Sustainable Textiles: the Role of Bamboo and a Comparison of Bamboo Textile properties (Part II)

Abstract

This paper delves into a subset of engineering for sustainable development—the engineering of sustainable textiles using bamboo. In particular, the document explores various questions relating to the subject, including: (1) what constitute sustainable textiles? and (2) what role can bamboo textiles play in sustainable development? The experiments performed attempt to answer two main questions: (1) what are the differences in textile properties between chemically-manufactured and mechanically-manufactured bamboo textiles? and (2) what are the differences in textile properties between two different species of bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis and Bambusa emeiensis)? We can look at the textile industry through the lens of the triple bottom line of sustainability. At present, the industry has a poor track record for social and environmental concerns. The two most commonly used textile fibres—cotton and polyester—both cause serious environmental problems in their life cycle. This document focuses on one small aspect of the entire field of sustainable textiles—materials made from bio-based renewable resources in the form of bamboo species. The advantages of bamboo as a raw material include its fast renewability, its biodegradability, its efficient space consumption, its low water use, and its organic status. The advantages of bamboo fabric are its very soft feel (chemically-manufactured) or ramie-like feel (mechanically-manufactured), its antimicrobial properties, its moisture wicking capabilities and its anti-static nature. The main constraints of bamboo textiles are current costs and are those inherent in the textile industry: energy, water, and chemical requirements that are involved in manufacturing.

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Article Designation: Refereed JTATM
Volume 6, Issue 3, Spring2010
1
Volume 6, Issue 3, Spring2010
Sustainable Textiles: the Role of Bamboo and a Comparison of
Bamboo Textile properties (Part II)
Marilyn Waite
Engineer for Sustainable Development
Ingéniuer pour le développement durable
Marilyn.waite@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
This paper delves into a subset of engineering for sustainable development—the engineering of
sustainable textiles using bamboo. In particular, the document explores various questions relating
to the subject, including: (1) what constitute sustainable textiles? and (2) what role can bamboo
textiles play in sustainable development? The experiments performed attempt to answer two main
questions: (1) what are the differences in textile properties between chemically-manufactured and
mechanically-manufactured bamboo textiles? and (2) what are the differences in textile properties
between two different species of bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis and Bambusa emeiensis)?
We can look at the textile industry through the lens of the triple bottom line of sustainability. At
present, the industry has a poor track record for social and environmental concerns. The two most
commonly used textile fibres—cotton and polyester—both cause serious environmental problems
in their life cycle. This document focuses on one small aspect of the entire field of sustainable
textiles—materials made from bio-based renewable resources in the form of bamboo species.
The advantages of bamboo as a raw material include its fast renewability, its biodegradability, its
efficient space consumption, its low water use, and its organic status. The advantages of bamboo
fabric are its very soft feel (chemically-manufactured) or ramie-like feel (mechanically-
manufactured), its antimicrobial properties, its moisture wicking capabilities and its anti-static
nature. The main constraints of bamboo textiles are current costs and are those inherent in the
textile industry: energy, water, and chemical requirements that are involved in manufacturing.
The textile properties examined relate to sustainability: wear and tear (and therefore durability)
and moisture wicking (and therefore the need for machine washing and drying). The following
are measured for fibre, yarn, and fabric: tear force, breaking force, breaking tenacity, moisture
absorption and speed of drying, and surface morphology.
The work is divided into two parts. Part 1 addresses bamboo textiles in the context of sustainable
development, providing a historical perspective, sustainable development framework, pertinent
information about bamboo as a plant, and the various manufacturing processes, advantages, and
constraints of the bamboo textile industry. Part 2 addresses the experimental component with a
discussion of limitations, challenges, a system dynamics view of sustainable bamboo textiles, and
final recommendations for sustainability within the textile industry.

