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This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemistry of Living Systems devoted to the intersection of chemistry with life.
CROATICA CHEMICA ACTA
CCACAA, ISSN 0011-1643, e-ISSN 1334-417X
Croat. Chem. Acta 84 (2) (2011) 277–285.
CCA-3475
Review
Reproductive Development of the Christmas Rose (Helleborus niger L.):
The Role of Plant Hormones
†
Branka Salopek-Sondi
Department of Molecular Biology, Ruđer Bošković Institute, Bijenička cesta 54, Zagreb, Croatia
(E-mail: salopek@irb.hr)
RECEIVED DECEMBER 30, 2010; REVISED MARCH 4, 2011; ACCEPTED MARCH 10, 2011
Abstract. Christmas rose (Helleborus niger L.), a native perennial of southeastern Europe, is characterized
by an interesting phenomenon in the world of flowering plants: after fertilization perianth becomes green,
photosyntheticaly active, and persists during fruit development. Removal of the reproductive organs (an-
thers and carpels) affects the elongation and vascular anatomy of flower stalk, prevents complete perianth
greening, and promotes perianth senescence. Endogenous plant hormones auxins, gibberellins and cytoki-
nins, identified and quantified in floral and fruit tissues, are shown to regulate reproductive development.
Dynamics of these signaling molecules are summarized and their potential role in coordination of floral
organ development are discussed.(doi: 10.5562/cca1820)
Keywords: Helleborus niger L., reproductive development, auxin, cytokinin, gibberrelin, LC-MS/MS
analysis.
INTRODUCTION
Plant reproductive development, considering flowering
and the production of a viable seeds as final result, is a
complex, and well regulated process dependent on a
number of biotic and abiotic factors. It can be separated
into five main phases: (1) development of reproductive
organs (pre-anthesis), (2) flowering (anthesis) at which
pollination and fertilization occur, (3) fruit growth and
development (post-anthesis), and (4) fruit maturation.
Plant hormones are endogenous signaling compounds
highly involved in the regulation of each of these
steps.1−5 Pollination and fertilization are events crucial
for the fate of, usually attractive flowers. The most
basic function of showy flower perianth is an attraction
of pollinators. Thus, shortly after pollination, colorful
perianth of the most flowers enter the process of senes-
cence (involving changes in pigmentation, shedding or
wilting), and finally abscission.6,7 This highly regulated
process involves complex structural, biochemical and
molecular changes in plant cells, and, it is in many
cases considered as a one type of programmed cell
death.8−11
Exceptionally, in some species, pollination
and/or the presence of developing fruit increase the life
span of the perianth which then tends to turn green (or
darker green) contributing to the photosynthetic assi-
milation. The number of published studies deals with
orchids,7 araceans Spathiphyllum wallisii Regel,12
Zantedeschia aethiopica Spreng.13,14 and Z. elliotiana
Engl.,15 as well the dicots Chrysosplenium alternifo-
lium L., C. oppositifolium L.,16 and Nuphar luteum
Sibth. et Sm.15 In all of these species, unpollinated or
depistillated flowers or inflorescences entered the
program of senescence much earlier than their polli-
nated counterparts.
Reproductive development of Christmas rose
(Helleborus niger L.) is one impressive example of this
phenomenon.17−19 Herein, we describe reproductive
development of the Christmas rose, give overview of
the endogenous plant hormones profile, and discuss on
their possible roles in triggering and mediating of an
uncommon morphological changes of flowers.
REPRODUCTIVE DEVELOPMENT OF THE
CHRISTMAS ROSE (HELLEBORUS NIGER L.)
A Christmas rose (H. niger) belongs to the genus Hel-
leborus (family Ranunculaceae) which comprises
about 20 perennial species with large, attractive flow-
ers in various shades of purple, green, and white.20 A
detailed botanical description can be found else-
where.19,21,22 The plants used in our experiments were
278 B. Salopek Sondi, Reproductive Development of the Christmas Rose
Croat. Chem. Acta 84 (2011) 277.
collected at two locations through several growth sea-
sons: habitat 1 was a natural mountain forest at Gorski
kotar, Croatia (altitude: 800 m), and habitat 2 was a
woodlot at the “Fran Kušan” Botanical Garden of the
Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry of the Univer-
sity of Zagreb.
