2 then examined subjective responses to affective pictures within a task that probed moment-by-moment changes. Women did not react more quickly to unpleasant pictures, but their reactions were larger in size and they were more dynamic, as reflected in a velocity of change metric. The results highlight processes of explanatory value in understanding and organizing a broader literature concerned with sex differences in motivation and emotion.
Article
Letters to editors of journals are a hallmark of scientific debate and communication. Incidentally, letters also serve as a relatively unconfounded model to test for a potential sex difference in scientific engagement because opportunity to write letters is equal. When studied in exercise science and physical therapy journals, the model is strengthened because these fields have higher numbers of female degree earners. The purpose of the current study was to determine if, despite equal opportunity, there is a sex difference in authorship of letters written to scientific journals. An inventory of letters written to 27 exercise science and physical therapy journals from 1963 to 2018 was created. Sex of the sole or first author was determined by first name or internet searches for the author’s photograph or biography. The search discovered 3203 letters. Author sex was determined for 3021 letters. Males authored 86% of letters; females authored 14%. Males authored more letters than females in all 27 journals and in every year except 1964. Thirty males authored five or more letters over the 56-years period. Only two females authored five or more letters. Exploratory analyses with Chi-square tests revealed the author’s sex was not associated with the editor’s sex. The results suggest males might “lean in” more than females to discuss and critique science publicly. This sex difference in letter writing might be due to psychological differences between the sexes—males are generally less agreeable, more competitive, and higher risk takers than females. However, such hypotheses remain to be tested.
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The aims of this article are: (i) to provide a quantitative overview of sex differences in human psychological attributes; and (ii) to consider evidence for their possible evolutionary origins. Sex differences were identified from a systematic literature search of meta‐analyses and large‐sample studies. These were organized in terms of evolutionary significance as follows: (i) characteristics arising from inter‐male competition (within‐sex aggression; impulsiveness and sensation‐seeking; fearfulness; visuospatial and object‐location memory; object‐centred orientations); (ii) those concerning social relations that are likely to have arisen from women's adaptations for small‐group interactions and men's for larger co‐operative groups (person‐centred orientation and social skills; language; depression and anxiety); (iii) those arising from female choice (sexuality; mate choice; sexual conflict). There were sex differences in all categories, whose magnitudes ranged from (i) small (object location memory; negative emotions), to (ii) medium (mental rotation; anxiety disorders; impulsivity; sex drive; interest in casual sex), to (iii) large (social interests and abilities; sociosexuality); and (iv) very large (escalated aggression; systemizing; sexual violence). Evolutionary explanations were evaluated according to whether: (i) similar differences occur in other mammals; (ii) there is cross‐cultural consistency; (iii) the origin was early in life or at puberty; (iv) there was evidence for hormonal influences; and (v), where possible, whether there was evidence for evolutionarily derived design features. The evidence was positive for most features in most categories, suggesting evolutionary origins for a broad range of sex differences. Attributes for which there was no sex difference are also noted. Within‐sex variations are discussed as limitations to the emphasis on sex differences.
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Sociability and social domain-related behaviors have been associated with better well-being and endogenous oxytocin levels. Inspection of the literature, however, reveals that the effects between sociability and health outcomes, or between sociability and genotype, are often weak or inconsistent. In the field of personality psychology, the social phenotype is often measured by error-prone assessments based on different theoretical frameworks, which can partly explain the inconsistency of the previous findings. In this study, we evaluated the generalizability of “sociability” measures by partitioning the population variance in adulthood sociability using five indicators from three personality inventories and assessed in two to four follow-ups over a 15-year period (n = 1,573 participants, 28,323 person-observations; age range 20–50 years). Furthermore, we tested whether this variance partition would shed more light to the inconsistencies surrounding the “social” genotype, by using four genetic variants (rs1042778, rs2254298, rs53576, rs3796863) previously associated with a wide range of human social functions. Based on our results, trait (between-individual) variance explained 23% of the variance in overall sociability, differences between sociability indicators explained 41%, state (within-individual) variance explained 5% and measurement errors explained 32%. The genotype was associated only with the sociability indicator variance, suggesting it has specific effects on sentimentality and emotional sharing instead of reflecting general sociability.
