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© 2012 Universities Federation for Animal Welfare
The Old School, Brewhouse Hill, Wheathampstead,
Hertfordshire AL4 8AN, UK
Animal Welfare 2012, 21(S2): 3-8
ISSN 0962-7286
A review of the humaneness of puntilla as a slaughter method
G Limon*, J Guitian and NG Gregory
Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, Hatfield AL9 7TA, UK
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints: glimon@rvc.ac.uk
Abstract
Puntilla is a traditional slaughter method in which a knife is plunged into the back of the neck to sever the spinal cord. The aim is to
produce immediate collapse of the animal. Puntilla is not condoned as a stunning method by the World Animal Health Organisation
(OIE) because there is concern that the animal could be conscious during and after the neck stab. Nonetheless, it is still used in some
developing countries. The effectiveness and humaneness of puntilla followed by neck sticking was examined at two slaughterhouses
in Bolivia. Twenty llamas (Lama glama) and 309 cattle were observed during routine puntilla without stunning. The number of neck
stabs was recorded, and then brain and spinal functions (rhythmic breathing, palpebral reflex and eyeball rotation) were assessed. In
addition, the presence of specific cognitive responses (such as responses to a threat stimulus and noise, as well as to flavours and
odours), were also assessed in cattle. Breed, sex, live weight, body condition score and the slaughterman’s experience were recorded.
Repeat stabbing was needed to penetrate the foramen ovale in 45% of the llamas and two of them attempted to stand following
collapse after the initial stab. All llamas showed rhythmic breathing movements at the flank following puntilla and before sticking, and
95% had a positive palpebral reflex at the same time. Twenty-four percent of the cattle needed repeat stabbing. Repeat stabbing
was significantly less frequent with experienced slaughtermen, and more frequent in heavyweight animals (> 380 kg). Brain and spinal
responses were present in 91% of the cattle following the stabs. When cattle attempted to stand after a neck stab they were more
likely to have rhythmic breathing, positive palpebral response and responsiveness to threat, noise and brief air stimulus applied to the
face. These findings indicate that it is difficult in practice to penetrate the spinal cord with a single puntilla stab. Some nerve pathways
are often functional after the neck stab and therefore it is highly likely that the animals remain conscious in at least some modalities
for the next part of the slaughter procedure. The challenge in developing countries, however, is to find a strategy that encourages use
of a method which limits suffering whilst being accessible for routine slaughter practice.
Keywords:animal welfare, Bolivia, cattle and llamas, degree of awareness, puntilla, slaughter
Introduction
Puntilla (also known as neck stabbing and evernazione) is a
traditional slaughter method in which a knife is plunged into
the back of the neck of the animal to sever the spinal cord
(Dembo 1894). The animal immediately collapses, and can
then be stuck and processed in the normal way. In the past
this method has been advocated by animal protection groups
as a humane alternative to contemporary methods (Gregory
1989), but now it is not condoned as a stunning method by
the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) (World
Organisation for Animal Health 2006), and is forbidden in
European Union slaughterhouses because it is considered
inhumane. The method is, however, still used in many devel-
oping countries (Cartes-Sanchez 2000; Pham Hong Nhat
2006; Osborne 2009) where no alternative methods are
available other than sticking the animal without stunning.
In the human, 4 out of 17 patients with transcranial stab
wounds that involved either the midbrain or brainstem
survived the insult even though there was persistent hemi-
plegia in each of the four subjects (Nathoo et al 2000). This
study showed that incomplete transection of the lower brain
does not invariably induce irreversible unconsciousness.
It has also been shown in mice (Mus musculus) that sensory
responses are dependent on the severity of the lesion in the
spinal cord. In addition, pain from stimuli, which is not
normally painful (ie allodynic behaviour), can be induced when
some ascending fibres are left intact (Hoschouer et al 2010).
Puntilla is different from pithing. For example, in fish,
pithing is a common procedure in some parts of the world
and usually involves maceration of the lower brain without
direct transection of the spinal cord. It is not clear whether
pithing is a humane procedure but it is recognised that it
requires skill on the part of the operator (Noga 2000).