The Christmas rose may produce flowers from
early winter up until late spring. In mild winters, the
flowers may indeed appear at Christmas time and main-
tain until April or May. The seeds generally mature by
May. Floral longevity strongly depends on the tempera-
ture fluctuations as reported for other Hellebores spe-
cies.23 Since the developmental stages could not be
defined on an absolute time scale, several developmen-
tal stages were described according to morphological
parameters, such as the lengths and weights of the sep-
als and fruit clusters, intensity of sepal greening, and the
length of the flower stalk.19 Figure 1 shows representa-
tive stages of H. niger flower development: bud stage at
pre-anthesis (A), female (B) and male (C) stages at
anthesis, light green (D) and green stages (E) at post-
anthesis.
It is shown that this species is generally credited
with pure white flowers. When the bud appeared over
ground (pre-anthesis), it was already 10−15 mm long,
and its size thus increased only about twice before un-
folding (Figure 1A). Simultaneously, the flower stalk
grew at a much faster rate to attain its final length (ap-
proximately 20−25 cm) shortly after anthesis (Figure
1F). The sepals appeared to elongate at bud opening
(anthesis), but there was little expansion afterwards. The
proterogynous flowers first passed through their female
phase (Figure 1B) during which the stigmata were re-
ceptive, the immature anthers were arranged in a ring at
the base of the cluster of carpels. The male phase (Fig-
ure 1C) began with the elongation of the filaments, and
ended with their abortion. After pollination (post-
anthesis), the sepals first turned yellowish-greenish
(Figure 1D), then green (Figure 1E), and maintained this
color until shortly before seed shedding. They becomes
photosynthetically active, leaf like organs. Fruit consists
of pericarp inside which seeds grow. Fruit length in-
creased about threefold, while fresh weight (FW) accu-
mulation of the fruit increased 6 to 7 fold until the last
stage of development. In Helleborus seeds, both endos-
perm growth and embryo differentiation start around the
time when the sepals begin turning green. As long as the
seeds are connected to the mother plant, embryo devel-
opment does not progress beyond an early cotyledonary
stage.24−26 After-ripening period of about three months
at room temperature followed by two months at +4 ºC
are required for the embryos to differentiate into cotyle-
dons and hypocotyl-radicle, thus enabling the seeds to
germinate.
In addition to interesting post-anthesis transforma-
tion of flower following fertilization, the Christmas rose
is well-suited for experimental work on flower biology
due to size and life span of its flowers. All elements of
their large flowers are accessible, while single flower, is
in many case, sufficient for hormone, pigment, and
related biochemical analyses. The greening process in
the perianth and elongation of flower stalk, are linked to
the presence of developing fruit, which makes the ferti-
lized Christmas rose flower an interesting model for
studying developmental aspects of sink-source interac-
tions.
HOW IS THE FLORAL DEVELOPMENTAL
PROGRAM OF THE CHRISTMAS ROSE
CHANGED IF FERTILIZATION FAILED?
The fate of white, attractive Christmas rose flowers are
strongly influenced by fertilization and fruit develop-
ment.17−19 As already mentioned, life cycle of an intact
flowers are characterized by processes such as inten-
sive flower stalk elongation at pre-anthesis and anthe-
sis, flower opening and sepal growth at anthesis, and
sepal greening at post-anthesis during which fruit was
growing and developing (Figure 1). On the other side,
flowers in which fertilization was prevented, naturally
or experimentally by removing the anthers (unferti-
lized flowers), or exciding the entire reproductive
organs (depistillated flowers), survive as long as ferti-
lized counterparts but do not pass through entire deve-
lopmental process. Impact of depistillation on the
Figure 1. Representative developmental stages of the Christ-
mas rose flower (Helleborus niger L.): bud stage at pre-
anthesis (A), “Female” (B) and “Male” (C) stages at anthesis,
and “Light green” (D), and “Green” (E) stages at post-
anthesis. Elongation of flower stalk (m-2) (F), and chlorophyll
accumulation in perianth during post-anthesis (measured by
chlorophyll meter) (G) were monitored in fertilized control
(closed circles), and depistillated flowers (open circles). Dat
a
are arithmetic mean ± SE (n = 20 to 25).