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IV. Experimental Exploration with
Bamboo Textiles
A. Introduction
Bamboo textiles present a noteworthy
opportunity for providing sustainable
textiles. Nevertheless, the renewable
properties of bamboo itself do not add much
to sustainable development if the textiles
cannot serve a practical purpose. Bamboo
textiles must exhibit properties appropriate
for its applications, thereby providing the
end-user with a useful item. This section
summarizes the materials used, methods
employed, and results of experiments
performed in order to assess some of the
bamboo textile properties.
There are two main manufacturing methods
currently being employed in the
manufacture of sustainable textiles—
chemically-based and mechanically-based
processes. There are also over 1500 species
of bamboo globally, of which only a few are
being employed to create textiles. Some
companies use only one species of bamboo
for bamboo textile manufacturing, while
other companies use many (such as 13
bamboo species) without distinguishing
between species and textile properties. The
experiments performed attempt to answer
two questions regarding bamboo textiles: (1)
what are the differences in textile properties
between the chemically-manufactured and
mechanically-manufactured bamboo
textiles, and (2) what are the differences in
textile properties between two different
species of bamboo used to produce chemical
bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis and Bambusa
emeiensis)?
The textile properties measured here are as
follows: tear force, breaking force, breaking
tenacity, moisture absorption and speed of
drying, and surface morphology. Tests are
performed at various stages of the bamboo
textile manufacturing process: fiber, yarn,
and fabric. Comparative testing is necessary
to develop and improve products (Lyle
1977), thereby making bamboo textiles more
suitable for end-uses. The properties
analyzed have special relevance to
sustainable development. The ability to
withstand forces is a key indicator of
durability. The longer a textile lasts, the
more one can prolong its eventual deposit in
landfill, and perhaps the more one can
refrain from replacing and wasting further
resources. If a textile can absorb moisture
quickly and dry moisture quickly, then the
need for mechanical drying and perhaps
washing (which are energy intensive) can be
lessened.
B. Brief Literature Review
There are thousands of studies concerning
various fiber, yarn, fabric, and general
textile properties of various plant fibers.
Topics covered include the sorption
properties of flax fibers, the effects of
cultivating methods on the mechanical
properties of cotton fiber, the determination
of porosity and cellulose content of plant
fibers, the tensile properties of cocoon silk,
the calculation of elastic properties of
natural fibers, etc.
There are no current published academic
works comparing bamboo textile properties
between different bamboo species and
between different bamboo textile
manufacturing processes (chemical versus
mechanical). Here, I provide a brief review
of pertinent findings in the literature
concerning bamboo textiles, ranging from
studies that seek to improve bamboo fibers
with surface modification, to comparisons of
bamboo fibers with other textile fibers.
Mwaikambo provides a review of the
history, properties, and applications of
various plant fibers, including bamboo.
Mwaikambo presents the chemical
composition, physical properties (such as
diameter, length, bulk density), and
mechanical properties (such as tensile
strength, failure strain, and Young‘s
modulus) of the fibers (Mwaikambo 2006).
Xu, Lu et al investigated the thermal and
structural differences among chemical
bamboo fiber, Tencel (regenerated cellulose
made from the eucalyptus tree‘s wood pulp),
and conventional viscose fibers. The
pertinent findings are that: (1) chemical

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bamboo fibers suggest good water retention
power due to the many voids in their cross-
section and (2) chemical bamboo fibers and
conventional viscose fibers possess better
ability of absorbing and releasing water than
Tencel (Xu, Lu et al. 2007). Xu, Wang et al
analyzed the effects of atmospheric pressure
argon plasma on the surface properties of
bamboo fibers. They found that (1) cracks,
pits, and small fragments appear on the fiber
surfaces after plasma treatment, (2) surface
roughness increases with longer treatment
times and larger plasma powers, and (3)
dyeability and hydrophilicity of fibers
improves with surface modification using
atmospheric pressure argon plasma
treatment (Xu, Wang et al. 2006). Shen, Liu
et al also explored the surface properties of
chemical bamboo fibers using a column
wicking technique. Their study was a
comparison between bamboo fiber and
cotton linter fiber (short fibers that cling to
cottonseeds after long fibers are removed).
The principal finding was that bamboo fiber
has more than double the Lewis acid
component compared to cotton linter fiber;
the author suggests that this makes chemical
bamboo fiber similar to the touch of water,
since water is found to have the same Lewis
acid component (Shen, Liu et al. 2004).
C. Materials
Bamboo fiber, yarn, and fabric samples were
collected using two different species of
bamboo—Phyllostachys edulis and
Bambusa emeiensis. Phyllostachys edulis is
known as ―Mao zhu‖ in Chinese and
―Moso‖ in Japanese; it was formerly known
as Phyllostachys heterocycla pubescens
(AmericanBambooSociety 2007). This is a
popular bamboo for construction
applications, as well as the textile industry.
It was used to provide chemical bamboo
samples and mechanical bamboo samples
from Suzhou Shengzhu Household Co.,
based in Suzhou City China. Phyllostachys
edulis has a monopodial and scattered
rhizome system, and it is distributed
throughout southwest China (Kanglin 1998).
Neosinocalamus affinis, now known as
Bambusa emeiensis 'Chrysotrichus,' was
used to provide chemical bamboo samples
from a manufacturing company based in
Shanghai and Sichuan China.
Neosinocalamus affinis has a sympodial and
tufted rhizome system, is large sized, is
cultivated at less than 1900 m in altitude,
and is widespread in the southwest of China
(Kanglin 1998). The company (wishes to
remain anonymous), uses bamboo fiber
made from bamboo selected from the
Sichuan Province in China.
Figure 4.1 indicates the samples collected
including their specifications. The samples
from Company A were received in April
2008 and stored at room temperature. The
samples from Suzhou Shengzhu Household
Company were received in May and June
2008 and stored at room temperature.
Figure 4.1: Bamboo Samples used in Experiments
Company
Sample Type
Photograph
Specification
Amount
Company A
(Bambusa emeiensis)
100% Chemical
Bamboo Raw
Fibre (thick pulp)
Varied
0.5 kg
100% Chemical
Bamboo Fibre
(fine Pulp)
1.56 dtex×38 mm
(length)
0.5 kg

