The ancient Egyptians tended to consider both their immediate and more remote neighbours either as excellent sources of luxury trade items and slaves, at times of political power and strength, or as uncivilized forces threatening to destroy and overwhelm the Egyptian Nile Valley. This was true not only of cultures within Africa; those in the Aegean, the Levant, Cyprus and Mesopotamia also were viewed from one or the other perspective, occasionally both at the same time. All these, together with Nubia and Libya, have received much scholarly attention and, whilst we probably will never fully understand their ancient relationship to Egypt, we have a fairly good idea, ‘hearing’ the story from both sides when surviving evidence allows, what their attitudes towards each other were at various times in their history.
This article deals with what is surely the least investigated aspect of ancient Egyptian relations with its neighbours, simply because we know comparatively little about the two major successive cultures concerned – Punt and Aksum – in the ancient world.
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... Надзвичайна товщина тріасових відкладів в осьовій частині басейну, а також значно тонша і більш молодша стратиграфічна послідовність обидвох бортів басейну свідчать про те, що басейн Луук-Мандера у ранньому мезозої під час розпаду Гондвани був слабко нахиленою поверхнею під мілководним морем. Під час юрського і крейдового періодів відбулися два основні цикли трансгресії 139 і регресії 140 , про що свідчать карбонатні відклади, які поступово переходять у сланці, евапорити та пісковики. ...
... 139 Трансгресія -геологічна подія, за якої рівень моря відносно землі підвищується, і берегова смуга рухається в напрямку вищих місць, в результаті затоплення. 140 Регресія -повільний відступ моря від берегів унаслідок підняття суші й опускання океанічного дна, зменшення об'єму води в океанічному басейні. ...
Навчальний посібник розроблено для фізико-географічних курсів, які читаються для спеціальностей 106 «Географія», 014.07 «Середня освіта (Географія)», 103 «Науки про Землю» – «Загальне землезнавство», «Фізична географія материків й океанів», «Геологія загальна та історична», «Геоморфологія», «Метеорологія та кліматологія», «Регіональна кліматологія», «Географія ґрунтів з основами ґрунтознавства» та «Біогеографія».
Фізико-географічна номенклатура виступає каркасом для розуміння регіонального різноманіття та природних закономірностей територіальної організації материків й океанів. Саме тому вивчення номенклатури крізь призму історичних і природних особливостей сприяє географічному мисленню здобувачів і побудові ланцюжка причинно-наслідкових зв’язків природних компонентів і процесів. Окрім того, проаналізовані природні компоненти описаних об’єктів можуть застосовуватися як репрезентативні точки для аналізу геологічних, кліматологічних, ґрунтознавчих і біогеографічних регіональних відмінностей.
Відповідно у виданні висвітлено історію та природу (тектоніку, геологію, клімат, органічний світ) заток: Сідри, Туніської, Хаммамет, Габес, Гвінейської, Біафри, Бенін, Суецької, Акабської й Аденської; Червоного моря; проток: Баб-ель-Мандебської та Мозамбіцької; Сомалійського півострова; островів: Сокотра, Мадейра, Канарських, Зеленого Мису, Біжагош, Біоко (Фернандо-По), Прінсіпі, Сан-Томе, Аннабон, Мадагаскар, Коморських, Сейшельських, Мафії, Занзібару, Пемби, Дахлак, Фарасан і Ханіш.
У книзі не розглянуті острови Маврикій, Реюньйон, Крозе, Принц Едуард, Буве, Трістан-да-Кунья, Святої Єлени, Вознесіння й Азорські, яким буде присвячене окреме видання, оскільки всі вони сформовані в межах серединно-океанічних хребтів Індіського й Атлантичного океанів.
... In her effort to recreate the Land of God in Khemet, Hatshepsut demonstrates her impetus for trade and diplomacy (see Figure 9). Though the trade route Hatshepsut sent her fleet along was well established by her New Kingdom rule (Phillips, 1997), her innovation was the use of Khemet's abundant resources to further international relations and commerce. The first recorded trade expedition to Punt from Khemet dates to the Old Kingdom c. 2686-2160 bce, trade would continue during Khemet's Dynastic Period c. 3200 bce-330 bce, extend throughout the era of Ptolemaic Egypt c. 330 bce-30 bce, and reach well beyond Roman Egyptian times (Breasted, 1959, p. 127;Marcus, 2002, pp. 5, Phillipson, 41). ...