B. Salopek Sondi, Reproductive Development of the Christmas Rose 279
Croat. Chem. Acta 84 (2011) 277.
perianth and stalk development is the most evident on
the greening process of sepals and the flower stalk
elongation.
Greening process of Christmas rose sepals is con-
nected with differentiation of chloroplasts from color-
less plastids leucoplasts, and subsequent accumulation
of photosynthetic pigment (chlorophylls and caroteno-
ids).17 In the sepals of fertilized flowers chlorophyll
accumulates gradually until the value of 3.5 monitored
by chlorophyll meter (which correspondents to approx-
imately 350 mg per g of FW) at stationary green stage
phase (Figure 1G).
The greening process of sepals is significantly in-
hibited if developing fruits are missing. Chlorophyll
accumulation in the sepals of depistillated flowers does
never reach the level of fertilized ones. Thus, chloro-
phyll maximal level reaches about 70 % of that meas-
ured in fertilized flower sepals (Figure 1G).
Furthermore, depistillated flowers enter the pro-
gram of senescence earlier in comparison to fruit-
bearing counterparts what is firstly evident by visual
observation. It was detected at ultrastructural level
where gerontoplasts were shown to be predominant
plastids in the sepal cells of depistillated flowers in
comparison to typical, well developed chloroplasts
present in the cells of fertilized flowers of the same
age.17−19 At biochemical level, this thesis can be con-
firmed by several parameters such as decreased chloro-
phylls/carotenoids ratio,17 elevated accumulation of
H2O2 and lower activities of an antioxidant enzymes in
depistillated flowers in comparison to fertilized ones.27
The most prominent elongation of flower stalk oc-
curs at pre-anthesis when its length increased up to ten
fold (from 1 to 10 cm) (Figure 1F). Thereafter, stalk
elongated additionally about twice during anthesis and
early post-anthesis period reaching, at stationary phase,
approximately 20 to 25 cm. In depistillated flowers,
stalk growth was stunted through their lifespan and
never reached the length of fruit-bearing flowers. Thus
the flower stalk of depistillated flowers at the stationary
phase reached 68 % of the fertilized flower stalk. Simi-
lar effect of flower stalk growth inhibition upon bud
decapitation or emasculation was observed in miniature
Cymbidium orchid,28 tulip, and daffodil.29−31
Depistillation additionally impacts the vascular
anatomy. In the stalk of fruit bearing flower the vascular
tissue showed phloem and xylem fully developed with
an interfascicular cambium layers well distinguished
between them. Significant deposition of lignin and cel-
lulose was observed in sclerenchyma surrounding vas-
cular bundle. In contrast, vascular bundles found in the
stalk of depistillated flowers are generally smaller, inter-
fascicular cambium has been hardly noticed and the
lignin deposition was significantly lower.27
IMPORTANCE OF FLORAL PHOTOSYNTHESIS
IN THE CHRISTMAS ROSE
It has been already reported that floral photosynthesis in
some species can provide a significant part of the car-
bon needed for reproduction.32 Green sepals of fruit
bearing H. niger flowers are shown to be photosynthetic
active being able to produce approximately 60 µmol of
oxygen per hour per g FW, which is one-half, and one-
forth of production determined in young leaves, and
mature leaves, respectively.21 Aschan and Pfanz32 de-
termined electron transport rates (at the photon flux
density of 600 µmol m−2 s−1) in green sepals of about 60
% of those in mature leaves. On the other side, photo-
synthetic efficacy of depistillated flower has been
shown to follow the trend of chlorophyll accumulation,
and found to accomplish about 30 % of value deter-
mined in the sepals of fruit-bearing flower.27 Compara-
ble, green sepals of Helleborus viridis contribute more
than 60 % of the whole-plant CO2 gain in early spring.33
Young inflorescences of the terrestrial orchid Spiranthes
cernum achieved one-third of the leaf photosynthesis.34
Green spots on the white inner tepals of Snowdrop (Ga-
lanthus nivalis L.),35 and white perigon tips of Leucojum
vernum L.36 achieved photosynthesis of about one-forth
and one-third of that measured in the fully developed
leaves, respectively.