It has been recognised by the Food and Agriculture
Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) that animal
welfare is highly relevant to success in international devel-
opment. Within a range of topics that need to be addressed,
slaughter and pre-slaughter are some of the areas that
Universities Federation for Animal Welfare Science in the Service of Animal Welfare
4 Limon et al
require assessment, capacity building and creation of incen-
tives. Much of the research on these topics has been done in
economically developed countries, and there is now a need
to develop expertise in animal welfare science in devel-
oping countries (Food and Agriculture Organisation 2008).
Bolivia is one of the poorest countries in Latin America
having the third lowest Human Development Index in the
region (Klugman 2010). As in most developing countries,
livestock have many roles in Bolivia’s rural areas. Llamas
(Lama glama) are mainly used for fibre production and in
some parts they are still used as pack animals, but recently,
they have been promoted as a local source of meat (United
Nations 2008). Investment in llama abattoirs in South
America began during the 1970s and recently local govern-
ment programmes have promoted the reintroduction of
llamas in the high plateau communities.
The work presented in this paper is based on two previous
published studies (Limon et al 2009, 2010). The aim of the
studies was to assess the humaneness of puntilla method in
llamas and cattle. The specific objectives were to develop a
better understanding of the degree of awareness and
consciousness in animals following the neck stab. This
paper also discusses the implications in applying the
conclusions of the research in developing countries.
Materials and methods
Data collection
Two studies were conducted during routine slaughter, in the
Department of Tarija, southern Bolivia; one at a small llama
slaughterhouse between August and September 2008 and
the second at a cattle slaughterhouse between the 16th and
27th of March 2009. In both slaughterhouses the following
parameters were measured after puntilla (in the case of
cattle after the animal was ejected from the slaughter pen):
whether or not the animal showed brain and spinal function
following the neck stab, number of stabs before the animal
collapsed, sex, and live weight. In addition, the following
parameters were recorded in llamas: age, refusal to move
and vocalisation when led to slaughter pen; in cattle:
whether or not selected cognitive responses were present
after the neck stab, breed, body condition score and level of
experience of the slaughterman carrying out the puntilla.
Body condition score was subjectively assessed by observa-
tion, based on a scale 1 to 5 (1 very poor condition and
5 obese). The level of experience of each slaughterman was
obtained by asking them the number of years they had been
performing puntilla.
Brain and spinal function following the neck stab
In order to evaluate brain and spinal function the following
parameters were recorded immediately after puntilla in both
species: presence of rhythmic breathing, palpebral reflex
and eyeball rotation. Nystagmus and pupillary reflex were
also recorded in cattle. Eyeball rotation was present when
the sclera was obvious in the exposed eye. Rhythmic
breathing excluded spasmodic gasping and gagging.
Pupillary reflex was assessed by pupil closure in response to
a torch allowing 5 s for the response to occur. Nystagmus
was recognised as involuntary rapid eyeball flicker. When
eyeball rotation was present, neither nystagmus, nor the
pupillary reflex were tested. When nystagmus was present
the pupillary reflex was not tested.
Brain and spinal function was said to be present if one or
more of the above criteria were present immediately after
the puntilla stab. In addition, it was present in those animals
that attempted to stand after the stab.
In order to evaluate if there was a cranial-spinal response,
cardiac acceleration was assessed using a Littmann stetho-
scope at approximately 30 s after the animals had been
ejected from the pen, in response to introducing up to 5 ml
cold water into an ear. Acceleration was recognised if the
heart rate increased to a level that exceeded 120 bpm.
Cognitive responses after the neck stab
In order to evaluate whether cranial nerve responses were
still patent, and which parts of the spinal cord were still
intact, the following responses were evaluated immediately
after the animals were ejected from the pen:
• Response to threat stimulus. This was done by rushing the
hand towards the eyes and observing if the animal reacted
by closing its eyes. Some of them also moved the head
backwards.