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Die vorliegende Schrift stellt eine zusammenfassende Erörterung von sechs meiner Veröffentlichungen der letzten Jahre dar, die sich empirisch mit Sprache, Kommunikation und Medien befasst haben. Diese sechs Veröffentlichungen werden einerseits entlang einer klassischen Mediensystematik (Primär-, Sekundär-, Tertiär- und Quartärmedium) sowie entlang der einzelnen Lebensleistungen der Lebensgeschichtstheorie (somatisch, Paarungsleistung, elterlich, nicht-elterlich) geordnet. Bei den sechs Veröffentlichungen handelt es sich um empirische Arbeiten, die u. a. folgende Ergebnisse zutage förderten: Es existieren Geschlechterunterschiede in der Sprachkompetenz von Vorschulkindern, die zum Teil durch einen Marker für pränatales Testosteron erklärt werden können. Die sprachliche Gewandtheit einer Person hat einen Einfluss darauf, wie attraktiv diese wahrgenommen wird, vor allem im Kontext einer langfristigen Partnerwahl. Pseudonyme erlauben hocheffektstarke Rückschlüsse auf das Geschlecht des Pseudonymverwenders; außerdem werden von Männern verwendete Pseudonyme als deutlich kreativer bewertet als von Frauen verwendete Pseudonyme. Es existieren Geschlechtsstereotype über den Filmgeschmack von Frauen und Männern, die angesichts tatsächlicher Geschlechterunterschiede im Filmgeschmack jedoch nicht gänzlich falsch sind. Diese Geschlechterunterschiede beziehen sich auf Genres, die einen Zusammenhang zu geschlechtsdifferenten Herausforderungen die Partnerwahl und damit assoziierte Phänomene betreffend erkennen lassen. Videospiele werden überwiegend von Männern im reproduktionsrelevanten Alter geschaffen. Die sechs Studien stehen vielfältig miteinander in Beziehung; teils wird diese Beziehung zusätzlich erläuternd dargelegt, teils werden ergänzend über die sechs Studien hinausgehende (eigene) empirische Daten präsentiert, die den Zusammenhang noch stärker herstellen und so verdeutlichen. Zwei Aspekte ziehen sich durch alle bzw. fast alle der sechs Arbeiten: Geschlecht und sprachliche Fähigkeiten.
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Secondary analyses of Revised NEO Personality Inventory data from 26 cultures (N = 23,031) suggest that gender differences are small relative to individual variation within genders; differences are replicated across cultures for both college-age and adult samples, and differences are broadly consistent with gender stereotypes: Women reported themselves to be higher in Neuroticism, Agreeableness, Warmth, and Openness to Feelings, whereas men were higher in Assertiveness and Openness to Ideas. Contrary to predictions from evolutionary theory, the magnitude of gender differences varied across cultures. Contrary to predictions from the social role model, gender differences were most pronounced in European and American cultures in which traditional sex roles are minimized. Possible explanations for this surprising finding are discussed, including the attribution of masculine and feminine behaviors to roles rather than traits in traditional cultures.
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This article evaluates theories of the origins of sex differences in human behavior. It reviews the cross-cultural evidence on the behavior of women and men in nonindustrial societies, especially the activities that contribute to the sex-typed division of labor and patriarchy. To explain the cross-cultural findings, the authors consider social constructionism, evolutionary psychology, and their own biosocial theory. Supporting the biosocial analysis, sex differences derive from the interaction between the physical specialization of the sexes, especially female reproductive capacity, and the economic and social structural aspects of societies. This biosocial approach treats the psychological attributes of women and men as emergent given the evolved characteristics of the sexes, their developmental experiences, and their situated activity in society.