The primary, an ecological role of green spots on
the white perianth, and regreened parts of perianth dur-
ing fruit development are mainly attraction of pollina-
tors, and protection against herbivores, respectively. A
second relevant function of green or regreen parts of
perianth is proposed to be in performing an efficient
photosynthesis and providing the flower and the devel-
oping seeds with assimilates.
In the Christmas rose, like other helebore species,
the overwintering leaves are often pressed to the ground
by snow and covered with debris, and naturally die back
in early winter when fertilization and young fruits oc-
cured. New generation of leaves emerges later in spring
during fruit developing and ripening, and fully expand
after seed maturity.37 Green sepals achive maximum of
photosynthetic activity at that time. Apart from the
stores in the roots, the green perianth thus represents the
most reliable source of assimilates for the developing
seeds in this and other species of Helleborus. Herrera38
approved this theory by showing the positive corelation
between calyx size and seed mass in green flowering
Helleborus foetidus: he found an approximately 10 %
decrease in final seed weight (but no effect on seed
number) when he removed the sepals right after pollina-
tion. In the most of flowers of H. niger deprived of their
sepals, the fruit aborted before maturity. In the single
recorded case, in which claster of the fruit remained
280 B. Salopek Sondi, Reproductive Development of the Christmas Rose
Croat. Chem. Acta 84 (2011) 277.
viable, their lenght only reached one-half, while their
overall fresh weight one-third of the values observed for
intact fertilized flowers.18
PLANT HORMONES – REGULATORS OF THE
REPRODUCTIVE DEVELOPMENT OF
CHRISTMAS ROSE
Since the morphological changes of flower organs are
influenced by fertilization and fruit development, an
intriguing question is the following: how do these fruits
communicate with other floral parts and mediate certain
changes observed in the Christmas rose during repro-
ductive period? Fruit tissues are known to be rich source
of plant hormones, the small signaling molecules that
generally coordinate and mediate plant develop-
ment.1,2,39 According to historically established classifi-
cation there are five main groups of plant hormones:
auxins, cytokinins, gibberellins, abscisic acid (ABA),
and gas ethylene. In addition, brassinosteroids, salicylic
acid (SA) and jasmonates are also shown to act as endo-
genous signaling molecules.2
In order to test the potential role of different
plant hormones in the Christmas rose flower develop-
ment, our first approach accomplished a treatment of
depistillated flowers with several representatives of
plant hormones auxins [indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), 4-
chloroindole-3-acetic acid (4-Cl-IAA)], cytokinins
[N6-benzyladenine (BA), trans-zeatin (Z), trans-zeatin
riboside (ZR), dihydrozeatin (DZ), dihydrozeatin ribo-
side (DZR), N6-(Δ2-isopentenyl)adenine (iP), N6-(Δ2-
isopentenyl)adenine riboside (iPR)], and gibberellins
[GA3, GA4, GA7]. The representatives of these three
groups of plant hormones are shown in Figure 2. They
were applied in lanoline paste, in concentrations rang-
ing from 10−5 to 10−2 mol dm−3, to the inner surfaces of
the sepals of depistillated flowers at the anthesis. Re-
sults were monitoring six to eight weeks upon treat-
ment when fruit bearing counterparts reached the
“green phase” of development. The effect of hormone
application on the depistillated flowers was clear-cut:
all cytokinins stimulated sepal greening, the auxins
had no such effect on chlorophyll accumulation but
promoted flower stalk elongation while gibberellins
were participated in both, sepal greening and stalk
elongation.18 At the cellular level, hormone treatment
affected both the abundance of chloroplasts and their
ultrastructure. Cytokinin- and gibberellin-treated sep-
als contained comparable number of chloroplast as