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100% Chemical
Bamboo Yarn
32 Ne
Ring spun
0.5 kg
100% Chemical
Bamboo Knit
Fabric
32 Ne
Dyed Pink
1 m
Suzhou Shengzhu
Household Co.
(Phyllostachys
edulis)
100% Chemical
Bamboo
Fine Pulp Fibre
1.56 dtex×38 mm
0.2 kg
100% Chemical
Bamboo Yarn
32 Ne
Ring spun
0.2 kg
100% Chemical
Bamboo Yarn
21 Ne
Ring spun
0.2 kg
100% Chemical
Bamboo Woven
Fabric
21 Ne
Green and White
Floral Pattern
0.2 kg
100% Chemical
Bamboo Knit
Fabric
32 Ne
Dyed Black
0.6 kg
100%
Mechanical
Bamboo fibre
5-6 dtex×95 mm
0.2 kg
100%
Mechanical
Bamboo Woven
Fabric
21 Ne
Blue and White
Checkered Pattern
0.2 kg
To perform the scanning electron
microscope (SEM) observations, the
CamScan MX2600 was used. In order to
conduct the moisture absorption and drying
experiments, the following materials were
used in addition to fabric: 17cm diameter
embroidery hoop, deionised water, balance,
pipettes and pipette tips, and a beaker. To
perform the mechanical tests, a Hounsfield
Low Load Electric Screw Machine was
used.

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D. Methods
SEM Images
Standard test procedures for live specimens
were used to observe the differences in
surface morphology among various bamboo
fibers. The fibers were cut and gold-plated
as preparation.
Moisture Wicking Tests
AATCC Test Method 79-2007 was
employed to measure textile absorbency.
The general procedure involves dropping
water from a fixed height onto a taut surface
(made taut through the use of an embroidery
hoop). The time required for the specular
reflection of a water drop to disappear is
recorded as the wetting time. Five readings
are taken, and the shorter the average time,
the more absorbent the fabric. This AATCC
method was slightly modified by using a
pipette with 50 µL of deionised water
instead of a burette. To measure the speed of
drying of the different fabrics, 50 µL of
deionised water was placed on a piece of
fabric cut 4 cm wide and 5 cm long. The
weight of the fabric was taken before and
after the 50 µL of water was introduced, as
well as at set time intervals until the weight
of the fabric reached its initial recording.
Mechanical Tests
Mechanical tests were completed according
to various internationally-recognized
standards, including those from the
American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM), the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO), the British Standards
Institution (BSI), and the American
Association of Textile Chemists and
Colorists (AATCC).
Fibers
To measure the breaking force of the
bamboo fibers, standard test methods had to
be modified to conduct a comparison
adequate for the short and fine chemical
bamboo fibers. Bamboo fibers were
measured at the following stages: thick pulp
(earliest stage) chemical bamboo fiber, fine
pulp chemical bamboo fiber, and mechanical
bamboo fiber. Ten trials were completed for
each sample type. The following method
was employed:
1. A rectangular paper frame was
constructed with a rectangular cut out.
2. Double-sided tape was then used to apply
an adhesive surface to one side of the
paper frame. The rectangular cut out was
preserved by cutting through the double-
sided tape.
3. Five individual fibers were carefully
picked using fine tweezers and placed
along the rectangular cut.
4. Masking tape was cut and placed along
both ends of the fibers to hold them in
place.
5. The paper frame and the attached fibers
were then clamped using the Hounsfield
tensile testing machine.
6. Slits were cut through two ends of the
paper frame so that the only materials
pulled during the test were the fibers (and
not the fibers plus the paper frame).
7. A standard breaking force program was
used with a load range of 5N, a speed of
100 mm/min, and an extension range of
10 mm.
Yarns
To measure the tensile properties of yarns,
ASTM standard D 2256-02, Standard Test
Method for Tensile Properties of Yarns by
the Single-Strand Method, was employed. A
single-stranded yarn is broken on a tension
testing machine at a predetermined
elongation rate (300 ± 10 mm/min) so that
the breaking force is determined. A straight
specimen configuration was used with a
gage length of 250 ± 3 mm gage length. The
breaking force of individual specimens is the
maximum force to cause the specimen to
rupture as read directly from the tension
testing machine expressed in Newtons
(ASTM 2003). A total of ten trials were
performed for each yarn type. The breaking
tenacity of an individual specimen is
calculated using equation 1 as follows:

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(1) B=F/T
where: B = breaking tenacity, CN per tex
F = breaking force, CN
T = linear density, tex
Fabric
To measure the tear properties of fabric, EN
ISO 13937-2:2000, Tear properties of
fabrics Part 2: Determination of tear force of
trouser-shaped test specimens (Single tear
method), was employed. The test method
uses a test specimen cut to form trouser-
shaped legs; the tear force measured is the
force required to propagate a previously
started single tear when the force is applied
parallel to the cut and the fabric tears in the
direction of applied force (ISO 2000). The
tear force is calculated from the force peaks
recorded on the tensile testing machine. A
total of six trials were performed for each
fabric type, three to calculate the tear force
across warp and three to calculate the tear
force across weft.
E. Results and Discussion
SEM Analysis
The SEM images show various similarities
and differences among the four bamboo
fiber types analyzed. Both species of
chemical bamboo fiber displayed a tubular
and ribbed (celery-like) longitudinal surface;
the cross sections of both species were filled
with voids (Figure 4.9 and Figure 4.10). The
thick pulp of chemical bamboo fiber has a
rough and very porous surface (Figure 4.11);
this is to be expected as it is the closest to
the actual bamboo plant among all of the
fiber types. Mechanical bamboo fiber
displayed a bamboo-like longitudinal
section, tubular with nodes (Figure 4.12);
the cross section displayed some voids,
though much fewer than the chemical
bamboo fibers. The mechanical bamboo
fiber also has a higher linear density (5.88
dtex) than the chemical bamboo fibers (1.56
dtex).
Figure 4.9: Phyllostachys edulis Chemical Bamboo Fibre
Left: cross-sectional direction (SEM Mag7900X), Right: longitudinal direction, Diameter is 13.4
µm -15.6 µm (SEM Mag3346X)

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Figure 4.10: Bambusa emeiensis Chemical Bamboo Fibre
Left: cross-sectional direction (SEM Mag3346X), Right: longitudinal direction (SEM
Mag2086X), Diameter is 12.3 µm -15.2 µm
Figure 4.11: Bambusa emeiensis Chemical Bamboo Fibre (Thick Pulp)
Left: cross-sectional direction (SEM Mag1406X), Right: longitudinal direction (SEM
Mag3152X), Diameter is ≈ 31.5 µm
Figure 4.12: Phyllostachys edulis Mechanical Bamboo Fibre
Left: cross-sectional direction (SEM Mag4476X), Right: longitudinal direction (SEM
Mag1708X), Diameter is ≈ 16 µm

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Mechanical Tests
The following section provides summaries
in table and graph form for the mechanical
data gathered.
The results for fiber breaking force and
breaking tenacity illustrate that
mechanically-manufactured bamboo fiber is
more than two times stronger than
chemically-manufactured bamboo. There are
no significant differences between species at
the fiber level. The breaking tenacity of
cotton, wool, viscose rayon, and polyester
are all below that of the bamboo fibers
tested (Figure 4.13 and Figure 4.14);
therefore, bamboo fibers may be more
resistant to wear and tear than conventional
fibers. The raw chemical bamboo fiber was
not used for comparative purposes (since
only one sample was available at this stage
in the manufacturing process); however, it is
clear that the strength of the bamboo fibers
is more present before continual processing.
Graph 4.1 shows the mechanical testing
results for bamboo fibers.
Figure 4.13: Fibre Breaking Force and Breaking Tenacity Comparison
Sample
No.
Bamboo Species
Manufacturing
Method
Fibre
Specification
Average
[Breaking
Force
(CN)
Average
Breaking
Tenacity
(CN/dtex)
1
Bambusa
emeiensis
Chemical
(thick pulp)
Varied
406 ± 106
Varied
2
Bambusa
emeiensis
Chemical
1.56 dtex
13.7 ± 2.1
8.75 ± 1.36
3
Phyllostachys
edulis
Chemical
1.56 dtex
17.7 ± 2.8
11.4 ± 1.8
4
Phyllostachys
edulis
Mechanical
5.88 dtex
146 ± 20
24.9 ± 3.64
Figure 4.14: Tenacity of Conventional Textile Fibres
Name
Tenacity
(gf/tex)
Tenacity
(CN/dtex)
cotton
35
3.5
wool
12
1.2
viscose rayon
20
2
polyester
39.5
3.95

