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Trade and the conservation status of the family Psittacidae in Venezuela

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Abstract

An assessment of trade in parrots throughout Venezuela, 1988–1989, reveals alarmingly high internal and international levels. The national trade has main outlets in major cities, but is now compounded by the use of feathers for Indian artifacts sold to tourists. International trade involves illegal export chiefly from the Orinoco Delta, the majority of such birds (65,000–75,000) destined for Guyana. The large macaws suffer badly from both types of trade, but owing to its restricted range the endemic Amazona barbadensis is perhaps the most critically threatened species. Other species are assessed and, along with key sites, identified in priority order for remedial action, which should include more detailed field studies, rigorous trade data analysis, exchange of trade data with major neighbours, census and monitoring technique improvements, educational campaigns, and strict breeding facility control.

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... The Yellow-shouldered Parrot (Amazona barbadensis) is one of the most endangered parrot species in Venezuela as a consequence of illegal pet trade and habitat loss (Desenne and Strahl 1991, Collar et al. 1994, Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez 1995. Its total population size is estimated at 10,000 individuals and it is considered vulnerable at a global level (BirdLife International 2000). ...
... When we compared our population-size estimates with those of previous reports, however, the population appeared to be stable. A population of 100 parrots was estimated during 1988 (Desenne and Strahl 1991) and 80 individuals were estimated in 1992. The latter was based on censuses conducted from vehicles, which allowed survey of the entire island (Rojas-Suárez 1994a). ...
Article
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The Yellow-shouldered Parrot (Amazona barbadensis) has a disjunct geographical distribution and the smallest population of the species inhabits La Blanquilla Island in the southern part of the Caribbean Sea. We conducted field work from 1993 to 1998 to gather information on the natural history and population status of this parrot on La Blanquilla. We compared that information with similar data gathered previously from Margarita Island. We found three communal roosts on La Blanquilla and estimated the parrot population to be similar to 100 individuals. We found an average of 8.8 +/- 3.6 active nests/year; all nests were in the central and western parts of the island, mainly in tree cavities of Guaiacum officinale. Nests on La Blanquilla Island were closer to the ground than nests on Margarita Island. The breeding season on La Blanquilla Island started later and clutch size was lower (2.24 +/- 0.95 eggs/nest) than on Margarita Island. Parrots were observed foraging on 12 plant species; most observations involved consumption of the fruit of Casearia tremula (Flacourtiaceae). The main threats to Yellow-shouldered Parrots on La Blanquilla are predation and illegal poaching. Survival of the Yellow-shouldered Parrot on La Blanquilla Island is uncertain because of small population size and increasing threat levels.
... In addition, the threats of wildlife trafficking in T&T extend beyond its borders and into neighbouring countries such as Venezuela. Between the years 1988 and 1989, a total of between 65,000 -75,000 birds were traded from Venezuela to T&T (Desenne & Strahl, 1991 The approach this research took was using expert interviewing to collect knowledge and implementation procedures from those who work directly and indirectly with CITES traded species. Expert interviewing is an exploratory research technique in which the respondents identified to be interviewed are an expert in the area being studied (Libakova & Sertakova, 2015). ...
Thesis
This study used expert interviewing (n=22) to provide the first comprehensive assessment on the implementation of CITES in Trinidad and Tobago (T&T). T&T became a Party to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) in 1984. However, T&T’s government agencies tasked with implementing CITES has faced numerous obstacles when trying to manage the illegal wildlife trade, many of which need to be addressed. Expert interviewing was used to acquire the data supported; a semi-structured questionnaire was distributed among experts wholly or any part thereof in the field of flora and fauna management, protection and conservation. The results were acquired by summarizing and coding the expert personnel responses to the questions posed. This work was further supplemented with a policy gap analysis of implementation documents, the proposed T&T CITES legislation, roles and functions of the Management and Scientific Authority of T&T and an analysis of CITES traded flora and fauna. The ultimate objective of this research is to make recommendations to guide the Government of the Republic of T&T (GoRTT) so they can have a strong institutional framework for co-ordinated planning and law enforcement operations, which are prerequisites for regulated trade (Eid,2010). The results of the study indicate that there are widely-recognized needs for training in CITES, a lack of communication from the T&T CITES Management Authority to other agencies, a lack of funding to purchase tools and equipment, and a lack of development of CITES implementing legislation. Keywords: CITES. Implementation. Institutional Framework. Wildlife Trading. Enforcement.
... La extracción -en su mayoría ilegal-de psitácidos de Venezuela para el comercio internacional, podría oscilar entre 5.000 y 65.000-75.000 ejemplares anuales (Boher-Bentti y Smith 1994, Desenne y Strahl 1991, 1994. Si la incidencia de psitácidos en hogares venezolanos es similar a la de Costa Rica, es muy probable que también en Venezuela la demanda nacional exceda el total de aves exportado por tratarse de un país con más habitantes que Costa Rica. ...
Chapter
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La tenencia de fauna silvestre en hogares es analizada en relación con la demanda que la sustenta y al proceso de consecución del animal. La iniciativa parte de adultos en la mayoría de los casos e involucra en menor grado a menores de edad tanto en la idea inicial como en la consecución misma. El animal se tiene como mascota en 98% de los casos. La mayoría de los animales actualmente en hogares se obtuvieron como regalo. Pero existe un comercio – en su mayoría ilegal e informal – que suple los animales a los usuarios que eventualmente los regalan. El 39.1% de los adultos han conseguido alguna vez en su vida un animal silvestres para su hogar.. En el 19.5% de los hogares que tienen o tuvieron fauna se consiguió un animal el año pasado. El 50% de los adultos que poseen fauna están dispuestos a reponer el animal si se muere. El 64% de los animales en hogares se mueren o se pierden. Su expectativa de residencia en el hogar es probablemente un promedio de cuatro años. El 45.3% de los animales que hubo en hogares en el pasado fueron repuestos. El 23.8% de los adultos están dispuestos a conseguir uno/otro animal silvestre para su hogar. Entre las personas que nunca han tenido mascotas silvestres, los psitácidos están en primer lugar de preferencia entre los animales que conseguirían. Aproximadamente entre 25.000 y 35.000 psitácidos alimentan anualmente esta demanda. La demanda actual por mascotas silvestres dentro de Costa Rica resulta en niveles de extracción del entorno natural que no son despreciables y que probablemente superan la presión generada por el comercio internacional de animales vivos.
... Birds kept in cages can be found in commercial and residential establishments, often originating from natural environments and rarely obtained from legal providers (Alves et al. 2013b;Licarião et al. 2013;Souto et al. 2017). Alves et al. (2013b) point out that about 295 species of wild birds are traded illegally throughout Brazil, while similar numbers have been reported throughout the world (Desenne and Strahl 1991;Santos-Fita et al. 2012;Daut et al. 2014). ...
Article
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The rearing of wild birds as pets is directly related to cultural and socioeconomic issues, as well as to population declines for the species involved. This study aimed to inventory wild birds that are reared as pets and analyze aspects of their commercialization and the sociocultural context of this activity in the semiarid region of Paraíba, Brazil. The data were obtained through interviews and semistructured questionnaires comprised of questions regarding wild birds kept in captivity. Thirty men with a mean age of 45 years were interviewed. The birds were identified through direct observation of the species. The Use Value Index, which is a quantitative index that lists species by importance based on usage citations, was calculated for each species in three different ways: UVgeneral, UVcurrent, and UVpotential. Thirty-six wild bird species distributed among 10 families and 26 genera were recorded. The birds were raised because of beautiful plumage and birdsong, ability to mimic sounds, and fighting potential. Trade on wild birds is a widespread activity. Twenty-one (70%) interviewees had obtained their animals from illegal trade, which encompassed all recorded species. Nine respondents were authorized to legally raise and breed these species in captivity. Bird trade is a widespread activity throughout the study region, where individuals of many species are sold at prices ranging from R5.00(US 5.00 (US 1.29) to R5000.00(US 5000.00 (US 1288.85). The results demonstrate the need to implement effective public policies aim at mediating the use and conservation of avian biodiversity, and improving the implementation of management plans for its conservation.