fruit-bearing flowers of the same age with a typical
ultrastructure: dense stroma with numerous ribo-
somes, and well developed grana and stroma tylako-
ids. On the other side, untreated and auxin-treated
sepals of depistillated flowers contained significantly
lower number of mostly degenerated chloroplasts with
relatively transparent stroma containing spare ribo-
somes, and many large plastoglobules while thylako-
ids were few in number and assembled into atypical
grana. Cytokinins have long been known as hormones
preventing the chlorophyll degradation, or to increase
its accumulation. Many studies showed that cytoki-
nins are involved in the prevention the plant tissue of
the senescence, particularly the photosynthesis appa-
ratus.40
In addition, cytokinins preserve the chloroplast in-
tegrity by increasing activity of antioxidant enzymes
(catalase and ascorbate peroxidase) and decreasing the
level of H2O2 and reactive oxygen species (ROS).41 The
role of gibberellins appears to overlap with that of cyto-
kinins; they reduce chlorophyll degradation in senescing
lettuce leaves,42 in Alstroemeria shoots,43 and in ripen-
ing citrus fruits.44 Furthermore, both hormones in-
creased the expression of NADPH-protochlorophyllide
oxidoreductase, an enzyme of chlorophyll biosynthe-
sis.45 In a number of species, auxins and gibberellins
have been shown to regulate the flower stalk develop-
ment and elongation. The removal of the flower or floral
organs resulted in inhibition of the floral stalk elonga-
tion.28 Treatments of emasculated or decapitated flowers
with auxins,28−31 as well as treatments of isolated stalk
explants46 led to the conclusion that these plant hor-
mones originated in anthers, gynoecium or developing
fruit are mostly responsible for stalk elongation. A
complex interplay of auxins and gibberellins in flower
stalk elongation has, for instance, been studied in tulip,47
and barley.48
The application of plant hormones cytokinins,
gibberellins, and auxins to the sepals of depistillated
flowers mimicked some of the correlative signals re-
leased by the fruit developing in intact flowers. Thus,
the profile and dynamics of endogenous hormones were
of particular interest as a next step in the investigation
of their role in floral developmental program.
Figure 2. Plant hormones representatives: cytokinin zeati
n
(Z), gibberellin A1 (GA1), and auxin indole-3-acetic-aci
d
(IAA).
B. Salopek Sondi, Reproductive Development of the Christmas Rose 281
Croat. Chem. Acta 84 (2011) 277.
Endogenous Cytokinins
Endogenous cytokinins are N6-substituted adenine com-
pounds (Figure 2) which exist in the plant cell as mix-
tures of free bases, nucleosides as well as mono-, di-,
and tri-nucleotides in apparent equilibrium. Two types
of cytokinins according to side chain are recognized, an
isoprenoid and an aromatic cytokinins.2,49 All forms of
cytokinins may be reversible or irreversible conjugated
with sugars, and amino acids, both, at the adenine moie-
ty or the side chain.50 The adenine ring can be glucosy-
lated at the N3-, N7- and N9-position. Conjugation of
cytokinins involves also O-glycosylation, and O-
acetylation at the hydroxyl group of the side chains of
cytokinins. Free-base cytokinins are generally accepted
as an active forms, nucleosides, because of their abun-
dance in the vascular tissues, are suggested to be trans-
location forms, while sugar conjugates are the storage
and inactivated cytokinins forms.2,50
Cytokinin analyses in the floral tissues have been
done by LC-MS/MS.25 A protocol based on immunoch-
romatography and liquid chromatography-mass spectro-
metry revealed the presence of the free bases (Z, DZ, iP),
their ribosides, and the corresponding O-glucosides and
riboside monophosphates, while 9-glucosides were only
detected in some developmental stages, in a very small
amounts. Cytokinin quantification was accomplished by
isotope dilution, using deuterated internal standards.