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Four theories about cultural suppression of female sexuality are evaluated. Data are reviewed on cross-cultural differences in power and sex ratios, reactions to the sexual revolution, direct restraining influences on adolescent and adult female sexuality, double standard patterns of sexual morality, female genital surgery, legal and religious restrictions on sex, prostitution and pornography, and sexual deception. The view that men suppress female sexuality received hardly any support and is flatly contradicted by some findings. Instead, the evidence favors the view that women have worked to stifle each other's sexuality because sex is a limited resource that women use to negotiate with men, and scarcity gives women an advantage. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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The origins of sex differences in human behavior can lie mainly in evolved dispositions that differ by sex or mainly in the differing placement of women and men in the social structure. The present article contrasts these 2 origin theories of sex differences and illustrates the explanatory power of each to account for the overall differences between the mate selection preferences of men and women. Although this research area often has been interpreted as providing evidence for evolved dispositions, a reanalysis of D. M. Buss's (see record 1989-32627-001) study of sex differences in the attributes valued in potential mates in 37 cultures yielded cross-cultural variation that supports the social structural account of sex differences in mate preferences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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In a recent review, I. Gati (1991) criticized J. L. Holland's model of vocational interests and concluded that his own hierarchical model was superior. A major problem with Gati's comparison of his and Holland's models was that it was based on an incomplete specification of Holland's model. The relative validity of Holland's order and circumplex models and Gati's 3-group partition model as they fit 104 published (1965–1989) correlation matrices is evaluated. Using 3 separate structural meta-analytic techniques (L. Hubert & P. Arabie's, 1987, randomization test of hypothesized order relations, confirmatory factor analysis, and individual-differences cluster analysis), the fit of Holland's and Gati's models to the data were compared. Holland's order and circumplex models were found to be adequate representations of the structure of vocational personalities and work environments, and were found to be superior to Gati's model. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Schmitt's study provides strong support for sexual strategies theory (Buss & Schmitt 1993) – that men and women both have evolved a complex menu of mating strategies, selectively deployed depending on personal, social, and ecological contexts. It also simultaneously refutes social structural theories founded on the core premise that women and men are sexually monomorphic in their psychology of human mating. Further progress depends on identifying evolved psychological design features sensitive to the costs and benefits of pursuing each strategy from the menu, which vary across mating milieus. These design features, like many well-documented mating adaptations, are likely to be highly sex-differentiated.
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During human evolutionary history, there were “trade-offs” between expending time and energy on child-rearing and mating, so both men and women evolved conditional mating strategies guided by cues signaling the circumstances. Many short-term matings might be successful for some men; others might try to find and keep a single mate, investing their effort in rearing her offspring. Recent evidence suggests that men with features signaling genetic benefits to offspring should be preferred by women as short-term mates, but there are trade-offs between a mate's genetic fitness and his willingness to help in child-rearing. It is these circumstances and the cues that signal them that underlie the variation in short- and long-term mating strategies between and within the sexes.
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Conventional reviews of research on the efficacy of psychological, educational, and behavioral treatments often find considerable variation in outcome among studies and, as a consequence, fail to reach firm conclusions about the overall effectiveness of the interventions in question. In contrast meta-analytic reviews show a strong, dramatic pattern of positive overall effects that cannot readily be explained as artifacts of meta-analytic technique or generalized placebo effects. Moreover, the effects are not so small that they can be dismissed as lacking practical or clinical significance. Although meta-analysis has limitations, there are good reasons to believe that its results are more credible than those of conventional reviews and to conclude that well-developed psychological, educational, and behavioral treatment is generally efficacious.
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Spanish-language measures of the Big Five personality dimensions are needed for research on Hispanic minority populations. Three studies were conducted to evaluate a Spanish version of the Big Five Inventory (BFI) (O. P. John et al., 1991) and explore the generalizability of the Big Five factor structure in Latin cultural groups. In Study 1, a cross-cultural design was used to compare the Spanish and English BFI in college students from Spain and the United States, to assess factor congruence across languages, and to test convergence with indigenous Spanish Big Five markers. In Study 2, a bilingual design was used to compare the Spanish and English BFI in a college-educated sample of bilingual Hispanics and to test convergent and discriminant validity across the two languages as well as with the NEO Five Factor Inventory in both English and Spanish. Study 3 replicated the BFI findings from Study 2 in a working-class Hispanic bilingual sample. Results show that (a) the Spanish BFI may serve as an efficient, reliable, and factorially valid measure of the Big Five for research on Spanish-speaking individuals and (b) there is little evidence for substantial cultural differences in personality structure at the broad level of abstraction represented by the Big Five dimensions.