... Coats and Phelps attributed this extirpation of eastern Red Siskin populations to extensive exploitation for the cage bird trade. Indeed, trappers have reported thousands of individuals smuggled from easternVenezuela to the nearby island of Curacao(Coats & Phelps, 1985) and unsustainable trapping may still occur in this region(Dessene & Strahl, 1991;Marín-Espinoza, Guevara-Vallera, Prieto-Arcas, Muñoz-Gil, & Carvajal-Moreno, 2011). However, these areas are also the ones most affected by vegetation change. ...
Article
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Species distribution models (SDM) can be valuable for identifying key habitats for conservation management of threatened taxa, but anthropogenic habitat change can undermine SDM accuracy. We used data for the Red Siskin (Spinus cucullatus), a critically endangered bird and ground truthing to examine anthropogenic habitat change as a source of SDM inaccuracy. We aimed to estimate: (1) the Red Siskin's historic distribution in Venezuela; (2) the portion of this historic distribution lost to vegetation degradation; and (3) the location of key habitats or areas with both, a high probability of historic occurrence and a low probability of vegetation degradation. We ground-truthed 191 locations and used expert opinion as well as landscape characteristics to classify species' habitat suitability as excellent, good, acceptable, or poor. We fit a Random Forest model (RF) and Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) time series to evaluate the accuracy and precision of the expert categorization of habitat suitability. We estimated the probability of historic occurrence by fitting a MaxLike model using 88 presence records (1960–2013) and data on forest cover and aridity index. Of the entire study area, 23% (20,696 km²) had a historic probability of Red Siskin occurrence over 0.743. Furthermore, 85% of ground-truthed locations had substantial reductions in mean EVI, resulting in key habitats totaling just 976 km², in small blocks in the western and central regions. Decline in Area of Occupancy over 15 years was between 40% and 95%, corresponding to an extinction risk category between Vulnerable and Critically Endangered. Relating key habitats with other landscape features revealed significant risks and opportunities for proposed conservation interventions, including the fact that ongoing vegetation degradation could limit the establishment of reintroduced populations in eastern areas, while the conservation of remaining key habitats on private lands could be improved with biodiversity-friendly agri- and silviculture programs.
... En Latinoamérica existen pocos estudios actuales enfocados en conocer la situación actual de la distribución de las especies de la familia Psittacidae. En general, solo existen estudios enfocados a establecer especies prioritarias para conservación, como para los psitácidos en Venezuela y Colombia (Desenne y Strahl, 1991;Velásquez-Tibatá y López-Arévalo, 2004). ...
Article
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Se estimó la distribución histórica y contemporánea para la familia Psittacidae en México utilizando la mayor base de datos integrada hasta ahora y modelos ecológicos de nicho. Los modelos se generaron mediante el algoritmo MaxEnt. Se utilizaron temperatura y precipitación y se analizó la vegetación disponible y las áreas naturales protegidas decretadas hasta 2015. Los modelos no presentaron errores de omisión y permiten contar con estimaciones actuales para cada especie. La mayor distribución se estima para Amazona albifrons y la menor para Amazona auropalliata. Los resultados indican que todas las especies han perdido hábitat, principalmente Ara macao, Amazona auropalliata y A. oratrix. Aunque los bosques tropicales predominan en su distribución, los bosques templados presentan altos porcentajes para 6 especies. La proporción de superficie protegida es superior a estimaciones del año 2000. La estimación precisa de la distribución de los psitácidos presentes en México tiene implicaciones de conservación a nivel internacional, ya que 6 especies son endémicas y 4 tendrían su mayor distribución potencial en México de acuerdo con cifras de la IUCN. Ante la pérdida de distribución, algunas especies presentan una elevada vulnerabilidad presente y futura, por lo que se debe examinar la relación entre aptitud ambiental de los modelos y patrones de abundancia poblacional. El uso de modelos de nicho ecológico para evaluar cambios en distribución asociados al cambio climático es necesario.
... Approximately one third of the 140 New World parrot species are considered at risk (BirdLife 2000, Collar 1996, Collar & Juniper 1992, Snyder et al. 1999. Venezuela is home to 14 genera and 49 species in the family Psittacidae, representing 35% of Neotropical taxa (Desenne & Strahl 1991Phelps & Meyer de Schauensee 1994). They occupy all habitat types in the country, from the dry scrub across the Caribbean and Atlantic coasts, to the highland meadows (know locally as páramos) of the Andean cordillera in the west. ...
Chapter
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This edited volume is a collection of population and metapopulation models for a wide variety of species, including plants, invertebrates, fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Each chapter of the book describes the application of RAMAS GIS 4.0 to one species, with the aim of demonstrating how various life history characteristics of the species are incorporated into the model, and how the results of the model has been or can be used in conservation and management of the species. The book comes with a CD that includes a demo version of the program, and the data files for each species.
... In 1984, for instance, CITES reported that Guyana exported 51,671 psittacines compared to Suriname's 1,764. Not surprising that there have been charges of over-exploitation (Thomsen, J. B. & A. Brautigam, 1991) and rampant smuggling from Venezuela (Desenne and Strahl, 1991). Today, a better legal framework, including a quota system introduced in 1985, manages the wildlife trade more effectively. ...
Technical Report
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This report attempts to review and compare three countries with three very different approaches to wildlife use and conservation management. Complex issues and contradictions are involved in the wildlife and plant export trade, particularly when three countries are compared. The Guiana Region is only that – a region and not a union. While small in size and in close parallel proximity, the three countries are quite independent from one another and hitherto there has been little cooperation between them, at least as far the trade in wildlife is concerned.
... For example, Marín-Espinosa and collaborators (2011) obtained the specific offer rate of the birds found at the monitored markets. In the work presented by Desenne and Strahl (1991), the techniques for parrot trading in Venezuela were considered. Herrera and Hennesse (2008) provided information on the parrots' destination in Bolivia. ...
Article
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A large amount of birds are harvested from the natural environment for the pet market. This trade is a conservation issue and an economic income for many people. Though bird trade is common in Latin America there are few published studies. Therefore, we reviewed available literature to understand the background of this topic and to identify future relevant research topics. We collected, summarized and discussed literature about bird use as pets in Latin America, with a detailed approach in Mexico. We searched by keywords in web search engines and constructed a database of 159 documents. Brazil was identified as one of the main countries with research on birds use. Most of the papers focused on parrots (35%) and were conducted at a local geographical level (71%). Less than half of the papers (39%) are focused on the general use of birds, 54% on the use as pets and 7% on other uses. In Mexico, 73% of the information is “gray literature”, mainly congress abstracts. This literature review shows that wildlife use in general and wild birds use as pets in particular are common in Latin America. We bring to light that most of the information is not found in peer review journals and contains only lists of useful birds. Finally, we found that research on social organization and on the perceptions of the main actors is scarce, so we suggest more research in this direction in order to implement better management policies.
... It is found in the wild from Panama to eastern Brazil and Bolivia (Forshaw 1989). However due to a mix of habitat loss, local hunting and collection for the pet trade, the species is declining or locally extinct over large parts of its range (Desenne & Strahl 1991;Juniper & Parr 1998). The species went extinct on the island of Trinidad in the late 1960's but has since been reintroduced (Oehler et al. 2001, B. Plair pers. ...