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Graph 4.1: Fibre Breaking Force and Breaking Tenacity Comparison
The breaking force and breaking tenacity of
bamboo yarn reveal small differences
between species and manufacturing method.
It appears that the processing of fiber into
yarn creates some level of strength
degradation for mechanically-manufactured
bamboo. As with bamboo textile fibers,
there was no significant difference between
the mechanical properties of different
bamboo species in yarn form. Figure 4.15
and Graph 4.2 illustrate the mechanical
testing results for bamboo yarn.
Figure 4.15: Yarn Breaking Force and Breaking Tenacity Comparison
Sample
No.
Bamboo
Species
Manufacturing
Method
Yarn
Specification
(Ne Count)
Average
Breaking
Force
(CN)
Average Breaking
Tenacity (CN/tex)
1
Bambusa
emeiensis
Chemical
32
278 ± 16
15.0 ± 0.87
2
Phyllostachys
edulis
Chemical
32
240 ± 13
13.0 ± 0.72
3
Phyllostachys
edulis
Chemical
21
485 ± 32
17.2 ± 1.1
4
Phyllostachys
edulis
Mechanical
21
499 ± 49
17.7 ± 2.1

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Graph 4.2: Yarn Breaking Force and Breaking Tenacity Comparison
The fabric tear results show that the woven
fabrics are more resistant to tear forces than
the knit fabrics. Also, Bambusa emeiensis
endured a higher tear force than
Phyllostachys edulis. Ironically,
mechanically-manufactured bamboo showed
a much lower resistance to tear force than
chemically-manufactured bamboo.
However, the woven chemical bamboo
fabric sample contained a floral pattern
which almost created a double-layer;
therefore, it is difficult to say with certainty
that there is a difference in manufacturing
method for these tests. Figure 4.16 and
Graph 4.3 show the mechanical testing
results for bamboo fabric.

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Figure 4.17: Fabric Moisture Absorption Comparison
Sample
Number
Bamboo
Species
Manufacturing
Method
Fabric
Specification
Warp/Weft
Average
Tear Force (N)
1
Bambusa
emeiensis
Chemical
Knit, Ne=32
Warp
15.6 ± 0.59
Bambusa
emeiensis
Chemical
Knit, Ne=32
Weft
9.64 ± 0.70
2
Phyllostachys
edulis
Chemical
Knit, Ne=32
Warp
7.99 ± 0.29
Phyllostachys
edulis
Chemical
Knit, Ne=32
Weft
5.86 ± 1.20
3
Phyllostachys
edulis
Chemical
Woven, Ne=21
Warp
64.5 ± 1.9
Phyllostachys
edulis
Chemical
Woven, Ne=21
Weft
59.2 ± 7.4
4
Phyllostachys
edulis
Mechanical
Woven, Ne=21
Warp
23.9 ± 2.88
Phyllostachys
edulis
Mechanical
Woven, Ne=21
Weft
22.1 ± 0.53
Graph 4.3: Fabric Tear Force Comparison
Moisture Wicking Tests
Figure 4.17 indicates the average absorption
times for a drop of water to be absorbed by
the corresponding fabric. Phyllostachys
edulis has by far the quickest absorption
time. When a drop of water was placed onto
the green printed design on Sample 3
(Phyllostachys edulis chemical bamboo
woven), the average absorption time was
2.45 s; when a drop of water was placed
onto the cream-colored part of Sample 3
(flat design), the water absorbed instantly at
0.00 s.

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Figure 4.17: Fabric Moisture Absorption Comparison
Sample
Number
Bamboo Species
Manufacturing
Method
Fabric
Specification
Average Absorption
Time (s)
1
Bambusa
emeiensis
Chemical
Knit, Ne=32
5864.80
2
Phyllostachys
edulis
Chemical
Knit, Ne=32
1376.60
3
Phyllostachys
edulis
Chemical
Woven, Ne=21
0.00-2.45
4
Phyllostachys
edulis
Mechanical
Woven, Ne=21
162.87
Figure 4.18 shows the total time that each
fabric took to dry, once wet with one drop of
water. The fastest drying fabric was the
mechanical bamboo made from
Phyllostachys edulis, while the slowest
drying fabric was the chemical bamboo
woven made from Phyllostachys edulis. It
should be noted, however, that the design of
the chemical bamboo woven fabric could
have slowed the drying time because of the
double-layer nature of the pattern.
Figure 4.18: Fabric Moisture Drying Comparison
Sample
Number
Bamboo Species
Manufacturing
Method
Fabric
Specification
Total Time Needed to
Dry (s)
1
Bambusa
emeiensis
Chemical
Knit, Ne=32
6673
2
Phyllostachys
edulis
Chemical
Knit, Ne=32
2853
3
Phyllostachys
edulis
Chemical
Woven, Ne=21
8196
4
Phyllostachys
edulis
Mechanical
Woven, Ne=21
452
Figure 4.19 shows the moisture wicking
capabilities of the fabrics in question. The
last column provides the difference between
the time of drying and absorbing normalised
by the absorption time. Note that lower
numbers indicate higher moisture wicking
(fast absorption and fast drying).
Figure 4.19: Moisture Wicking Properties of Bamboo Fabric α: averaged time from range of
0s to 2.45s
Bamboo
Species
Manufacturing
Method
Fabric
Specification
Average
Absorption
Time (s)
Total Time
Needed to
Dry (s)
(Dry time-Absorb
time)/Absorb time
Bambusa
emeiensis
Chemical
Knit, Ne=32
5865
6673
6672
Phyllostachys
edulis
Chemical
Knit, Ne=32
1377
2853
2852
Phyllostachys
edulis
Chemical
Woven,
Ne=21
1.2
α
8196
8195
Phyllostachys
edulis
Mechanical
Woven,
Ne=21
163
452
451