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Secondary analyses of Revised NEO Personality Inventory data from 26 cultures (N = 23,031) suggest that gender differences are small relative to individual variation within genders; differences are replicated across cultures for both college-age and adult samples, and differences are broadly consistent with gender stereotypes: Women reported themselves to be higher in Neuroticism, Agreeableness, Warmth, and Openness to Feelings, whereas men were higher in Assertiveness and Openness to Ideas. Contrary to predictions from evolutionary theory, the magnitude of gender differences varied across cultures. Contrary to predictions from the social role model, gender differences were most pronounced in European and American cultures in which traditional sex roles are minimized. Possible explanations for this surprising finding are discussed, including the attribution of masculine and feminine behaviors to roles rather than traits in traditional cultures.
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To test hypotheses about the universality of personality traits, college students in 50 cultures identified an adult or college-aged man or woman whom they knew well and rated the 11,985 targets using the 3rd-person version of the Revised NEO Personality Inventory. Factor analyses within cultures showed that the normative American self-report structure was clearly replicated in most cultures and was recognizable in all. Sex differences replicated earlier self-report results, with the most pronounced differences in Western cultures. Cross-sectional age differences for 3 factors followed the pattern identified in self-reports, with moderate rates of change during college age and slower changes after age 40. With a few exceptions, these data support the hypothesis that features of personality traits are common to all human groups.
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The Sociosexual Orientation Inventory (SOI; Simpson & Gangestad 1991) is a self-report measure of individual differences in human mating strategies. Low SOI scores signify that a person is sociosexually restricted, or follows a more monogamous mating strategy. High SOI scores indicate that an individual is unrestricted, or has a more promiscuous mating strategy. As part of the International Sexuality Description Project (ISDP), the SOI was translated from English into 25 additional languages and administered to a total sample of 14,059 people across 48 nations. Responses to the SOI were used to address four main issues. First, the psychometric properties of the SOI were examined in cross-cultural perspective. The SOI possessed adequate reliability and validity both within and across a diverse range of modem cultures. Second, theories concerning the systematic distribution of sociosexuality across cultures were evaluated. Both operational sex ratios and reproductively demanding environments related in evolutionary-predicted ways to national levels of sociosexuality. Third, sex differences in sociosexuality were generally large and demonstrated cross-cultural universality across the 48 nations of the ISDP, confirming several evolutionary theories of human mating. Fourth, sex differences in sociosexuality were significantly larger when reproductive environments were demanding but were reduced to more moderate levels in cultures with more political and economic gender equality. Implications for evolutionary and social role theories of human sexuality are discussed.
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Personality profiles of cultures can be operationalized as the mean trait levels of culture members. College students from 51 cultures rated an individual from their country whom they knew well (N=12,156). Aggregate scores on Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) scales generalized across age and sex groups, approximated the individual-level 5-factor model, and correlated with aggregate self-report personality scores and other culture-level variables. Results were not attributable to national differences in economic development or to acquiescence. Geographical differences in scale variances and mean levels were replicated, with Europeans and Americans generally scoring higher in Extraversion than Asians and Africans. Findings support the rough scalar equivalence of NEO-PI-R factors and facets across cultures and suggest that aggregate personality profiles provide insight into cultural differences.
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Psychological differences between women and men, far from being invariant as a biological explanation would suggest, fluctuate in magnitude across cultures. Moreover, contrary to the implications of some theoretical perspectives, gender differences in personality, values, and emotions are not smaller, but larger, in American and European cultures, in which greater progress has been made toward gender equality. This research on gender differences in self-construals involving 950 participants from 5 nations/cultures (France, Belgium, the Netherlands, the United States, and Malaysia) illustrates how variations in social comparison processes across cultures can explain why gender differences are stronger in Western cultures. Gender differences in the self are a product of self-stereotyping, which occurs when between-gender social comparisons are made. These social comparisons are more likely, and exert a greater impact, in Western nations. Both correlational and experimental evidence supports this explanation.