• Response to sudden noise stimulus was done by clapping
the hands up to 5 cm from the animal’s ear and observing an
ear movement and alerting response.
• Response when blowing air on the nose was positive when
there was a backward movement of the head. Responses to
short (less than 1 s) and long draughts (3 s) were examined
in each animal.
• Response when introducing a stick into the nostril.
• Response to different odours and flavours, including
molasses, lime juice, vinegar and salt, applied separately.
For response to odours, a stick impregnated with each odour
was presented within 5 cm of the front of the nose, and for
the response to a flavour a stick impregnated with the test
substance was introduced into the mouth. A positive
reaction to the odour was said to occur when the animal’s
nostrils flared; a response to flavour or the presence of the
stick occurred when there was tongue movement.
• Response to a single needle stimulus in the skin over the
frontal bone using a 10 cm 19 G needle and observing for a
localised skin response.
All variables were recorded as binary: whether the animal
responded or not.
All observations were made by one of the authors. The
observer offered no advice or instructions on how the
animals should be slaughtered. For safety reasons, cattle
presenting violent head and/or limb movements were not
included in the study.
© 2012 Universities Federation for Animal Welfare
Review of puntilla as a slaughter method 5
Statistical analysis
In the case of the cattle, slaughterhouse numerical variables
representing number of stabs before the animal collapsed
and weight were re-categorised into binary variables, this
was done by using the mean or the median as a cut-off,
depending on which was considered more appropriate after
examining the histograms. After re-categorisation, these
variables became as follow: ‘Number of stabs before the
animal collapsed’: animals that received one stab and
animals that received more than one stab; ‘weight’: animals
weighing up to 380 kg and animals heavier than 380 kg.
Breed was also re-categorised as mixed breeds versus Zebu.
Slaughterman experience was grouped as beginners (for
those who had been carrying out the puntilla method for less
than 5 years) and experienced (for those with more than
5 years experience). This cut-off was carried out based on
the criteria given by slaughtermen themselves.
Number of stabs before the animal collapsed, slaughtermen
experience, weight, breed, sex and physical condition score
were considered predictor variables; brain and spinal
function, cognitive responses were the outcome variables.
As a first step in the analysis collinearity between predictor
variables was explored. This was done by two-tailed Fisher
exact test or Chi-squared test. When collinearity was
present (P< 0.05) just one of the two related independent
variables was kept for further analysis. Then, we deter-
mined extent to which predictor variables were associated
with each of the individual outcomes using Chi-squared test
(or Fisher exact when necessary). For each of those associ-
ations that were significant in the bivariate analysis
(P< 0.05), a logistic model was built to assess the relation-
ship between the individual predictor variable and the
outcome, accounting for the potential confounding and
interaction effect of other variables. A step-wise selection
procedure was used where only variables significant at
P< 0.05 were retained in the model.
Odds ratios were obtained as a measure of strength of the
association between independent and outcome variables.
The analyses were carried out using the statistical packages Stata,
version 7.0 (Stata Corporation, College Station, TX, USA).
Results
Llamas
During the puntilla procedure, a single edge knife was
inserted into the foramen ovale at the atlanto-occipital axis.
The most common sequence of events at the abattoir was as
follows: the procedure was carried out in couched (sternal
recumbency with front and hind limbs flexed) unrestrained
animals. The slaughterman’s left hand held the animal’s ears
forcing the nose downwards and his right hand made the
stab in the upper neck. The stabbed animal was then
shackled by one hind leg and hoisted onto a bleeding rail
where it was stuck by inserting a knife to cut both carotid
arteries. The time between puntilla and sticking was
between 30 and 180 s (median 60 s, average 70 s [± 38]).
Twenty llamas were observed. All the llamas were between
two and five year-old males, weighing between 56 and
92 kg (median 74 kg). None of them were aggressive during
handling, but 11 (55%) refused to move at some stage
during transfer to the slaughter area and 4 (20%) vocalised.