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Figure 4.20 shows the graphs of weight
plotted over time after the fabric had
absorbed water. Note that the rates of
change, or slopes of the graphs, are all small
and close in value. Graph 4.4 shows the
moisture wicking results for bamboo fabric.
Figure 4.20: Speed of Drying for Various Types of Bamboo Textile Fabric
Graph 4.4: Moisture Wicking Properties of Bamboo Fabric
F. Conclusion
There are noticeable differences between
textile strength in fiber, yarn, and fabric
form, with some apparent degradation in
processing. At the fiber level, mechanical
bamboo‘s breaking tenacity is at least twice
as big as chemical bamboo fiber. At the yarn
level, there are small differences between
species and manufacturing method for

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breaking tenacity. At the fabric level,
Bambusa emeiensis has a bigger tear force
and tearing tenacity than Phyllostachys
edulis. Nevertheless, specie differences in
fabric form are small. The tearing strength
of mechanical bamboo fabric was much
smaller than chemical bamboo fabric;
however this could be due to the woven
design in the chemical bamboo fabric.
The moisture absorption tests revealed well-
defined differences between species,
manufacturing method, and textile
specification. In general, the woven bamboo
fabric absorbed water much quicker than the
knit bamboo fabric. In knit chemical
bamboo textile form, Bambusa emeiensis
took four times longer than Phyllostachys
edulis to absorb water. In woven form
(species kept constant with Phyllostachys
edulis) the chemical bamboo absorbed water
instantaneously, while the mechanical
bamboo took 165 s on average to absorb.
Based on these results, chemical bamboo
woven fabric is better at water absorption
than mechanical bamboo woven fabric, but
chemical bamboo knit fabric takes a very
long time to absorb. There also is a
difference in absorption properties between
bamboo species in textile form, and perhaps
the same differences can be found in raw
bamboo in nature.
The moisture drying tests revealed that some
fabrics were better at absorbing than drying.
Phyllostachys edulis chemical bamboo
woven fabric was the quickest to absorb, but
the longest to dry. This may have been due
to the double layer of woven material to
create the green floral pattern. When
manufacturing method and specification
were held constant, Phyllostachys edulis
absorbed and dried faster than Bambusa
emeiensis; this supports the SEM images
since there are more visible voids in the
chemical bamboo Phyllostachys edulis
species. However, the fabric that has the
best moisture wicking property is the
mechanical bamboo made of Phyllostachys
edulis. This sample absorbed water in a
short time (163 s) and dried water in a short
time (452 s); though it did not show many
voids in the SEM cross-sectional image, the
longitudinal section resembled a bamboo as
a tubular shape with nodes. Perhaps there is
some level of biomimicry in the fibers of
bamboo that can be further explored.
There are two main conclusions that are
drawn from the results: the species of
bamboo is not trivial for bamboo textile
applications and there are fundamental
differences between the type and function of
bamboo textiles that are manufactured
chemically versus those that are
manufactured mechanically with the aid of
enzymes. Currently, many manufacturers
who make chemical bamboo fabric add
various species of bamboo into the mixture,
without consideration of the differences.
Although the research did not indicate a
significant difference in mechanical
properties such as breaking tenacity between
species, moisture wicking properties varied
significantly. There are also some blogs
stating that mechanically manufactured
bamboo is better than chemically
manufactured bamboo; the study shows that
the two textiles are not interchangeable, and
that their appropriateness will depend on the
goals of the application. Three specific
conclusions can be made from the
experimental tests: (1) mechanical bamboo
fibers are much stronger than those
chemically manufactured, but this strength
at the fiber level does not remain consistent
with further processing in yarn and fabric
form, (2) Phyllostachys edulis exhibits better
moisture wicking properties than Bambusa
emeiensis, (3) mechanical bamboo displays
better moisture wicking properties than
chemical bamboo. Further work could
explore more species of bamboo, as well as
how small changes in the manufacturing
process may change the quality of the textile
at the fiber, yarn, and fabric levels. In
summary, there is room for many different
types of species and manufacturing methods
for bamboo in the textile industry.
V. Bamboo Textiles: the Limits
A. Limitations
This paper shows how the properties of
bamboo can be useful for textile applications
in the realm of sustainable development.