This article examines one of the most fascinating dynamics within the foundation story of Ethiopia’s Royal Solomonic Dynasty, the Kebra Nagast (Glory of Kings), the metaphor that connects Mother Mary with the biblical Ark of the Covenant. Throughout the Kebra Nagast, it is written that just as the Ark served as the vehicle by which the Ten Commandments of the Law were given unto humanity, so too would Mary serve as the perfected and purified vehicle for Christ.
The prominence of women such as Mary and Queen Makeda (the Queen of Sheba) in the theology and polity of Ethiopia is indicative of African traditions that have been described as matriarchal, matrilineal, dual-sex and matrifocal. These traditions explain the prominence of Mary and Makeda within Ethiopian Orthodox traditions, as an African matrifocality reaching from the Old to the New Testaments, with Queen Makeda serving as a prefiguration of Mother Mary.
This matrifocality is informed by pre-Axumite archeological finds of female statues in northern Ethiopia, and the historical reigns of Egyptian Queen Mother Tiye, and the Lady Pharaoh Hatshepsut. This represents a retention of women-centered African values within Ethiopian Orthodox traditions. Values once prominent and shared throughout the Nile Valley.
29 Adulis, located on the Red Sea coast in present-day Eritrea, was a bustling trading centre 30 between the first and seventh centuries CE. Several classical geographers-Agatharchides 31 of Cnidus, Pliny the Elder, Strabo-noted the value of Adulis to Greco-Roman Egypt, 32 particularly as an emporium for living animals, including baboons (Papio spp.). Though 33 fragmentary, these accounts predict the Adulite origins of mummified baboons in Ptolemaic 34 catacombs, while inviting questions on the geoprovenance of older (Late Period) baboons 35 recovered from Gabbanat el-Qurud ("Valley of the Monkeys"), Egypt. Dated to ca. 800-540 36 BCE, these animals could extend the antiquity of Egyptian-Adulite trade by as much as five 37 centuries. To explore this possibility, we analysed complete mitochondrial genomes from a 38 mummified baboon from Gabbanat el-Qurud and 14 museum specimens with known 39 provenance together with published georeferenced mitochondrial sequence data. 40 Phylogenetic assignment connects the mummified baboon to modern populations of Papio 41 hamadryas in Eritrea and eastern Sudan. This result, assuming geographical stability of 42 phylogenetic clades, suggests that present-day Eritrea, and by extension Adulis, was a source 43 of baboons for Late Period Egyptians. It also establishes geographic continuity with baboons 44 from the fabled Land of Punt (Dominy et al., 2020), giving weight to speculation that Punt and 45 Adulis were essentially the same trading centres separated by a thousand years of history. 46 47
Os pesquisadores de hoje se deparam, basicamente, com a mesma paisagem que Heródoto testemunhou no Egito e no norte do Sudão, uma estreita faixa verde alimentada pelo Nilo e rodeada pelo absoluto deserto. Essa ecologia peculiar continua desempenhando um papel central em modelos interpretativos acerca das origens do Estado egípcio antigo que diminuem as conexões africanas daquela sociedade. Da década de 1930 até os dias de hoje, porém, um grupo de exploradores do deserto e arqueólogos vêm documentando que, desde o período neolítico, grande parte do Saara tratava-se vasta campina com lagos sazonais e, possivelmente, permanentes. Este artigo discute dados produzidos por pesquisas recentes, incluindo a UCSB Dongola Reach Expedition e o UCSB-ASU Fourth Cataract Project. Essas pesquisas apontam para a existência de relações entre as culturas nilóticas do Alto Egito, o Saara e a Núbia sudanesa, demonstrando como essas interações, em combinação com mudanças climáticas resultando na dessecação do Saara, contribuíram para o rápido aparecimento do Estado egípcio, que continuaria mantendo fortes conexões em todo o nordeste africano.