Article
The Blue-and-gold Macaw is a stunning bird that is well known in the pet trade. It is found in the wild from Panama to eastern Brazil and Bolivia. While not formally endangered, it is declining in most parts of its range due to habitat loss and poaching for the pet trade. In many areas, the species is closely tied to the presence of palm swamps dominated by Mauritia flexuosa (Aguaje) palms. The birds eat the fruit and nest in the hollow dead palms. However, this palm tree is also threatened, as people commonly cut down the entire palm to harvest the edible fruits. The Blue-and-gold Macaw is a common site at the clay lick and in the palm swamps near Tambopata Research Center (TRC). In this report I will present information from my work at TRC on how the annual patterns of food supply apparently drive the timing of breeding and the movements of the birds, and how these drive the fluctuations in clay lick use. I will describe the creation of a Blue-and-gold nesting colony near TRC by mimicking naturally dieing sections of palm swamp. I will also discuss how ecotourism and nesting macaws can combine to help conserve valuable tropical forest areas.
... The Yellow-shouldered Parrot (Amazona barbadensis) inhabits the arid zones of Venezuela and the Caribbean islands of Margarita, La Blanquilla (Venezuela) and Bonaire (Netherland Antilles) (Rodríguez & Rojas-Suárez 1995). Globally, it is considered "vulnerable" (BirdLife International 2000) and, in Venezuela, it is one of the most endangered parrots because of habitat loss and the illegal pet trade (Desenne & Strahl 1991, Collar et al. 1992, Rodríguez & Rojas-Suárez 1995. As part of a program devoted to the conservation of the Yellow-shouldered Parrot on Margarita Island, we placed artificial nests in one of the species' breeding areas. ...
Article
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The use of artificial nests is a management technique used to increase the breeding population of endangered parrots. As part of a program devoted to the conservation of the Yellow-shouldered Parrot (Amazona barbadensis) on Margarita Island, Venezuela, we placed 16 wooden nests in one of the species’ breeding areas in 1993. The dimensions of nest boxes were based on the average measurements of natural cavities used as nests by Yellow-shouldered Parrots. Artificial nests were placed on tree species used by nesting Yellow-shouldered Parrots, and on other tree species as well. Artificial nests were used by Yellowshouldered Parrots for the first time in 1997, and during our study a total of four different boxes were used from 1997 to 1999. The overall success of Yellow-shouldered Parrots with artificial nests was poor (5.6%). This could be due to design problems of artificial nests or to the possibility that cavities were not a limiting resource in this area. Artificial nests suffered higher poaching rates because they were more conspicuous and the chicks were readily accessible through an observation door. A program to recover and improve natural cavities resulted more successful as a management technique for Yellow-shouldered Parrots. All 15 repaired cavities were used repeatedly shortly after being available.
... The sustainability and implications of the international bird trade have been extensively analyzed in recent years (Beissinger and Bucher, 1992; Thomsen and Mulliken, 1992;WCI, 1992), but figures that quantify illegal trade at the national level and its impact on the populations of the exploited species are scarce (Beissinger, 1994). There are very few published data on the extent of the domestic trade in Latin American countries, but there are some indications that it involves a substantial portion of those birds captured from the wild, and that current controls in these countries are not sufficient to eliminate poaching (Desenne and Strahl, 1991;In˜igo-Elias and Ramos, 1991;Thomsen and Brautigam, 1991;WCI, 1992;Wright et al., 2001). ...
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In some places of the northeastern Peruvian Amazon the harvesting and local trade of parrot nestlings is still a common practice (loreada) that takes place every year between February and April, despite being banned by the national laws. Between 1996 and 1999, I monitored the use of these birds in 3890-ha of Mauritia flexuosa-palm swamps, located close to the village of Victoria (Loreto, Peru). Seven species of parrots were collected by local poachers in the study area, with Amazona amazonica (61.1% of the captures) and Ara ararauna (25.9%) the most commonly harvested. The total number of nestlings taken during the 4-year study period was 1718, ranging from 680 birds harvested in 1996 to 166 in 1998. The two methods used to collect nestlings, cutting down the nesting tree or opening a hole in the trunk to reach the nest cavity, are not sustainable because nest-trees become useless and the next generation is completely removed. The analyses of demographic data and annual harvest rates suggest that at least three species (Ara ararauna, Ara macao and Amazona amazonica) are being over-harvested and may be seriously threatened in the long term.
... There are very few published data on the extent of the domestic trade in birds in Latin American countries, but there are indications that it involves a substantial portion of the birds captured in the wild and current control mechanisms within these countries are insufficient to eliminate poaching (Desenne and Strahl 1991, Thomsen and Brautigam 1991, Thomsen and Mulliken 1992, Renctas 2001, Weston and Memon 2009, Gastañaga et al. 2011. Without detailed information on the species traded and the numbers of specimens involved, it is impossible to judge accurately the impact of this commerce. ...
Article
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Brazil’s rich biological and cultural diversity makes it an exceptional location for examining the commerce in live wild birds and its implications for conservation. This paper catalogues the live bird species being traded in Brazil, characterises the trade in these animals, and discusses the implications for avian conservation. In spite of being illegal, capturing and selling birds is still a very common practice in Brazil and involves many actors who make up part of a large commercial network that distributes wild animals to every corner of the country. Our survey revealed that at least 295 bird species are illegally sold as pets in Brazil, with estimates derived from this data pointing to a total of more than 400 species - about 23% of the number of extant bird species in the country. Of the bird species recorded, two were classified as “Critically Endangered”, nine as “Endangered”, six as “Vulnerable”, and 19 as “Near Threatened” according to the most recent IUCN Red List. Most of the species recorded in this study as being widely bought and sold (including on the international market) are not listed by CITES even though many of them are in fact threatened. In light of the widespread illegal trade in wild birds in Brazil and the conservation implications for the species involved, there is an urgent need for actions that can control these activities. Steps should be taken to address the illegal traffic directly and these must include monitoring, law enforcement, effective sentencing (including deterrent sentences), targeting end-users, captive breeding, and education at all levels, taking into account the cultural, economic, social, and ecological aspects of the human populations involved.
... 1993), and captive birds in the town of Alamor were said to have been obtained from the border town of Huaquillas (Best et al. 1992). It is likely that the peak capture period is during the breeding season, in the mid/late hatching stage, as has been recorded in south-west Ecuador for B. pyrrhopterus (Platt 1991) and for many parrot species in Venezuela (Desenne and Strahl 1991). ...
Article
In order to determine whether Aratinga erythrogenys and Brotogeris pyrrhopterus can formally classified as globally threatened species, their distribution, population sizes and ecological requirements are reviewed, together with national and international trade data from the last decade. The study concludes that, on current data, it is not possible to classify the two species formally, but there are strong indications that, at least locally, the populations of the two species are in decline. The causal factors appear to be a combination of high trade levels and habitat loss. It is essential that trade moratoria are implemented, pending the outcome of further research into the species' population sizes, ecology and breeding success, and further work to determine the extent of trade. Interim recommendations are given and it is proposed that future exploitation of the species should continue only when it has been determined that it has a sustainable basis.
... The Yellow-shouldered Amazon ( Amazona barbadensis ) is one of the most endangered species of parrots in Venezuela (Desenne & Strahl 1991). Its total population size is estimated at 5000 individuals, patchily distributed along the northern coast of Venezuela and the outer islands of Margarita, Blanquilla, and Bonaire (Netherlands Antilles) (Forshaw 1989;Desenne & Strahl 1994). ...