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15
However, there are many bamboo species
and manufacturing steps not explored here
that would nevertheless, add to the overall
understanding of the subject. Also, since
many bamboo textile operations are closed
off to the public and researchers because of
intellectual property issues, there is pertinent
information regarding manufacturing that
could not be included in this paper. It is
important to emphasize that bamboo, or any
single textile source, will not serve as a
panacea to the sustainability issues of the
textile sector. Over-reliance on one source,
whether it is for energy or for textiles, is
contrary to the underlying principles of
sustainable development. In addition,
different materials have different
mechanical, physical, chemical, and
technical properties that will serve for a
diverse range of applications.
B. Challenges and Possible Mitigation
Measures
There are many challenges facing the future
of bamboo textiles, including:
1. The threat that bamboo farming
communities become too dependent
on textile industries and are left with
little negotiating power with
intermediaries or the global market
(Bismarck, Baltazar-y-Jimenez et al.
2006)
2. The threat of over-exploitation in
general and by an introduction of
heavy machinery (that may damage
the bamboo rhizome system), as well
as with chemical pesticides and
fertilizers.
3. The risk of consumer disinterest
in ―eco-textiles,‖ or otherwise
similarly labeled textiles that would
support the growth in bamboo textiles.
For example, world consumption of
sisal and henequen in Mexico
plummeted, and left many rural
families desolate, mostly due to the
development of cheaper synthetic
polymer materials (Bismarck,
Baltazar-y-Jimenez et al. 2006).
To mitigate some of these risks and address
the challenges, the following is suggested:
1. To reduce the risk of
overdependence on textile trade by
local bamboo farmers, diversification
and support from outside
organizations are essential.
• With the numerous documented
and well-established end products
from bamboo sources, farmers
can diversify their product range
so as to not become too
susceptible to changes in any one
market.
• For bamboo farms that are
owned by small farmers,
fair/ethical trade schemes and
fair/ethical trade support
organizations, sustainable textile
schemes, and connections to
associations with bamboo
bargaining power (such as
INBAR) could be established.
Organizations such as the
Fairtrade Labeling Organizations
(FLO), the Ethical Trading
Initiative, and Sedex, are all
working to promote fair trade
globally. Organizations such as
Social Accountability
International, The Clean Clothes
Campaign, the Fair Wear
Foundation, and the International
Fair Labor Association, work to
promote ethical working
conditions.
2. The risk of overexploitation is
present with any crop; to keep this
from occurring with bamboo,
increased public pressure and
sustainably managed ―bamboo‖ forest
certifications are suggested.
• Public pressure to keep textiles
organic can help to reduce the risk
of introducing chemicals to
bamboo farming. The high yield
and renewable status of bamboo
also make the use of chemical
pesticides and fertilizers less
attractive than for other textile
raw crops.
• Bamboo forests are currently
poorly managed in comparison to
their wood counterparts. Because
bamboo is a non-timber resource,

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16
it is missing in many government
classifications and third-party
certification schemes. The
introduction of such measures
would ensure that bamboo forests
are continually managed in a
sustainable manner and would
engender confidence in
consumers.
3. There should be increased yet
clarified public awareness in the
subject of sustainable textiles to
reduce the threat of consumer
disinterest.
The issue of trade agreements in the
international textile market is very important
as it impacts the environment, workers,
companies, end-users, and governments
involved. The influence of government
decisions on the sector, and therefore on the
future of bamboo textiles, will not be treated
here. It is a complex issue and beyond the
scope of this paper, but it is also worth
mentioning that agreements can have both
positive and negative impacts on the
communities involved, in both the short run
and long run.
One aspect of the textile industry that
undermines sustainable textile development
is the advent of ‗fast fashion.‘ That is, there
are increasingly short leading times for new
clothing textiles to reach the consumer
markets and increasingly short shelf lives of
the new clothing textiles. Figure 5.1 shows a
simplified causal loop diagram concerning
the sustainable bamboo textile industry. It
shows how fast fashion undermines the
entire system of a sustainable bamboo textile
(SBT) industry, and a sustainable textile
industry in general. The system boundary is
set with two major conditions: (1) textiles
are sourced from bamboo and (2)
sustainability is a prerequisite for each stage
of the life cycle. Therefore, the word
sustainable in the diagram encompasses the
relevant categories such as energy, water
use, and chemicals.
The diagram assumes that the total amount
of textiles in the worldwide textile stream
remains constant (for example, people will
buy x number of t-shirts regardless of the
clothing material); a bamboo item would
replace a polyester item, for instance. Two
main items that were left out of the diagram
but worth mentioning are the number of
workers in industry and government/inter-
governmental regulation. It is difficult to
predict the effect that an increase or
decrease in sustainable bamboo textiles
would have on employment in the sector,
mostly because machine automation
continues to make jobs obsolete in the
textile industry. Regulation (including
treaties, quotas, tariffs, and taxes) is an
important factor for a sustainable bamboo
textile industry. However, it is not included
here in an attempt to simplify the system
boundaries. Also, regulation is likely to
address the trade of textiles or the trade of
bamboo, but it is not likely to address
bamboo textiles specifically unless they
became major world players in the textile
market (such as cotton). The relationship
between the number of people who buy SBT
products and the price of SBTs is shown,
assuming supply (more SBT manufacturers),
remains constant in the long term. In
general, a lower price indicates that more
people will be able to buy SBT products.
There are two main loops. One is a positive,
or reinforcing loop labeled ―sustainable
bamboo textile industry.‖ This loop shows
the positive relationships between public
awareness, consumer education, consumer
voice, retailer voice, the amount of SBT
manufacturing and SBT quantity in the
industry, and the number of people who
purchase SBT products. This loop also leads
to show how a sustainable bamboo textile
industry leads to sustainable bamboo
forest/farm certification schemes, as well as
sustainable textile research and
development. The second loop is negative,
or balancing, and it is labeled ―fast fashion
in textile industry.‖ This loop indicates how
the relationships among quick lead times,
consumer consumption of fast fashion, and
the price of bamboo textiles leads to a less
sustainable textile industry.
Low prices and fast fashion are interlinked.
Assuming that one keeps the same budget,