Between one and three attempts were made at penetrating
the foramen ovale with the puntilla knife by one slaugh-
terman (mean 1.3 [± 0.72]), and between one and eleven
attempts were made by the less experienced slaughterman
(mean 5 [± 3.8], P= 0.005). Two of the animals (10%)
attempted to stand after the initial stab with the knife and all
llamas presented rhythmic breathing (Table 1).
Cattle
The most common sequence of events at the abattoir was as
follows: the stunning pen was loaded with either one or two
animals. Once the animal(s) were in a suitable position, a
single edge knife was inserted into the dorsal aspect of the
neck above the foramen ovale at the atlanto-occipital axis.
When two animals were in the box at the same time the
knife was inserted in the second animal immediately after
the first. The stabbed animal(s) were then ejected from the
side of the pen; a second slaughterman shackled one hind
leg and hoisted the animal onto a bleeding rail where it was
stuck by inserting a knife into the neck to cut both carotid
arteries. The time between being ejected from the pen and
being hoisted onto the bleeding rail was not systematically
recorded for all animals but it was observed that in some
cases it could have been up to 15 min.
Observations were made on 309 cattle, of which 35% were
females (mean weight 344.3 [± 67.7]) kg and 65% were
males (predominantly steers; mean weight 408 [± 90.4]).
Body condition score was 4 for 46.6% of the animals and 3
for 42%. All animals were stabbed in the neck as described
above, 214 (69.26%) by an experienced slaughterman and
the rest by four different beginner slaughtermen. The
number of stabs at the first attempt ranged between one and
eight tries; the prevalence of repeat stabbing was 24%,
Animal Welfare 2012, 21(S2): 3-8
Table 1 Prevalence of brain and spinal responses in
cattle and llamas subjected to puntilla.
Brain and spinal
function parameters
Prevalence (%)
Cattle (n = 309) Llamas (n = 20)
Attempt to stand 22 10
Rhythmic breathing 81.6 100
Palpebral reflex 72.8 95
Eye rotation 23.6 0
Nystagmus†23.7 –
Pupillary reflex‡12.4 –
Cardiac acceleration after
water in ear
11.7 –
†Nystagmus was not tested when eye rotation was present.
‡Pupillary reflex was not tested when eyeball rotation or nystagmus
were present.
6 Limon et al
which was significantly associated with slaughterman expe-
rience (P= 0.004) and weight of the animal (P= 0.028). The
experienced slaughterman gave just one stab in 75% of the
animals in order to produce collapse, while only 27% of the
animals stabbed by beginner slaughtermen collapsed after
the first stab. Nearly 63% of the heavier animals (> 380 kg)
received more than one stab.
Two hundred and eighty-four (92%) of the 309 animals
presented one or more of the parameters which indicated
a brain and spinal function (presence of rhythmic
breathing, positive palpebral reflex, eyeball rotation,
nystagmus and pupillary reflex).
The prevalence of each of the parameters recorded to evaluate
brain and spinal function, as well as cognitive responses after
the neck stab are presented in Tables 1 and 2, respectively.
Over 70% of the animals presented a palpebral reflex,
which was present in 78% of the animals weighing 380 kg
or less, and 67% of the heavier animals (> 380 kg)
(P= 0.021). Palpebral reflex was present in one out of every
four Zebu animals, whereas just less than 10% of the mixed
breeds had a positive reflex (P= 0.020). More than 80% of
the animals had rhythmic breathing after being stabbed,
with more than 90% of the Zebu cattle showing this
behaviour compared with 79% in the mixed breed cattle
(P= 0.020). Almost 40% responded to molasses odour, and
this response was present in 35% of the animals stabbed by
the experienced slaughtermen and nearly half of the cattle
stabbed by beginners (P= 0.026).
Animals attempting to stand were 4.5 times more likely to
have rhythmic breathing (P= 0.002), 4.1 times more likely
to have a positive palpebral reflex (P= 0.0004), two times
more likely to respond to a threat stimulus (P= 0.02),
2.3 times more likely to respond to the noise stimulus
(P= 0.004) and 2.5 times more likely to respond to a short
air stimulus (P= 0.007).