Article
The Yellow-shouldered Amazon (Amazona barbadensis) is one of the most endangered species of parrots in Venezuela. An integrated conservation program has focused on reversing the causes of parrot population decline on the Macanao Peninsula in Margarita Island. As a result, the parrot population on the island has increased to about 1900 individuals in 1996 from an estimated population of 750 in 1989, when the project started. Cooperation from national and local authorities and the project’s community outreach have resulted in several confiscated chicks. Whereas most confiscated chicks were successfully reintroduced in a cross-fostering nest program, some had to be kept in captivity for later release. We hand-reared 14 A. barbadensis and housed them for a year in a large outdoor aviary. Before release the birds were screened to determine their general health. Four parrots were fitted with radio transmitters and monitored for a minimum of 11 months. All 4 birds with radio transmitters survived and adapted successfully to their natural environment, 10 of the 12 released parrots survived at least 1 year, and 1 was seen alive 34 months after release. Integration into wild groups varied from 5 days to 9 months, with the two youngest parrots showing a slower integration process. None of the parrots reproduced the first year after release. Later three were seen scouting nesting holes with their partners, and one of the parrots was confirmed attending a nest with three eggs 28 months after release. Two chicks fledged from this nest. A substantial portion of the success of this program rests on 5 years of previous work on environmental education, public awareness, and studies on the parrot’s biology. To provide some guidance on the costs of reintroduction projects, we estimated an overall expenditure of about U.S. 2800perparrot.Previousattemptstoreintroducecaptiveraisedparrotshavehadlimitedsuccess,andourstudyindicatesthatreintroductionisfeasiblewhencaptiveraisedparrotsareintroducedtoanareawitharesidentpopulation.Althoughreintroductioncansignificantlyreducethechancesofextinction,italsoinvolvessomerisks.ThelongtermsolutionagainstextinctionofA.barbadensiswillbeacombinationofscientificunderstandingoftheirbiologyandhabitat,awarenessbylocalhumancommunities,reductioninthewildbirdtrade,andcontinuedcommitmentbyconservationenforcementagencies.ReintroduccioˊnExitosadelLoroEspaldaAmarilladelAmazonasCriadosenCautiverioenlaIslaMargarita,VenezuelaLacotorracabeziamarilla(Amazonabarbadensis)esunodeloslorosmaˊsamenazadosdeVenezuela.UnprogramaintegradodeconservacioˊnseenfocoˊarevertirlascausasdeladeclinacioˊnpoblacionaldecotorrasenlaPenıˊnsuladeMacanao,enlaIsladeMargarita.Comoresultado,lapoblacioˊntotaldecotorrasenlaislaseincrementoˊhastalos1900individuosen1996,apartirdeunapoblacioˊnestimadade750individuoscuandocomenzoˊelproyectoen1989.Lacooperacioˊndelasautoridadesnacionalesylocalesylasactividadeseducativas,hanconducidoavariosdecomisosdepolluelos.Auncuandolamayorıˊadelospolluelosfueronreintroducidosenunexitosoprogramadenidosnodriza,algunossetuvieronquemantenerencautiverioparasoltarlosdespueˊs.Paraesteestudio,untotalde14A.barbadensisfueroncriadasamanoyalbergadasenungranaviarioduranteunan~o.Antesdesoltarlas,lasavesfueronsometidasaanaˊlisisdesaludgeneral.Selepusieronradiotransmisoresacuatrocotorras,ysemonitorearonpor11meses.Todaslascuatrocotorrasconradiotransmisoressobrevivieronyseadaptaronexitosamenteasuambientenatural,10delas12cotorrassobrevivieronalmenosduranteunan~o,yunacotorraestabavivaalmenos34mesesdespueˊsdesoltarlas.Laintegracioˊnagrupossilvestresvarioˊentre5dıˊasy9meses,ylasdoscotorrasmasjoˊvenesmostraronunprocesodeintegracioˊnmaˊslento.Ningunadelascotorrassereprodujoelprimeran~odespueˊsdesoltarlas.Tresdelascotorrasfueronvistasexplorandooquedadesconsusparejasduranteelsegundoan~o,yunacuartafuevistaatendiendounnidocontreshuevos,alos28mesesdespueˊsdesoltarla.Dospolluelosvolarondeestenido.Unapartesignificativadeleˊxitodeesteestudiosebasaen5an~osdetrabajoprevioeneducacioˊnambiental,conocimientodelpublico,yestudiosdebiologıˊadelascotorras.Paraguiarloscostosdeproyectosdereintroduccioˊn,estimamosqueelcostototalestuvoalrededordeU.S.2800 per parrot. Previous attempts to reintroduce captive-raised parrots have had limited success, and our study indicates that reintroduction is feasible when captive-raised parrots are introduced to an area with a resident population. Although reintroduction can significantly reduce the chances of extinction, it also involves some risks. The long-term solution against extinction of A. barbadensis will be a combination of scientific understanding of their biology and habitat, awareness by local human communities, reduction in the wild bird trade, and continued commitment by conservation enforcement agencies.Reintroducción Exitosa del Loro Espalda Amarilla del Amazonas Criados en Cautiverio en la Isla Margarita, VenezuelaLa cotorra cabeziamarilla (Amazona barbadensis) es uno de los loros más amenazados de Venezuela. Un programa integrado de conservación se enfocó a revertir las causas de la declinación poblacional de cotorras en la Península de Macanao, en la Isla de Margarita. Como resultado, la población total de cotorras en la isla se incrementó hasta los 1900 individuos en 1996, a partir de una población estimada de 750 individuos cuando comenzó el proyecto en 1989. La cooperación de las autoridades nacionales y locales y las actividades educativas, han conducido a varios decomisos de polluelos. Aun cuando la mayoría de los polluelos fueron reintroducidos en un exitoso programa de nidos nodriza, algunos se tuvieron que mantener en cautiverio para soltarlos después. Para este estudio, un total de 14 A. barbadensis fueron criadas a mano y albergadas en un gran aviario durante un año. Antes de soltarlas, las aves fueron sometidas a análisis de salud general. Se le pusieron radio transmisores a cuatro cotorras, y se monitorearon por 11 meses. Todas las cuatro cotorras con radio transmisores sobrevivieron y se adaptaron exitosamente a su ambiente natural, 10 de las 12 cotorras sobrevivieron al menos durante un año, y una cotorra estaba viva al menos 34 meses después de soltarlas. La integración a grupos silvestres varió entre 5 días y 9 meses, y las dos cotorras mas jóvenes mostraron un proceso de integración más lento. Ninguna de las cotorras se reprodujo el primer año después de soltarlas. Tres de las cotorras fueron vistas explorando oquedades con sus parejas durante el segundo año, y una cuarta fue vista atendiendo un nido con tres huevos, a los 28 meses después de soltarla. Dos polluelos volaron de este nido. Una parte significativa del éxito de este estudio se basa en 5 años de trabajo previo en educación ambiental, conocimiento del publico, y estudios de biología de las cotorras. Para guiar los costos de proyectos de reintroducción, estimamos que el costo total estuvo alrededor de U.S.2800 por cotorra. Pruebas anteriores para reintroducir loros criados en cautiverio han tenido éxito limitado. Los resultados de nuestro estudio indican que la reintroducción es posible cuando los loros criados en cautiverio son introducidos en un área donde existe una población silvestre residente. Aún cuando la reintroducción puede contribuir a reducir las oportunidades de extinción de esta y otras especies de cotorras, también acarrea riesgos. La solución a largo plazo contra la extinción será una combinación de entendimiento científico de la biología y habitat, conocimiento por parte de las comunidades humanas locales, reducción de la demanda de aves silvestres para el tráfico de mascotas, y la dedicación y continuidad de agencias conservacionistas y de guardería.
... International controls, however, affect only a portion of the trade in parrots. Although there are few published data on the precise extent of domestic trade in Neotropical parrots, there are some indications that it involves a substantial portion of birds captured from the wild (Desenne & Strahl 1991;Iñigo-Elias & Ramos 1991;Thomsen & Brautigam 1991;Best et al. 1995). Many of the countries covered by this study have had domestic bans on exporting parrots in place for years (Thomsen & Mul-liken 1992), but several also have species with poaching levels of Ͼ30% (e.g., Mexico, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Brazil). ...