Este artigo tem por objetivo analisar os processos de contato e integração entre o nordeste africano e diferentes regiões da África e da Ásia, a partir, especificamente, de um texto anônimo do século I d.C. conhecido como Périplo do Mar Eritreu. Este documento, geralmente lido a partir de uma perspectiva romanocêntrica, será interpretado com base nos modelos analíticos da História Global. Com isso, espera-se mostrar que os portos egípcios do Mar Vermelho faziam parte de um ancestral sistema conectivo afro-asiático – do qual o Império Romano não foi o criador, mas sim um participante tardio.
The maritime history of the major marine water masses of the globe, the unique underwater cultural heritage located in each ocean and the environments of major rivers and freshwater lakes, including the Aral Sea, are overviewed. Important submerged sites, such as the sunken English medieval town of Dunwich and the World Heritage Listed site of Nan Madol, located in the Federated States of Micronesia, are examined along with shipwrecks reaching from antiquity to the major conflicts of the twentieth century. The diversity of cultural heritage located in marine and riverine environments is showcased and threats to underwater cultural heritage, new and long standing, are analysed. Recent discoveries of slaving vessels, such as the Clotilda, and important World War II wrecks, such as the USS Indianapolis, are reviewed. The waters of Micronesia host many sunken World War II wrecks of the Japanese Imperial Navy—focus is brought to those of the ‘Ghost Fleet’ of Chuck Lagoon by means of a case study of their physical and legal attributes in Chap. 7. The many recreational divers who visit Chuuk can explore the wrecks of more than sixty Japanese naval vessels, aircraft and military apparatus that are scattered across the Lagoon’s seafloor. The concepts of ‘toxic underwater cultural heritage’ and ‘metal pirates’ are introduced as existing problems of international dimensions with potentially catastrophic consequences in the context of the large tonnage of sunken military wrecks beneath the waters of the Pacific and the toxicity of the cargoes that remain precariously encased in them.KeywordsUnderwater cultural heritageMetal piratesChuuk LagoonWorld War II shipwrecksRiverine environmentToxic wrecksOceans and Seas
ظلّت أنظار مصر الدولة وعلى طول تاريخها السياسي والحضاري ترنوا الى جنوب البلاد ونقصد النوبة أو بلاد (كوش)، كما يُطلق عليها في الكتابات الهيروغليفية . ولذلك ما إن ضعفت الدولة إبان الإحتلال الهكسوسي لمصر حتّى أغتنمت بلاد النوبة والمناطق المطلّة على الساحل الأفريقي ومنها ( بلاد البونت ) استقلالها التي كسبت اهمية كبيرة في نفوس فراعنة مصر لانهم اعتبروها الموطن الاصلي للآلهة المصرية. وقد نجح الملك آحمس الاول ، مؤسس الأسرة المصرية الثامنة عشر في إعادة توحيد مصر والإنتقال بمصر من فترة الضعف والإنحلال والفوضى الى عصر دولة إمبراطورية مركزية مترامية الأطراف ، حتّى عادت العديد مِنَ المناطق الجنوبية والأفريقية ومنها بلاد كوش وبلاد البونت إلى حاضرة الدولة المصرية (الإمبراطورية الحديثة ) . وتعود أهمية الكتابة في هذا الموضوع الى معرفة الجذور التاريخية للإهتمام المصري بهذهِ البلاد، كذلك معرفة شكل العلاقة التجارية التي شهدتها هذه الفترة التاريخية ، وما هي الدوافع الاقتصادية التي دفعت العديد من ملوك الأسرة الثامنة عشر ومن سبقهم من ملوك مصر القديمة من الاهتمام ببلاد البونت لان أهمية البونت، بالنسبة لمصر تكمن بالكامل تقريباً في قدرتها على توريد السلع الضرورية لهم وانها (بلاد البونت) لقد كان بعيداً جداً عن حدود مصر بحيث لا يمكن أن تشكل أي تهديد كبير لمصر نفسها من الناحية السياسية او العسكرية، والأهم من ذلك أن مصر كانت محمية إلى حد كبير من أي متاعب محتملة من قبل الصحراء الشرقية ([i])؛ يبدو أن بلاد البونت كانت واحدة من المناطق القليلة التي كانت مصر القديمة على اتصال بها والتي كانت ينظر إليها في ضوء التجارية فقط. لذا حاولنا في مبحثنا الأول تحديد موقع بلاد البونت وتسميتها ، وفي مبحثنا الثاني تتبعنا العلاقات السابقة لملوك مصر مع بلاد البونت العلاقة وصولا الى ملوك الأسرة الثامنة عشر مع سُكان البونت، ثم ركزنا على رحلة الاستكشاف في زمن الملكة حتشبسوت التي وصلتنا منها الكثير من النصوص والنقوش التي عثر عليها المنقبون داخل مقبرتها الشهيرة في الدير البحري بالبر الغربي لمدينة طيبة (الأقصر حاليا) . لانها ضمت اكثر النصوص والمشاهد الاثارية التي صورت لنا الرحلة الى بلاد البونت واهم البضائع والسلع التي جلبت منها.