The odds ratios (OR) resulting from the logistic regression
analysis are given in Table 3. Only the models that were signif-
icant are presented. In general, the Zebu cattle were heavier and
were 3.34 times more likely to be breathing and 2.73 times more
likely to have pupillary reflex after being stabbed. Animals
weighing > 380 kg were half as likely to have a positive
palpebral reflex. Cattle stabbed by beginner slaughtermen were
1.75 times more likely to respond to the molasses odour.
Discussion
These findings showed that in practice puntilla is difficult to
perform proficiently, it is difficult to penetrate the atlanto-
occipital space and there is the risk of failing to completely
sever the spinal cord with a single stab and inflicting pain
when repeating the procedure. In these studies the preva-
lence of repeat stabbing was 45% in llamas and 23.3% in
cattle, this difference could be linked to slaughterman expe-
rience and size of the foramen ovale. Nevertheless, the
prevalence of brain and spinal function in cattle (91.1%)
was considerably higher than the 8.7% prevalence reported
for cattle receiving a captive bolt (Gregory et al 2007).
Two llamas showed righting behaviour of the neck following
puntilla, indicating that the medial (and lateral) pathways of
the spinal cord were still intact including the vestibulospinal
tract, which is involved in reflex control of balance and
posture (Ghez 1991). All llamas and 80% cattle showed
rhythmic breathing movements in the flank region after
puntilla, indicating that the corticospinal, ventral and lateral
columns of the spinal cord were not completely severed
(Mitchell & Berger 1975). A palpebral reflex was present in
95% llamas after puntilla, and 70% cattle, indicating that the
Vth and VIIth cranial nerve pathways to and from the brain
stem were still patent (Scagliotti 1991; May & Porter 1998).
In addition, results for the cattle slaughterhouse showed that
nearly 40% of the animals had a positive response to at least
one odour, which means that the Ist cranial nerve pathway
was still patent (de Lahunta & Glass 2009). Nearly one-
third of the animals observed responded to at least one
flavour, presenting tongue movements when an impreg-
nated stick was put in their mouth, which demonstrates that
the hypoglossal neurons from the XIIth nerve pathway were
patent as well as the IXth and Xth nerve pathways (de
Lahunta & Glass 2009). Although there were differences in
response to different flavours, it is possible that some of the
responses were due to physical stimulation rather than
flavour. In that case, the cranial nerve involved would have
been the Vth. Molasses was the odour and flavour which
more animals reacted to, which could be because it is a
familiar odour and a smell related to a taste cattle tend to
like. Finally, 21% of the animals responded to a noise
stimulus indicating that the cochlear nucleus in the medulla
(VIIIth nerve pathway) was still functional (Shore 2005).
Animals that attempted to stand were more likely to have
rhythmic breathing, a positive palpebral response, respon-
© 2012 Universities Federation for Animal Welfare
Table 2 Prevalence of cognitive and cranial-spinal
responses in cattle.
Parameters indicating cognitive responses Prevalence (%)
Vocalisation 4.5
Response to threat stimulus 61.2
Response to noise stimulus 21.4
Response to short air stimulus 13.6
Response to long air stimulus 17.8
Response to stick in nostril 20.1
Response to needle skin stimulus 11.7
Response to molasses odour 39.2
Response to lime odour 19.1
Response to vinegar odour 36.6
Response to salt odour 22
Response to molasses flavour 13.9
Response to lime flavour 4.2
Response to vinegar flavour 7.4
Response to salt flavour 9.1
Review of puntilla as a slaughter method 7
siveness to a threat stimulus, responsiveness to a noise
stimulus and responsiveness to a short air stimulus, which
indicates that in those animals that attempted to stand
cranial nerve pathways were often functional and it is
highly likely that they were still conscious.
It is important to note that the cranial nerve pathways examined
in the cattle study spanned the length of the brainstem. This
leaves little opportunity for subdivisions of the brain stem
being viable in cases where all responses were negative.