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Although the poaching of nestlings for the pet trade is thought to contribute to the decline of many species of parrots, its effects have been pool ly demonstrated We calculated rats of mortality due to nest Poaching in 23 studies of Neotropical parrots, representing 4024 nesting attempts in 21 species and 14 countries We also examined how poaching rates vary with with geographic region, presence of active protection programs conservation status and economic value of a species, and passage of the U.S. Wild Bird Conservation Act. The average poaching rate across all studies was 30% of all nests observed. Thirteen studies reported poaching rates of greater than or equal to 20%, and four reported rates of >70%. Only six studies documented no nest poaching. Of these, four were conducted on islands in the Caribbean region, which had significantly lower poaching rates than the mainland Neotropics. The other two studies that showed no poaching were conducted on the two species with the lowest economic value in our sample (U.S. retail price). In four studies that allowed direct comparison between poaching at sites with active nest protection versus that at unprotected sites poaching rates were significantly lower at protected sites, suggesting that active protection efforts can be effective in reducing nest poaching. In those studies conducted both before and after the passage of the U.S. Wild Bird Conservation Act, Poaching rates were found to be significantly lower following its enactment than in the period before. This result supports the hypothesis that the legal and illegal parrot trades are positively related, rather than inversely related as has been suggested by avicultural interests. Overall, our study indicates that poaching of parrot nestlings for economic gain is a widespread and biologically significant source of nest mortality in Neotropical parrots.
... The actual magnitude of this trade, however, is probably underestimated by these ®gures. Illegal shipments of Venezuelan psitacids (parrots, macaws, parakeets, and parrotlets), for example, were estimated at 65,000±75,000 birds per year, leaving mainly through the Orinoco river delta to Guyana where they are then exported``legally'' to Europe and North America (Desenne and Strahl, 1991). ...
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Because of the relatively well-defined starting date of Venezuela's current economic crisis (early 1983), it provides an ideal model for exploring the effect of worsening economic conditions on biodiversity use. I focus on changing harvest intensities of wood, wildlife and fish, by comparing harvest patterns prior to and after the onset of the economic crisis (pre- and post-1983). Specifically, I analyze figures for (1) wood production, (2) ornamental fish exports, (3) commercial harvests of spectacled caiman (Caiman crocodilus) and (4) capybara (Hydrochaeris hydrochaeris), (5) national and (6) international illegal wildlife trade, and (7) Venezuela's fisheries. I also explore whether current resource use practices appear to be sustainable or not by concentrating on fisheries, as these have abundant data on both the annual per-species catch and the harvest effort. In general, the harvest of wood, wildlife and fish increased sharply after 1983 reaching previously unrecorded levels, growing at a higher rate than the human population. Also, the catch-per-unit effort of many popular fish species in local markets has declined, thus indicating an unsustainable harvest. Although more than one mechanism may explain these results, most of the evidence suggests that contraction of the economy led to increasing unemployment and the workforce shifted to natural resource exploitation as an alternative source of income and food. Regulating the growth of this largely informal and diffuse population of direct resource users will require innovative and creative policies both in Venezuela and other developing countries undergoing similar processes.
... Some have claimed that the illegal trade with neighboring countries plays an important role in Guyana's trade. Desenne (1991) observed parrots being imported into Guyana's northeast district from Venezuela. Furthermore, Kratter (1998) and Duplaix (2001) reported that large numbers of birds are exported illegally to Suriname every year. ...
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Thesis (M.A.)--University of Texas at Austin, 2005. Includes bibliographical references.
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Retention of genetic diversity in successive generations is key to successful ex situ programs and will become increasingly important to restore wild populations of threatened animals. When animal genealogy is partly unknown or gaps exist in studbook records, the application of molecular resources facilitates informed breeding. Here, we apply molecular resources to an ex situ breeding population of toucans (Ramphastidae), a bird family zoos commonly maintain. Toucans face population declines from illegal poaching and habitat degradation. We developed novel microsatellite markers using blood samples from 15 Keel-billed Toucans (Ramphastos sulfuratus Lesson 1830). Parentage of two individuals was known a priori, but possible sibship among 13 putative founders-including the parents-was unknown. We compared available avian heterologous and novel microsatellite markers to recover known relationships and reconstruct sibship. Eight of 61 heterologous markers amplified consistently and were polymorphic, but less so than the 18 novel markers. Known sibship (and three sibling pairs whose relatedness was unknown a priori) and paternity-though not maternity except in one case-were well-recovered using both likelihood and pairwise relatedness methods, when incorporating novel but not heterologous markers. Zoo researchers seeking microsatellite primer sets for their breeding toucan populations will likely benefit from our heterologous markers, which can be leveraged both to assess relatedness and select breeding pairs. We recommend that zoo biologists rely on species-specific primers and not optimize heterologous primers for toucan species without molecular resources. We conclude with a brief discussion of modern genotyping methods of interest to zoo researchers.
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De esta manera, el libro persigue no solamente presentar el estado actual de estas iniciativas de rescate de fauna en la región, sino además dar luces filosóficas, técnicas y operativas para enfrentar los desafíos que nos depara el nuevo milenio, a partir de un compromiso ya adquirido para con los animales silvestres. Las iniciativas manifiestas en las siguientes páginas son muestra del sentido de responsabilidad y preocupación con que muchas personas e instituciones han respondido al abuso al que se ve sometida a diario la fauna en Latinoamérica. De igual manera, tales iniciativas y el entusiasmo con que fueron elaborados los aportes a este volumen por sus autores reflejan un ímpetu y optimismo cuya inercia será sometida al implacable juicio de los lectores y del efecto multiplicador que generen estas líneas.
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Illegal wildlife trade is one of the major threats to Neotropical psittacids, with nearly 28% of species targeted for the illegal pet trade. We analysed the most comprehensive data set on illegal wildlife trade currently available for Venezuela, from various sources, to provide a quantitative assessment of the magnitude, scope and detectability of the trade in psittacids at the national level. We calculated a specific offer index (SO) based on the frequency of which each species was offered for sale. Forty-seven species of psittacids were traded in Venezuela during 1981–2015, of which 17 were non-native. At least 641,675 individuals were traded, with an overall extraction rate of 18,334 individuals per year (35 years of accumulated reports). Amazona ochrocephala was the most frequently detected species (SO = 3.603), with the highest extraction rate (10,544 individuals per year), followed by Eupsittula pertinax (SO = 1.357) and Amazona amazonica (SO = 1.073). Amazona barbadensis , Ara ararauna and Ara chloropterus were the fourth most frequently detected species (SO = 0.564–0.615). Eleven species were involved principally in domestic trade (> 60% of records). Our approach could be the first step in developing a national monitoring programme to inform national policy on the trade in psittacids. Patterns and numbers provided may be used to update the official list of threatened species, and could also be used in planning conservation actions.
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reas de Soltura do Estado de São Paulo, temos a grata satisfação de apresentar uma compilação de textos relativos aos trabalhos com reintrodução de psitacídeos no Brasil e no mundo. Além de vasto levantamento bibliográfico sobre o assunto, estão aqui agrupados , trabalhos realizados para o reforço populacional, recolocação, translocação ou reintrodução propriamente dita dos psitacídeos. A presente revista difere das anteriormente organizadas pelo IBAMA/SP, por possuir tema especialmente voltado ao grupo dos psitacídeos, em função desta ordem de aves ser grandemente visada pelo tráfico e da parceria com duas entidades com foco em psitacídeos para a realização do evento e da presente publicação: a World Parrot Trust e a Associação Bichos da Mata. Afinal, nada mais emblemático do que um papagaio que se apresenta aparentemente humanizado pelo cativeiro, ou demonstra eloquência na imitação da voz humana, mas que consegue retornar com sucesso à natureza, contrariando o que muitos julgariam impossível. Porém, tal feito não ocorre sem o esforço de muitos-técnicos desprendidos, leigos, órgãos governamentais e iniciativa privada, pessoas que acreditaram e ainda acreditam que podem fazer deste sonho uma realidade, além de inúmeros apoiadores nos trabalhos e nesta edição. Tais exemplos nos inspiram a continuarmos idealistas, sem deixar de lado também o embasamento técnico para a recolocação responsável desses animais de volta ao habitat natural, de onde estas aves nunca deveriam ter saído. A presente revista, apesar de não se propor a ser uma rígida publicação científica, traz indícios de que nos últimos anos houveram avanços significativos quanto à preocupação na devolução à vida livre de uma parte dos milhares, talvez milhões, de papagaios e congêneres capturados, e na adoção de cuidados para as solturas, possibilitando resultados e experiências que podem auxiliar e subsidiar outros trabalhos. Tais exemplos, espalhados pelo mundo, se difundem também em vários estados do país, como podemos aqui testemunhar. Alguns dos artigos são relatos menos sofisticados, ou simples notas, outros mais elaborados, com sucessos ou insucessos, mas todos engajados nesta nobre finalidade de alertar para a problemática do tráfico de fauna e combatê-lo, dando nova esperança para os animais apreendidos.