A chronological worldwide map of sailing history is presented, emphasizing when sailing as a technology/activity appeared for the first time in each coast of the world, due to local invention, technological diffusion, or mere routes expansion. The map is the product of compiling and synthetizing historiographic works dealing with sailing history across regions and epochs; an effort that is presented to make explicit the map’s foundations. The map necessarily shows each world region’s precocity or lateness in sailing, while also, interestingly, exposing places that acted as persistent barriers to the expansion of sailing. Hopefully the map will be a useful tool to better visualize sailing history, and will encourage the search for explaining the non-trivial patterns of its spread over the world.
Seas are the commercial arteries of governments to meet their needs from other distant lands. The location of the Persian Gulf near the centers of ancient civilization made monitoring this strategic waterway one of the priorities of ancient governments in West Asia. The Seleucids sought to establish military infrastructure to support and control the commercial arteries of the Persian Gulf by establishing naval bases on the northern shores and islands of the Persian Gulf. The construction of ports by the Seleucids to overthrow the rule of cities such as Gerrha, al-Dur, and Mleiha and deprived the Ptolemaic empire of direct trade with the East. With the passage of time and the Parthian's domination of the northern regions of the Persian Gulf, trade routes leading to the Persian Gulf extended to the Far East. During the Sassanid period, the volume of the Persian Gulf trade increased. During the Sassanid era, focusing on the construction and reconstruction of the former ports and the destruction of the southern part of the Persian Gulf, trade routes were transferred to its northern shore. The economic status of the Hellenistic ports on the north shore of the Persian Gulf has not been independently studied before. This study intends to use written sources and archaeological data to try to explain the position of the northern coast ports of the Persian Gulf in controlling the maritime trade of the Persian Gulf from the Seleucid era to the Sassanid era.
Pottery has been excavated from a site on the southern part of the main island of Zanzibar, called Unguja Ukuu. Attributes of form, fabric, surface finish and chronology make a good match between the two types of pottery found in Zanzibar and examples from the Mediterranean. Both types of pottery could be prestige items used by a few members of a local elite in the beginning of the town settlement in east Africa. They were produced in the Mediterranean world probably from the 5th century and remained current until the early 6th century AD. Their presence in East Africa suggests a possible trade with the classical world in which the earliest settled community on Zanzibar may have participated. The rarity of the examples in the lower archaeological levels and their absence from succeeding levels may suggest this early pattern of trade was diminishing. Written sources suggest that Roman merchants did not participate during this time. The late Roman pottery possibly reached south of Ras Hafun with Axumite or Persian traders.
The author carried out a study of the coinage of Aksum when a research student of the British Institute. Here he examines the history of the main port of the kingdom.