The fact that Zebu were more likely than crossbred cattle to
present rhythmic breathing can be explained by the anatomy
of the Zebu’s neck, which makes the puntilla method even
more difficult to perform proficiently.
Even though the puntilla method is not condoned by inter-
national organisations such as OIE (World Organisation for
Animal Health 2006), there is evidence that it is still used in
small- and medium-sized slaughterhouses in some devel-
oping countries such as Viet Nam (Nhat 2006), México
(Osborne 2009), Chile (Cartes-Sanchez 2000) and Peru
(Artigas, personal communication 2010). In Bolivia,
puntilla is an everyday practice in some parts of the country.
It is not the official method recommended by the national
legislation but it is not disallowed (SENASAG 2005).
Unofficial use such as this makes it difficult to appreciate
the extent to which the method is actually used.
Animal welfare implications
From a welfare point of view, the purpose of stunning is to
render the animal insensible (Gregory 1998). A previous
study plus practical experience has shown that puntilla can
cause immediate collapse in cattle when the spinal cord is
severed (Dembo 1894). However, as shown in the studies
presented here, it is difficult to perform proficiently, which
means it cannot be assumed that it is always a painless way
of immobilising cattle and llamas. Furthermore, an experi-
mental study in sheep showed that the pre-puntilla elec-
troencephalogram (EEG) can be similar to that up to 130 s
after incomplete severance of the spinal cord, suggesting
that puntilla can have limited immediate effect on brain
function during this time-period (Tidswell et al 1986).
FAO has recognised the need to develop expertise in
animal welfare science in developing countries (Food
and Agriculture Organisation 2008). However, animal
welfare issues in developing countries should be
addressed while taking into account their limited
resources and the cost of upgrading to alternative
methods. Whilst enforcing new methods in slaughter-
houses which wish to access international markets might
be relatively straightforward, introducing more
expensive methods in small- to medium-size abattoirs
could represent an increase in slaughterhouse fees,
which might lead people to stop taking their cattle to an
abattoir and instead slaughter them at home. Thus, the
challenge in developing countries is to find a strategy
that encourages use of a method which compromises
animal welfare as little as possible and at the same time
is accessible for everyone.
These findings emphasise the need to stun cattle and llamas
before slaughter. Previously, captive-bolt guns have had
only limited success in Bolivia. This is because it has been
difficult to get import permission, and when guns have been
introduced they have fallen from use because of poor main-
Animal Welfare 2012, 21(S2): 3-8
Table 3 Final logistic regression models for variables that were significant in the Chi-squared test.
* All independent variables were coded as 0 negative response; 1 positive response.
† Animals that could not be tested for pupillary reflex were not considered in the model.
First models Second models
Independent variable: Breathing after stabbed* Adjusted by weight
OR (95% CI) P-value OR (95% CI) P-value
Mixed breed 1 – Mixed breed 1 –
Zebu 3.27 (1.13–9.4) 0.028 Zebu 3.34 (1.15–9.71) 0.026
Independent variable: Pupillary reflex*† Adjusted by weight
Mixed breed 1 – Mixed breed 1 –
Zebu 3.04 (1.15–8) 0.024 Zebu 2.73 (1.02–7.34) 0.034
Independent variable: Palpebral reflex*
Weight < 380 kg 1 –
Weight > 380 kg 0.55 (0.33–0.91) 0.021
Independant variable: Respond to molasses odour*
Experience slaughterman 1 –
Beginner slaughterman 1.74 (1.06–2.84) 0.27
8 Limon et al
tenance. Presently, cattle in some parts of Bolivia are
stunned with a long-handled mallet before sticking. In the
short term, this method should be extended to all cattle. In
the absence of captive-bolt guns, it is unclear what the best
method for stunning llamas would be in countries such as
Bolivia. With any change, it is essential that there is training
and demonstration programmes.
Acknowledgements
This work was funded by Human Slaughter Association. We
wish to thank the slaughterhouses’ staff for their assistance
in this work.
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