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Áreas de Soltura do Estado de São Paulo, temos a grata satisfação de apresentar uma compilação de textos relativos aos trabalhos com reintrodução de psitacídeos no Brasil e no mundo. Além de vasto levantamento bibliográfico sobre o assunto, estão aqui agrupados , trabalhos realizados para o reforço populacional, recolocação, translocação ou reintrodução propriamente dita dos psitacídeos. A presente revista difere das anteriormente organizadas pelo IBAMA/SP, por possuir tema especialmente voltado ao grupo dos psitacídeos, em função desta ordem de aves ser grandemente visada pelo tráfico e da parceria com duas entidades com foco em psitacídeos para a realização do evento e da presente publicação: a World Parrot Trust e a Associação Bichos da Mata. Afinal, nada mais emblemático do que um papagaio que se apresenta aparentemente humanizado pelo cativeiro, ou demonstra eloquência na imitação da voz humana, mas que consegue retornar com sucesso à natureza, contrariando o que muitos julgariam impossível. Porém, tal feito não ocorre sem o esforço de muitos-técnicos desprendidos, leigos, órgãos governamentais e iniciativa privada, pessoas que acreditaram e ainda acreditam que podem fazer deste sonho uma realidade, além de inúmeros apoiadores nos trabalhos e nesta edição. Tais exemplos nos inspiram a continuarmos idealistas, sem deixar de lado também o embasamento técnico para a recolocação responsável desses animais de volta ao habitat natural, de onde estas aves nunca deveriam ter saído. A presente revista, apesar de não se propor a ser uma rígida publicação científica, traz indícios de que nos últimos anos houveram avanços significativos quanto à preocupação na devolução à vida livre de uma parte dos milhares, talvez milhões, de papagaios e congêneres capturados, e na adoção de cuidados para as solturas, possibilitando resultados e experiências que podem auxiliar e subsidiar outros trabalhos. Tais exemplos, espalhados pelo mundo, se difundem também em vários estados do país, como podemos aqui testemunhar. Alguns dos artigos são relatos menos sofisticados, ou simples notas, outros mais elaborados, com sucessos ou insucessos, mas todos engajados nesta nobre finalidade de alertar para a problemática do tráfico de fauna e combatê-lo, dando nova esperança para os animais apreendidos.
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IUCN categorizes the blue-and-yellow macaw (Ara ararauna) as Least Concern (LC), but populations are going into decline with human pressure. Ex situ biological studies can assist the long-term conservation of wildlife. Monitoring of well-being using noninvasive methods is important to evaluate stress and can help captive breeding and reintroduction programs. This study evaluated the behavioral and hormonal response to environmental enrichment (EE) in captive blue-and-yellow macaws (n=22) in Cascavel Municipal Zoo and Conservation Center of Assis Gurgacz Faculty in Cascavel, PR - Brazil. Monitoring of birds by focal animal sampling method and excreta collection were performed during three stages (pre-enrichment, enrichment and post-enrichment). The frequencies of occurrence of the behaviors in each stage and the interaction frequency with enrichments among groups were analyzed. Excreta samples were subjected to hormone extraction, and the sample extraction will be subjected to enzyme immunoassay method (EIA) to analyze corticosterone metabolites, with physiological evaluation (ACTH challenge). We found that the most frequent behaviours during the three phases were “Vocalize”, “Movement” and “Resting”. Enrichment increased locomotion and movement and provided a reduction of vocalization, maintenance, feather bristling and negative social interaction. The birds showed greater interaction with items "Sunflower rolls", "Stuffed araucaria cones", "Corn cobs" and "Egg boxes". High levels of corticosterone were found in all stages: 136.56±20.99 ng/g, 132.81±19.51 ng/g e 124.62±16.30 ng/g (p = 0.798). Providing an enriched environment had a positive influence on the behavioral repertoire of captive blue-and-yellow macaws, increasing the well-being and life quality by reducing time spent passive and behaviors associated with stress, and reducing corticosterone metabolites concentrations, even though the results are not significant.
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Because of their phytophysiographical features, the Venezuelan Llanos have traditionally and drastically been affected by agricultural practices, oil exploitation and hunting, mostly in its eastern sector. Between 1998 and 2004 bird inventories were performed, using line transects and mist nets, in habitats corresponding to four ecological units: riparian-morichal (GM), deciduous forest (BT), savanna (SA) and lagoon (LA). Species richness, constancy and sensitivity of birds were estimated. A total of 206 species, grouped in 51 families and 18 orders, were recorded. The largest numbers of species corresponded to the Tyrannidae (34), Emberizidae (25), Accipitridae (12), Icteridae (10), Psittacidae (9) and Columbidae (9) families. The GM ecosystem showed the highest variety of birds. Of the species present in GM, 32.03% (66) were common to BT, 21.35% (44) to SA and 5.33% (11) to LA. The constancy study showed 48 common, 81 accessory and 112 accidental species. The highest sensitivity percentages were exhibited by GM (S=28.48%) and BT (24.62%), as they concentrated a higher number of threatened and/or hunting species. The avifauna of the Eastern Llanos is strongly disturbed by a wide range of human activities. In future management and conservation strategies, the studies should be linked to realist spaces ought to be selected where the largest bird diversity is present. A detailed map of disturbed or endangered areas is urgently needed, as well as information exchange between landowners and environmentalists in order to warrant the application of conservation plans to be developed.
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Threatened birds of the Americas (1992) detailed 327 species, of which only four had ranges entirely outside the Neotropics, showing how important this latter region is for global bird conservation, contributing 30% of all threatened birds on earth. Brazil had 97 threatened species, Peru 64, and Colombia 56. These countries, plus Mexico, held three-quarters of all threatened birds in the Americas. Over 78% (256) of all threatened bird species possessed ranges of less than 50,000 km². Some 57% of all threatened birds were confined to wet forest, 17% to dry forest, and 10% to grasslands, a rapidly disappearing habitat type. Over 76% suffered from loss of habitat (for 49% this is the only threat); 16% and 11% suffered significantly from hunting and trade respectively, and 8% were threatened as a function of their restricted ranges. Roughly 30% (twice as many as in Africa) were Endangered (highest category), another 30% divided equally between Indeterminate and Vulnerable, 30% were Rare, and 10% were Insufficiently Known (lowest). Of 146 species in the two highest categories, only nine were under sufficient management regimes, 23 might already have become extinct, 16 needed immediate intervention, and 42 needed very urgent attention. Parrots (28% of New World species threatened) and cracids (26%) suffered disproportionately through the combination of habitat loss and intensive human exploitation (trade and hunting respectively). A key means of saving threatened species lies in the identification and protection of areas in which they are sympatric.