![Puntites arriving by boat and (on the left) presenting their goods: restored line drawing of a wall scene in TT ' 43 (tomb of Min) at Thebes. The letters signify the painted colours. (From T. Siive-Sbderbergh, The Navy of the Eighteenth Egyptian Dynasty [Uppsala and Leipzig], fig. 6.) contemporary scene from late in his reign, in the tomb of Rekhmire (TT ioo),27 also shows leopard skins, ostrich plumes and eggs, ibexes, monkeys, cheetahs, baboons and necklaces of unknown materials being delivered. These are the usual types of propagandistic tribute scenes, and the Puntites are not carefully or even accurately depicted, so far as we can tell. They wear, for example, different clothing from the Deir el-Bahri figures, either quite Egyptian or virtually of 'Keftiu '/Cretan-type, and also have different personal details. These Thutmoside scenes may not reflect historical events,](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jacke-Phillips/publication/231748089/figure/fig2/AS:437146860429318@1481235342103/Puntites-arriving-by-boat-and-on-the-left-presenting-their-goods-restored-line-drawing_Q320.jpg)
![Two 'Chiefs of Punt': restored line drawing of wall scene in TT I43 (Tomb of Min) at Thebes. The letters signify the painted colours. (From N. de G. Davies, in Bulletin of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, 30 [I935], SuppI. II, 47 fig. I.) and may not even depict the actual arrival of Puntites in Egypt since their presentation has been 'generalized' or 'Egyptianized'. Alternatively, if they did visit, perhaps they were not seen by the artists who portrayed them; such 'stock' portrayals of foreigners depicted with intermixed and elaborated features of Egyptian and other cultures have been observed elsewhere in similar scenes dating to these reigns. Slightly later in date, probably during the reign of Amenhotep II (1427-I401 B.C.), in the tomb identified by Helck as that of Min, Chief Treasurer of Thutmose III and Amenhotep II (TT 143), is a scene possibly commemorating an historical event in which Puntites did arrive in Egypt, although perhaps only in an Egyptian Red Sea harbour or port.28 The entire scene spans five registers but, unfortunately, they have never been published together and many sections have not been published at all. It depicts, in part, two large pink raft-like boats (Fig 4) manned by at least four sailors, each raft complete with one black triangular sail supported by a single mast 28 N. de G. Davies, 'The work of the Graphic Branch of the expedition', Bulletin of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, xxx (I935, II Suppl. Nov.), 46-9; other scenes are found in M. Baud, Les Dessins Ebauches de la Nicropole Thebaine (au Temps du Nouvelle Empire), being Me'moires de l'Institut Franfais d'Arche'ologie Orientale, LXIII (I935), I69-70, fig. 78, and W. Wreszynski, Atlas zur altaegyptischen Kulturgeschichte, I (Leipzig, 1923), pls. 347-8. Unpublished watercolour facsimilies of the two major scenes are held in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, and I must thank the Keeper of Antiquities, Dr Helen Whitehouse, for allowing me to study them. L. Bradbury, 'Kpn-boats, Punt trade and a lost emporium', Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, xxxiii (I996), 37-60, argues for a Nile setting for this scene (possibly at Kurgus between the Fourth and Fifth Cataracts) on several grounds, although problems and inconsistencies still remain. W. Helck's identification of the tomb owner, in Zur Verwaltung des mittleren und neuen Reiches (Leiden and Cologne, 1958), 352, 468, is not universally accepted.](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jacke-Phillips/publication/231748089/figure/fig3/AS:437146864623616@1481235342330/Two-Chiefs-of-Punt-restored-line-drawing-of-wall-scene-in-TT-I43-Tomb-of-Min-at_Q320.jpg)
![Stela of Khentykhetywer, recovered in the Wadi Gawasis, describing his return from Punt. The relevant portion of the text reads: ' ... after his return in safety from Punt, his expedition being with him, sound and healthy, and his fleet resting at Stow...' (from A.M.A.H. Sayed, in Revu e d'Egyptologie, XXIX [I977]~ '39, p1. VIII; translation of A. Nibbi, in Jrournal of Egyptian Archaeology, LI](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jacke-Phillips/publication/231748089/figure/fig1/AS:437146860429316@1481235341671/Stela-of-Khentykhetywer-recovered-in-the-Wadi-Gawasis-describing-his-return-from-Punt_Q320.jpg)