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Previous research suggested that sex differences in personality traits are larger in prosperous, healthy, and egalitarian cultures in which women have more opportunities equal with those of men. In this article, the authors report cross-cultural findings in which this unintuitive result was replicated across samples from 55 nations (N = 17,637). On responses to the Big Five Inventory, women reported higher levels of neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness than did men across most nations. These findings converge with previous studies in which different Big Five measures and more limited samples of nations were used. Overall, higher levels of human development--including long and healthy life, equal access to knowledge and education, and economic wealth--were the main nation-level predictors of larger sex differences in personality. Changes in men's personality traits appeared to be the primary cause of sex difference variation across cultures. It is proposed that heightened levels of sexual dimorphism result from personality traits of men and women being less constrained and more able to naturally diverge in developed nations. In less fortunate social and economic conditions, innate personality differences between men and women may be attenuated.
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This engaging text presents the latest scientific findings on gender differences, similarities, and variations--in sexuality, cognitive abilities, occupational preferences, personality, and social behaviors. The impact of nature and nurture on gender is examined from the perspectives of genetics, molecular biology, evolutionary theory, neuroanatomy, sociology, and psychology. The result is a balanced, fair-minded synthesis of diverse points of view. Dr. Lippa’s text sympathetically summarizes each side of the nature-nurture debate, and in a witty imagined conversation between a personified “nature” and “nurture,” he identifies weaknesses in the arguments offered by both sides. His review defines gender, summarizes research on gender differences, examines the nature of masculinity and femininity, describes theories of gender, and presents a “cascade model,” which argues that nature and nurture weave together to form the complex tapestry known as gender. Gender, Nature, and Nurture, Second Edition features: *new research on sex differences in personality, moral thought, coping styles, sexual and antisocial behavior, and psychological adjustment; *the results of a new meta-analysis of sex differences in real-life measures of aggression; *new sections on non-hormonal direct genetic effects on sexual differentiation; hormones and maternal behavior; and on gender, work, and pay; and *expanded accounts of sex differences in children's play and activity levels; social learning theories of gender, and social constructionist views of gender. This lively “primer” is an ideal book for courses on gender studies, the psychology of women, or of men, and gender roles. Its wealth of updated information will stimulate the professional reader, and its accessible style will captivate the student and general reader.
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This chapter presents reanalyses of data originally reported in McCrae (2001) in an enlarged sample of cultures. Analyses of age and gender differences, the generalizability of culture profiles across gender and age groups, and culture-level factor structure and correlates are replicated after the addition of 30 new subsamples from 10 cultures. Cross-cultural variations in the standard deviations of NEO-PI-R scales are also examined. Standardized factor- and facet-level means are provided for use by other researchers.
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The revolutionary study of how the place where we grew up constrains the way we think, feel, and act, updated for today's new realities The world is a more dangerously divided place today than it was at the end of the Cold War. This despite the spread of free trade and the advent of digital technologies that afford a degree of global connectivity undreamed of by science fiction writers fifty years ago. What is it that continues to drive people apart when cooperation is so clearly in everyone's interest? Are we as a species doomed to perpetual misunderstanding and conflict? Find out in Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind. A veritable atlas of cultural values, it is based on cross-cultural research conducted in seventy countries for more than thirty years. At the same time, it describes a revolutionary theory of cultural relativism and its applications in a range of professions. Fully updated and rewritten for the twenty-first century, this edition: Reveals the unexamined rules by which people in different cultures think, feel, and act in business, family, schools, and political organizations Explores how national cultures differ in the key areas of inequality, collectivism versus individualism, assertiveness versus modesty, tolerance for ambiguity, and deferment of gratification Explains how organizational cultures differ from national cultures, and how they can--sometimes--be managed Explains culture shock, ethnocentrism, stereotyping, differences in language and humor, and other aspects of intercultural dynamics Provides powerful insights for businesspeople, civil servants, physicians, mental health professionals, law enforcement professionals, and others Geert Hofstede, Ph.D., is professor emeritus of Organizational Anthropology and International Management at Maastricht University, The Netherlands. Gert Jan Hofstede, Ph.D., is a professor of Information Systems at Wageningen University and the son of Geert Hofstede.