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La depredación de animales domésticos por el yaguar (Panthera onca) está relacionada con la disminución en la disponibilidad de presas naturales por la pérdida de hábitat y la cacería. A pesar del bajo impacto de la depredación del yaguar sobre las poblaciones de animales domésticos, la persecución y cacería por conflicto es una de las principales amenazas para su sobrevivencia. Una estrategia propuesta es la reubicación de animales problema. En esta revisión se evaluaron los resultados obtenidos en programas de reubicación de yaguares a lo largo de su área de distribución, para determinar si esta estrategia de manejo resulta efectiva para disminuir la cacería por conflicto y así mejorar el estado de conservación de sus poblaciones. Se encontraron pocas evidencias para evaluar la efectividad de programas de reubicación de yaguares-problema, pues las deficiencias de diseño de los programas, impiden disponer de información confiable. Con base en los resultados de tres programas de reubicación y en opiniones de expertos, se considera que las reubicaciones han sido poco efectivas, aunque los especialistas indican que llevadas a cabo con control y continuidad, podrían ser una herramienta potencial para la conservación del yaguar. Los datos mostraron baja sobrevivencia de los yaguares reubicados; sin embargo, las fallas de diseño y evaluación dificultan el hallazgo de evidencia concluyente sobre la efectividad de la estrategia. Las características de los individuos reubicados, el área de liberación, la situación social y económica de las poblaciones humanas, son otros factores que han afectado los resultados de los programas.
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Una de las principales estrategias para la conservación del yaguar (Panthera onca) es el mantenimiento y manejo de áreas protegidas (AP) donde este depredador tenga alta disponibilidad de refugios y presas para mantener poblaciones viables. Muchas de las AP a lo largo de la distribución del yaguar no fueron creadas con el objetivo de conservar poblaciones de esta especie y la mayoría están siendo per turbadas por actividades humanas. El objetivo de esta revisión fue evaluar diferentes experiencias en manejo de AP a lo largo de la distribución del yaguar para determinar si esta estrategia es efectiva para mejorar el estado de conser vación de sus poblaciones, disminuyendo la pérdida de hábitat y la cacería del yaguar y sus presas naturales. La presencia, abundancia y viabilidad de las poblaciones de la especie variaron dependiendo del tamaño de las AP, encontrándose las poblaciones viables a largo y mediano plazo asociadas únicamente a AP de más de 100 km . No obstante, la evidencia encontrada sobre la efectividad de la estrategia, resultó insuficiente e inadecuada, por la heterogeneidad de los datos y la falta de diseños experimentales basados en comparadores robustos. De manera preliminar, se puede concluir que las AP podrían ser efectivas para la conservación del yaguar si se mantiene y/o amplía el sistema de AP existente, si se mejora su manejo y si se logra su interconexión a través de corredores biológicos. Los resultados orientan a los investigadores a iniciar y profundizar la evaluación de los programas de manejo y conservación de las especies amenazadas como el yaguar.
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Con base en los informes y productos del proyecto, consultorías técnicas, así como en reuniones y talleres de evaluación y seguimiento, el equipo vinculado al proyecto identificó una serie de aspectos positivos y negativos del método CBE y las intervenciones estratégicas y generó algunas recomendaciones que ayudarán a realizar nuevas adaptaciones en futuras experiencias en Venezuela. Inicialmente, el ejercicio de aplicar el método CBE logró generar información relevante para la toma de decisiones en conservación y para la formulación de futuras intervenciones. Sin embargo, la evaluación de la efectividad de las estrategias estudiadas se vio afectada por algunas limitaciones, relacionadas principalmente con la cantidad, calidad, y disposición de la información. En relación con las intervenciones estratégicas efectuadas para reforzar la conservación de especies amenazadas, la principal enseñanza que resalta es la utilidad de contar con ejercicios de priorización tanto para las especies que serán atendidas, como para las acciones que serán emprendidas. Si se resume el resultado de toda esta experiencia, las acciones más exitosas en cuanto a su contribución a la reducción del riesgo de extinción, fueron las intervenciones basadas en el manejo directo de la especie. No obstante, la comparación entre diferentes intervenciones estratégicas fue imposible debido a la ausencia de conclusiones precisas, la escala temporal, la escala geográfica, la necesidad de cooperación interinstitucional en decisiones de alto nivel, entre otras.
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Las principales amenazas para el yaguar son la pérdida de hábitat y la cacería por conflictos con actividades humanas. Cuando existe cacería por conflicto, los planes de conservación deberían considerar una medida indirecta para la protección del yaguar: la educación ambiental. Los programas de educación ambiental buscan mejorar el estatus de las poblaciones de yaguar, al disminuir o eliminar las amenazas para la especie. Ya que los programas de educación ambiental son estimados como uno de los recursos necesarios para lograr la conservación de esta especie, es necesario evaluar si los mismos cumplen con el propósito para el que fueron ideados y cuán efectivos son para la conservación del yaguar. En las búsquedas de información, sólo se obtuvieron dos trabajos para ser incluidos en la revisión, pero dichos estudios sólo evalúan la percepción que se tiene sobre el yaguar, y no llegan a abordar el tema de la educación ambiental vinculada a su protección. Estos trabajos presentaron opiniones totalmente diferentes en cuanto a la efectividad de estos programas. Ambos están fundamentados en evidencias poco sólidas y no justificadas, por lo que no se logró evaluar la efectividad de la intervención. Sin embargo, es importante mencionar que a lo largo de la revisión se encontró una cantidad considerable de trabajos que mencionaban la importancia de la educación ambiental para la conservación de la especie. Las características del área, las fuentes de amenaza del yaguar y las particularidades sociales de la población son factores que determinan la percepción sobre la especie, y por consiguiente, son consideraciones importantes a la hora de diseñar programas de conservación acordes a las realidades que los contextualizan.
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Dieciséis especies del género Amazona se encuentran actualmente amenazadas a consecuencia del saqueo y la destrucción del hábitat. La preservación de especies amenazadas dentro de áreas protegidas se considera como una de las estrategias más eficientes para su conservación, sin embargo existe poca información sobre su efectividad para la conservación de loros del género Amazona. La creación de áreas protegidas como estrategia para la conservación de loros Amazona ha sido usada principalmente en las islas del Caribe. Debido a las amenazas inminentes que enfrentan estos psitácidos, se evaluó la eficiencia de las áreas protegidas neotropicales en conservar poblaciones viables. Se realizaron búsquedas en bases de datos generales y especializadas, en bibliotecas y páginas Web sobre el tópico de la revisión. Además, se consultó a investigadores que trabajan con loros Amazona para obtener literatura gris. Se seleccionaron 19 documentos para ser incluidos en la revisión. La mayoría se relacionaba con distribución y ecología de las especies, tamaño poblacional y estatus de conservación. Sólo 13, de las 16 especies amenazadas del género Amazona, estuvieron representadas en los documentos seleccionados. La evidencia disponible en los estudios seleccionados fue insuficiente para determinar la efectividad de las áreas protegidas en la conservación de las especies amenazadas de Amazona. Sin embargo, algunos estudios indican que si se controlan algunas actividades humanas (deforestación y saqueo) que actualmente amenazan la sobrevivencia de los loros aún dentro de las áreas protegidas, dichas áreas serían de gran importancia en la conservación de estas especies.
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We studied the breeding biology of the Yellow-shouldered Parrot (Amazona barbadensis) on Margarita Island from March-August, 1990 to 1999. The timing of the different phases (egg-laying, hatching, fledging) was consistent over the years, except during 1998 when all phases were delayed. The average clutch size was 3.38 ± 0.78 eggs per nest, with a range of one to five eggs per clutch, and most eggs survived until hatching (3.36 ± 0.80 eggs per nest). Total clutch size and hatching success of this species on Margarita Island are among the highest in the genus Amazona, suggesting the Yellow-shouldered Parrot has a higher reproductive potential than other species of the genus. We detected interannual differences for some of the reproductive parameters, all in 1998, a year with an extreme drought. Egg losses totaled 20% and were caused by hatching failure, predation, and human disturbance. Forty-nine percent of nestlings were lost, mainly due to poaching. The number of fledglings per nesting pair averaged 1.27 ± 1.61, but varied greatly among years. Thus, in relation to the average total clutch laid, each pair lost an average of 62% of its initial reproductive investment.