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17
one can buy things more often if the items
are sold at low prices. I will describe one
possible scenario using the fast fashion loop.
As the amount of SBTs increases, the
overall size of the sustainable textile
industry increases; this then leads to a
decrease in the amount of fast fashion. As
fast fashion decreases, consumer
consumption of fast fashion decreases, and
subsequently consumer consumption of
SBTs within the fast fashion realm
decreases. As the latter decreases, the price
of SBT products must increase to make up
for profit loss (all other things being equal),
and this price change means that there will
be less people who buy SBT products at this
higher price. When the number of people
who buy SBT products decreases, the
amount of SBTs in the industry decreases,
and therefore there is a decrease in the
overall sustainable textile industry. Fast
fashion is therefore creating an unpleasant
barrier to the sustainable bamboo textile and
overall sustainable textile industries.
The diagram shows that an increase in the
number of SBTs is adding to a sustainable
textile industry, all other things being equal.
Yet, a truly sustainable textile industry
would lead to a decrease in fast fashion,
since unnecessary material waste is a key
component of sustainability. What is a
possible solution? One answer is the
purchase of sustainable textiles that last
longer and are more expensive; people
would buy clothes less often (and therefore
engender less textile waste and pollution),
but retailers would make the same profits
because goods would be sold at a higher
price.
C. Final Recommendations
Finally, I propose a sustainable textile mix
for the future, similar to the energy mixes in
which society has a diverse portfolio of
energy sources such as wind, solar, nuclear,
coal with carbon capture and storage, oil and
gas, etc. The current textile mix, with a clear
majority belonging to petroleum-based
synthetics and cotton fibers, is presented in
Figure 5.2. Figure 5.3a and 5.3b show textile
mix possibilities, randomly chosen, for the
future.

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18
C. Final Recommendations
Finally, I propose a sustainable textile mix
for the future, similar to the energy mixes in
which society has a diverse portfolio of
energy sources such as wind, solar, nuclear,
coal with carbon capture and storage, oil and
gas, etc. The current textile mix, with a clear
majority belonging to petroleum-based
synthetics and cotton fibres, is presented in
Figure 5.2. Figure 5.3a and 5.3b show
textile mix possibilities, randomly chosen,
for the future.
Figure 5.2: World Textile Mix (2006)
Textile Mix in 2006
synthetics
53.95%
raw cotton
39.81%
raw wool
1.91%
organic cotton
0.05%
cellulosics
4.06%
raw silk
0.23%
cellulosics
synthetics
raw cotton
organic cotton
raw wool
raw silk
Note: Chart generated using data provided by Textile Outlook International (Simpson
2007). Organic cotton data taken from the Organic Cotton Fiber Report (Ferrigno 2006).
NB: man-made fibre demand figures are based on production data; natural fibre demand
figures are based on consumption data to avoid inaccuracies arising from wide stock
variations from year to year numbers may not sum precisely due to rounding
Figure 5.3a and 5.3b: Textile Mix
Possibilities (5.3a, left, by fibre category,
5.3b, right, by fibre type)
The role of bamboo textiles in sustainable
development was analysed through a
thorough literature review, expert interviews
and discussions, field visits in China, and
experimental tests. Bamboo textiles present
many solutions to the present unsustainable

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19
nature of textile engineering; however,
energy, water, and chemical concerns in
manufacturing still must be addressed. There
are textile property variations among both
species and manufacturing method for
bamboo textiles. Thus, it is important to
consider these two elements for the desired
textile outcome. Further work in this field
could analyse more bamboo species for
textile applications, as well as treat small
variations in manufacturing processes for
the desired outcomes.
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