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Differential reward and punishment of 3- and 5-year-old girls' and boys' sex-typed behaviors were examined using a laboratory analog of a natural play context. In study 1, mothers' and peers' reactions to sex-appropriate and sex-inappropriate play were observed. Fathers' reactions were assessed in study 2. Mothers used more reward for their children's play than did peers, while peers used more punishment than mothers. Both mothers and peers differentially rewarded and punished girls' sex-typed play, but boys received only differential punishment from peers. Fathers were generally more rewarding to girls and to 3-year-olds and more punishing to boys and to 5-year-olds. Moreover, fathers differentially rewarded play with same-sex toys and punished play with cross-sex toys for both sons and daughters. Implications for social learning and reciprocal-role theories of sex-role development are explored and a social network perspective emphasizing the complementary roles of mothers, fathers, and peers in children's social development is discussed.
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This study examines the role of gender stereotypes in justifying the social system by maintaining the division of labor between the sexes. The distribution of the sexes in 80 occupations was predicted from participants’ beliefs that six dimensions of gender-stereotypic attributes contribute to occupational success: masculine physical, feminine physical, masculine personality, feminine personality, masculine cognitive, and feminine cognitive. Findings showed that, to the extent that occupations were female dominated, feminine personality or physical attributes were thought more essential for success; to the extent that occupations were male dominated, masculine personality or physical attributes were thought more essential. Demonstrating the role of gender stereotypes in justifying gender hierarchy, occupations had higher prestige in that participants believed that they required masculine personality or cognitive attributes for success, and they had higher earnings to the extent that they were thought to require masculine personality attributes.
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A meta-analysis of 172 studies attempted to resolve the conflict between previous narrative reviews on whether parents make systematic differences in their rearing of boys and girls. Most effect sizes were found to be nonsignificant and small. In North American studies, the only socialization area of 19 to display a significant effect for both parents is encouragement of sex-typed activities. In other Western countries, physical punishment is applied significantly more to boys. Fathers tend to differentiate more than mothers between boys and girls. Over all socialization areas, effect size is not related to sample size or year of publication. Effect size decreases with child's age and increases with higher quality. No grouping by any of these variables changes a nonsignificant effect to a significant effect. Because little differential socialization for social behavior or abilities can be found, other factors that may explain the genesis of documented sex differences are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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This article considers scientific evidence relevant to 4 claims that are often made about the findings of research that has compared the sexes. These claims are that the sex-related differences demonstrated by empirical research are small, unusually unstable across studies, very often artifactual, and inconsistent with the content of gender stereotypes. The empirical status of these claims has been seriously weakened by the findings of numerous quantitative syntheses of research that have compared female and male behavior. This weakening of the evidence has jeopardized the feminist political agenda of using empirical research to disconfirm gender stereotypes to raise women's status. Consequently, comparing the sexes has become increasingly controversial among psychologists. To deal responsibly with the issues that have been raised, psychologists should consider the role that their research plays in discourse on the status of women in society. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Greater male than female variability is found in behavioral and morphological traits in animals. A theory that greater male variability is associated with variability in parental investment is described and contrasted with sexual strategies theory, which posits no sex differences in variability. Predictions from the theories were tested through meta-analyses of variance ratios for data sets involving sexually selected characteristics analyses (physical aggression and 5 aspects of mate choice) and 2 unlikely to have resulted from sexual selection (anger and self-esteem). Variation was significantly greater among men than women in 5 of the 6 former data sets and was similar for men and women in the latter 2 data sets, broadly supporting the predictions. A further analysis extends the theory to intellectual abilities. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Schmitt's findings provide little evidence that sex differences in sociosexuality are explained by evolved dispositions. These sex differences are better explained by an evolutionary account that treats the psychological attributes of women and men as emergent, given the biological attributes of the sexes, especially female reproductive capacity, and the economic and social structural aspects of societies.