The overall cytokinin levels increased significantly
in the fruit during early development (“Light green” to
“Green” stage), and then continued with accumulation
until the last investigated stage (Figure 3A). Cytokinin
conjugates accumulate in accordance with the free bases
increase. Details about distribution of particular cytoki-
nin species during flower and fruit development are
described earlier.19,25 In brief, riboside monophosphates
(iPRMP, ZRMP, DZRMP) peaked first, followed by the
ribosides (ZR and DZR), while the free bases (Z and
DHZ) were the most abundant in the last developmental
stage analyzed (“Almost ripe” stage, 2–3 weeks before
seed ripening). At anthesis, DZ-type cytokinins were
slightly more abundant than their zeatin analogs, but,
during post-anthesis, this proportion was inverted, with Z
and derivatives attaining up to seven times higher con-
centrations. At the last developmental stage (almost ripe
fruit), cytokinins were mostly localized in seeds (80 %)
in comparison to peicarp (20 %). Zeatin type cytokinins
were first isolated from immature corn seeds,51 and ap-
pear to be abundant in developing fruits and seeds of
other plant species, such as kiwi fruit,52 cereal grains,53,54
chickpea,55 and white lupine.56 In these species cytokinin
levels rise dramatically after fertilization, and then, drop
abruptly during the late ripening stage. This cytokinin
peak is usually correlated with cell division rates in the
endosperm.54,57 In contrast, cytokinins were high in Hel-
leborus seeds until the end of development. As men-
tioned earlier, embryo development in the Christmas
rose does not progress beyond an early cotyledonary
stage, as long as the seeds are attached to the mother
plant.24−26 Thus, the constantly high cytokinin levels
throughout fruit maturation, are probably required for
embryo differentiation up to the cotyledonary stage
which occur finally in the postripening period.58,59
Figure 3. Endogenous plant hormones cytokinins (A), gibber-
ellins (B), and auxins (C) analyzed in the Christmas rose
carpels/fruits (closed circles) and perianth (open circles) dur-
ing anthesis (Female, 1; and Male, 2), and post-anthesis (Ligh
t
green, 3; Advanced green, 4; Green, 5; and Almost ripe, 6).
282 B. Salopek Sondi, Reproductive Development of the Christmas Rose
Croat. Chem. Acta 84 (2011) 277.
While overall fruit cytokinins increased precipi-
tously, their pooled concentrations in the sepals did not
pass through such a significant changes (Figure 3A).
Free cytokinins elevated during two last stages of de-
velopment when intensive photosynthesis occurs in
sepal tissue. Only iPRMP peaked transiently, when
perianth greening was initiated.25 The changes were less
pronounced than in the developing fruit, but occurred in
the same time frame. To verify the effect of developing
seeds on cytokinin levels in the sepals, depistillated
flowers were also analyzed at the green developmental
stage.25 As can be seen, the overall cytokinins level was
significantly lower in the sepals of deseeded flowers
than in the sepals of fruit-bearing flowers of the same
physiological age (Figure 4A). In addition, ribotides
(particularly iPRMP) were not detected. The perianth of
seedless flowers also weighed less and did not pass
through a complete greening process. It may be con-
cluded that iPRMP is the cytokinin transported from the
fruit to the perianth to induce the greening response.
Endogenous cytokinin analysis in combination with
results of exogenous treatments indicates that cytokinins
play role in the normal life cycle of the perianth includ-
ing the greening response following fertilization.
Endogenous Gibberellins
Gibberellins (GAs) are tetracyclic diterpenoid acids (Fig-
ure 2) synthesized from acetyl CoA via the mevalonic
acid pathway. There are two classes based on the pres-
ence of 19 or 20 carbons organized into either four or five
rings. The 19-carbon forms are, in general, the biological-
ly active gibberellins. There are currently 136 GAs identi-
fied from plants, fungi and bacteria. They are named by
numbers (GA1, GA2 etc.) in order to their identification
(http://www.plant-hormones.info/gibberellins.htm).