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Las tortugas de agua dulce en Venezuela sufren declinaciones poblacionales a causa de inundaciones que ocasionan la pérdida de nidadas y la muerte de neonatos. Otros factores que inciden son la depredación natural y la cosecha de huevos por parte del hombre. Las intervenciones implementadas para disminuir la pérdida de nidos van desde la transferencia y resguardo de nidadas hasta la cría en cautiverio. La presente revisión busca evaluar la efectividad de estas intervenciones en la recuperación poblacional de tortugas de agua dulce. Se recopilaron publicaciones sobre tortugas de agua dulce producidas en Venezuela y en Latinoamérica. Sólo 17 de los trabajos analizados realizaron transferencias de nidadas y sólo dos analizaron el efecto del reforzamiento en la recuperación de una población. Se comparó el éxito de eclosión de nidadas transferidas y naturales, así como las pérdidas ocurridas por inundación y depredación para nidadas transferidas y no transferidas. Para el éxito de liberaciones de juveniles se compararon las estructuras de tallas de la población de una especie de tortugas bajo manejo contra otra especie sin manejo presente en la misma área. Los resultados indican que la transferencia de nidadas a nidos artificiales construidos en playas de anidación o en lugares ex situ, así como en incubadoras artificiales, logran éxitos de eclosión altos, inclusive mayores a los de las nidadas naturales, lo cual hace que esta intervención sea adecuada para evitar la pérdida de nidos. Con el reforzamiento poblacional mediante la liberación de juveniles, se observó una estructura poblacional integrada mayoritariamente por juveniles, en cambio, la especie a la cual no se le refuerza su población, presenta una estructura poblacional integrada por individuos adultos.
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En Venezuela existe un área protegida especialmente establecida para el resguardo de una especie de tortuga, el Refugio de Fauna Silvestre de la Tortuga Arrau (RFSTA), que protege las principales playas de anidación de Podocnemis expansa. Durante los últimos 20 años, en este refugio se ha recolectado información de la reproducción de P. expansa, que incluye tallas de hembras ponedoras, número y tamaño de nidos, transferencia de nidos y éxito de eclosión, entre otros datos. Con la presente revisión sistemática se buscó determinar cuántas especies de tortugas de agua dulce se encuentran dentro de las áreas naturales protegidas en Venezuela y determinar si las tendencias poblacionales de P. expansa en el RFSTA son producto de las intervenciones practicadas.Para ello e recopilaron publicaciones en revistas científicas; se consultaron bibliotecas, informes técnicos, tesis y archivos de instituciones nacionales, así como en páginas Web. Igualmente, se consultó a especialistas en Latinoamérica. No se encontraron resultados que permitieran evaluar el éxito de las intervenciones realizadas dentro de las áreas naturales protegidas, en cuanto a mejorar o mantener las variables poblacionales de las especies de tortugas. Algunas variables, como la estructura de tamaños de tortugas ponedoras, la estructura de tamaño de nidada y el número de nidadas por año, no mostraron tendencias claras en el tiempo. Fue notoria la falta de publicaciones suramericanas que evalúen los programas de conservación en función del aumento de las poblaciones de tortugas que protegen. Hasta tanto no se demuestre que las medidas adoptadas incrementan la población protegida, no se podrá determinar si estas acciones son adecuadas para recuperar a la especie, lo que puede implicar pérdida de esfuerzo y de recursos.
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La herramienta usada con más frecuencia para sensibilizar comunidades hacia especies amenazadas ha sido la educación ambiental. En esta revisión sistemática, se evaluó la efectividad de la educación ambiental como estrategia para generar actitudes positivas hacia la conservación del oso andino. Sólo Venezuela (50%), Ecuador (46%) y Colombia (4%) presentaron trabajos que describieron la educación ambiental como estrategia para mitigar las amenazas sobre la especie. Se encontró gran variabilidad en el medio utilizado para transmitir el mensaje educativo y el tipo de participante involucrado, siendo la propaganda la herramienta más empleada y la comunidad general o escolar los involucrados con mayor frecuencia. El mensaje más utilizado fue el valor natural de la especie. Sólo tres referencias evaluaron la efectividad de programas educativos con estimaciones de cambios en conocimiento y/o actitudes antes y después de la intervención. Únicamente aquellas poblaciones sin contacto con la especie ni historial de conflictos presentaron incrementos significativos en su conocimiento sobre el oso andino. Los programas de educación implementados no han generado cambios de actitudes en los participantes en contacto con la especie y con historial de conflicto, debido probablemente a la descontextualización del mensaje y la falta de continuidad de las actividades. En consecuencia, los proyectos educativos deben ser formulados en función de la relación comunidad-especie existente, deben venir acompañados de soluciones prácticas para los problemas de los pobladores y establecerse a mediano y largo plazo. Los programas de educación existentes deben ser evaluados y adaptados, para asegurar un cambio de actitud y comportamiento en los participantes.
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We evaluated point transect, line transect, mark-resighting, and roost survey methods by comparing population estimates to a reference population of Green-rumped Parrotlets (Forpus passerinus) in the llanos of Venezuela. All four methods produced similar population estimates, reflected peaks in nesting and fledging, and almost always exceeded the known minimum population size. Congruence among the estimates decreased as the breeding season progressed. The mark-resighting method had the largest confidence inter- vals, but precision was similar for the other three methods. Point transect surveys appeared to underestimate the population in open habitat. Line transect surveys more accurately es- timated the distribution of the population between habitats. Detection probability was more variable for point transects than for line transects. We recommend using line transect surveys rather than point transects when conditions allow. Roost surveys were complicated by the tendency of parrotlets to change roost sites often, and roost surveys underestimated popu- lations during breeding. Roost surveys may be reliable during nonbreeding, and we rec- ommend further development of roost survey protocol. Behavioral characteristics of Green- rumped Parrotlets allowed us to meet assumptions and requirements of all methods with the exception of mark-resighting. This success may not be replicated with other parrot species.
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Parámetros Reproductivos y Productividad de Amazona Barbadensis en la Isla de Margarita, Venezuela: un Estudio a Largo Plazo Estudiamos la biologia reproductiva de la cotorra Amazona barbadensis en la isla de Margarita entre marzo y agosto desde 1990 hasta 1999. Las fechas de las diferentes fases (puesta de huevos, eclosión, vuelo de pichones) fueron consistentes a través de los años, excepto durante 1998, cuando todas las fases se atrasaron. El promedio del tamaño de nidada para la década fue de 3.38 ± 0.78 huevos por nido, con un intervalo de uno a cinco huevos por nidada. El tamaño promedio de nidada al momento de la eclosión (3.36 ± 0.80 huevos por nido) indica que la mayoria de los huevos sobrevivió hasta la eclosión. El tamaño total de la nidada y el éxito de eclosión de la especie en la isla de Margarita son de los más altos entre las especies del género Amazona, sugiriendo que A. barbadensis tiene un potencial reproductivo más elevado que el de otras especies del género. Detectamos diferencias interanuales en algunos de los parámetros reproductivos, todas correspondientes a 1998, un año con una extrema sequia. Las pérdidas de huevos representaron un 20% durante el periodo 1990−1999 y fueron causadas por fallos en la eclosión, depredación y perturbaciones humanas. El 49% de los pichones se perdieron, principalmente por la extracción ilegal. El número promedio de volantones por pareja reproductiva fue 1.27 ± 1.61, y este valor también varió considerablemente a través de los años. Esto indica que, en relación con el tamaño promedio de la nidada, cada pareja perdió en promedio el 62% de su inversión reproductiva inicial.
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The parrots ofLuquillo: natural history and conservation of the Puerto Rican Parrot. Los Angeles: Western Foundation of Vertebrate Zoology
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“Miniature” macaws enter trade
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