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Based on a review of past research, a model is presented that integrates the study of masculinity–femininity (M-F), masculinity (M), and femininity (F) with the broader study of personality and individual differences. The model conceptualizes gender-related traits in terms of (1) the vocational/interest circumplex and (2) the Big Five and interpersonal circumplex models of personality. The first approach yields M-F as a bipolar trait that overlaps substantially with the People–Things dimension of vocational interests, and the second yields M primarily as instrumentality (or agency) and F as expressiveness (or communion). In the present model M-F, M, and F are each cohesive trait dimensions that show substantial discriminant validity from one another. M-F correlates with a number of important criteria, including self- and other-rated M-F, sexual orientation, transsexual vs nontranssexual status, scholastic aptitude and achievement, mortality risk, and social dominance and prejudice in men. M (instrumentality) and F (expressiveness) correlate most strongly with interpersonal kinds of behavior and adjustment. The current model resolves a number of theoretical controversies and suggests directions for future research.
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Holland uses a hexagon to model relationships among his six types of vocational interests. This paper provides empirical evidence regarding the nature of the interest dimensions underlying the hexagon. Two studies are reported. Study 1 examines the extent to which two theory-based dimensions—data/ideas and things/people—fit 27 sets of intercorrelations for Holland's types. Three of the data sets involve the mean scores of career groups (total of 228 groups and 35,060 individuals); 24 involve the scores for individuals (total of 11,275). Study 2 explores the heuristic value of the data/ideas and things/people dimensions by determining whether they contribute to the understanding of why interest inventories work. Two data sets covering a total of 563 occupations are used to calculate correlations between the vocational interests of persons and the tasks which characterize the persons' occupations. Each occupation's principal work tasks are determined from job analysis data obtained from the U.S. Department of Labor. Study 1 results provide substantial support for the theory-based dimensions. Study 2 results suggest that interest inventories “work” primarily because they tap activity preferences which parallel work tasks. Counseling and research applications of the data/ideas and things/people dimensions are suggested and implications for interest assessment are noted.
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In 3 studies (respective Ns = 289, 394, and 1,678), males and females were assessed on Big Five traits, masculine instrumentality (M), feminine expressiveness (F), gender diagnosticity (GD), and RIASEC (Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, Conventional) vocational interest scales. Factor analyses of RIASEC scores consistently showed evidence for D.J. Prediger's (1982) People-Things and Ideas-Data dimensions, and participants' factor scores on these dimensions were computed. In all studies Big Five Openness was related to Ideas-Data but not to People-Things. Gender was strongly related to People-Things but not to Ideas-Data. Within each sex, GD correlated strongly with People-Things but not with Ideas-Data. M, F, and Big Five measures other than Openness tended not to correlate strongly with RIASEC scales or dimensions. The results suggest that gender and gender-related individual differences within the sexes are strongly linked to the People-Things dimension of vocational interests.
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During human evolutionary history, there were "trade-offs" between expending time and energy on child-rearing and mating, so both men and women evolved conditional mating strategies guided by cues signaling the circumstances. Many short-term matings might be successful for some men; others might try to find and keep a single mate, investing their effort in rearing her offspring. Recent evidence suggests that men with features signaling genetic benefits to offspring should be preferred by women as short-term mates, but there are trade-offs between a mate's genetic fitness and his willingness to help in child-rearing. It is these circumstances and the cues that signal them that underlie the variation in short- and long-term mating strategies between and within the sexes.
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The contribution of cognitive perspectives (cognitive-developmental theory and gender schema theory) to a contemporary understanding of gender development is evaluated. Recent critiques of cognitive approaches are discussed and empirical evidence is presented to counter these critiques. Because of the centrality of early gender development to the cognitive perspective, the latest research is reviewed on how infants and toddlers discriminate the sexes and learn the attributes correlated with sex. The essence of cognitive approaches--emphasis on motivational consequences of gender concepts; the active, self-initiated view of development; and focus on developmental patterns-is highlighted and contrasted with social-cognitive views. The value of cognitive theories to the field is illustrated, and recommendations are made concerning how to construct comprehensive, integrative perspectives of gender development.
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This article provides an overview of a large-scale web-based survey, commissioned by the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), designed to investigate sex differences. I describe the background and challenges inherent to Web-based testing, the history and rationale behind this study, the design and implementation, and ethical and methodological considerations in the research design. I also discuss the kinds of data collected from around 255,000 participants, describe basic demographic information about the BBC sample, and examine reliability and validity, both internally and in comparison with other similar studies. I conclude that the dataset was largely reliable, and merits the analyses described later in this special section.
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BBC Internet survey participants (119,733 men and 98,462 women) chose from a list of 23 traits those they considered first, second, and third most important in a relationship partner. Across all participants, the traits ranked most important were: intelligence, humor, honesty, kindness, overall good looks, face attractiveness, values, communication skills, and dependability. On average, men ranked good looks and facial attractiveness more important than women did (d = 0.55 and 0.36, respectively), whereas women ranked honesty, humor, kindness, and dependability more important than men did (ds = 0.23, 0.22, 0.18, and 0.15). Sexual orientation differences were smaller than sex differences in trait rankings, but some were meaningful; for example, heterosexual more than homosexual participants assigned importance to religion, fondness for children, and parenting abilities. Multidimensional scaling analyses showed that trait preference profiles clustered by participant sex, not by sexual orientation, and by sex more than by nationality. Sex-by-nation ANOVAs of individuals' trait rankings showed that sex differences in rankings of attractiveness, but not of character traits, were extremely consistent across 53 nations and that nation main effects and sex-by-nation interactions were stronger for character traits than for physical attractiveness. United Nations indices of gender equality correlated, across nations, with men's and women's rankings of character traits but not with their rankings of physical attractiveness. These results suggest that cultural factors had a relatively greater impact on men's and women's rankings of character traits, whereas biological factors had a relatively greater impact on men's and women's rankings of physical attractiveness.
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By analyzing cross-cultural patterns in five parameters--sex differences, male and female trait means, male and female trait standard deviations--researchers can better test evolutionary and social structural models of sex differences. Five models of biological and social structural influence are presented that illustrate this proposal. Using data from 53 nations and from over 200,000 participants surveyed in a recent BBC Internet survey, I examined cross-cultural patterns in these five parameters for two sexual traits--sex drive and sociosexuality--and for height, a physical trait with a biologically based sex difference. Sex drive, sociosexuality, and height all showed consistent sex differences across nations (mean ds = .62, .74, and 1.63). Women were consistently more variable than men in sex drive (mean female to male variance ratio = 1.64). Gender equality and economic development tended to predict, across nations, sex differences in sociosexuality, but not sex differences in sex drive or height. Parameters for sociosexuality tended to vary across nations more than parameters for sex drive and height did. The results for sociosexuality were most consistent with a hybrid model--that both biological and social structural influences contribute to sex differences, whereas the results for sex drive and height were most consistent with a biological model--that evolved biological factors are the primary cause of sex differences. The model testing proposed here encourages evolutionary and social structural theorists to make more precise and nuanced predictions about the patterning of sex differences across cultures.
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Analyzing a large international data set generated by a BBC Internet survey, I examined sex differences and sexual orientation differences in six personality traits: extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism, disagreeable assertiveness, masculine versus feminine occupational preferences (MF-Occ), and self-ascribed masculinity-femininity (Self-MF). Consistent with previous research, sex differences and sexual orientation differences were largest for MF-Occ and for Self-MF. In general, heterosexual-homosexual differences mirrored sex differences in personality, with gay men shifted in female-typical and lesbians in male-typical directions. Bisexual men scored intermediate between heterosexual and gay men on MF-Occ; however, they were slightly more feminine than gay men on Self-MF. Bisexual women scored intermediate between heterosexual women and lesbians on both MF-Occ and Self-MF. Sex differences and sexual orientation differences in MF-Occ, Self-MF, and other personality traits were consistent across five nations/world regions (the UK, USA, Canada, Australia/New Zealand, and Western Europe), thereby suggesting a biological component to these differences.
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National differences in economic growth: The role of personality and culture
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