Among 136 GAs, only a few are identified as an active
hormones (GA1, GA3, GA4, GA5, GA6, and GA7), while
others presents precursors and catabolites in the GA
metabolic pathway.2 GAs are believed to be synthesized
in young tissues of the shoot and also the developing
seed. Seed originated GAs are also likely to be involved
in the coordination of fruit and perianth develop-
ment.1,4,60
Endogenous gibberellin levels in the Christmas
rose were determined by LC-MS/MS [consisting of a
quadrupole/time of flight tandem mass spectrometer and
an Acquity Ultra Performance Liquid Chromatograph
equipped with a reversed-phase column] using 2H2 la-
beled GAs as internal standards according to Varbanova
et al.61 Two physiologically active gibberellins, GA1
and GA4, and a number of their precursors and catabo-
lites were identified and quantified in floral and fruit
tissue during development.26
Dynamic of bioactive gibberellins (GA1+GA4) are dis-
played on Figure 3B. As can be seen, the level of total
bioactive GAs starts increasing after fertilization
("Male" stage) and continuing during early fruit devel-
Figure 4. Comparison of endogenous hormones cytokinins
(A), gibberellins (B), and auxin (C) in the sepals of fertilize
d
and depistillated flowers.
B. Salopek Sondi, Reproductive Development of the Christmas Rose 283
Croat. Chem. Acta 84 (2011) 277.
opment. Two bioactive GAs are differently distributed
during fruit development: GA4 peaked during embryo
development and GA1 during the subsequent period of
rapid nutrient accumulation. The GA4 level in developing
fruit rose its peak when sepal greening was intensive
("Light green" to "Green" stage), at a concentration about
100 times above that in the pistils in their "Female"
phase. This pattern overlaps with embryo and endosperm
differentiation which passes through its initial stages
during the "Light Green" phase to yield, at seed matura-
tion, a miniature embryo in its early cotyledonary stage,
enclosed in a just slightly larger endosperm, all enveloped
by a prominent perisperm as the major storage tissue.
Bioactive gibberellins are required for embryo growth
and seed development and generally accumulate during
these processes.4,62 Particularly detailed in vitro studies in
carrot and anise63,64 indicated increased GA4 biosynthesis
during the differentiation of somatic embryos. The peri-
carps contained about six times more GA1 than the seeds,
while the GA4-concentrations were equivalent in both
tissues. Gibberellins’ concentrations in the sepals ranged
from 2 to 50 times below those in the fruit tissues. In the
sepals, GA1 plus GA4 peaked transiently while the photo-
synthetic system was induced, and again close to seed
ripening. The sepals of unfertilized and depistillated
flowers contained very low levels of bioactive GAs (Fig-
ure 4B). Level of GA4 in sepals was more affected by
fruit absence than GA1.26 In the sepals of depistillated
flowers, level of catabolites (GA34 and GA8) was in ac-
cordance with level of respective bioactive GAs. This
finding suggests that decreased biosynthesis, rather than
increased catabolism, resulted in reduced GA4 and GA1
levels.
Endogenous Auxins
Auxins are indolic compounds (Figure 2). Their biosyn-
thesis may be accomplished by two separate paths: the
tryptophan (Trp)-dependent pathway beginning with
amino acid Trp, and Trp-independent pathway in which
IAA can be synthesized from an indolic precursors other
than Trp.65,66 Although the indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) is
the most common naturally occurring auxin, other com-
pounds such as 4-chloroindole-3-acetic acid (4-Cl-IAA)
and indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) have also been identi-
fied as an endogenous auxins in some plant species.
Auxins exist in plant tissue as a mixture of free (gener-
ally only 5−10 %) and conjugated (approximately
90−95 %) forms. IAA can be ester-linked to different
sugars or amide-linked to amino acids and peptides.
Proposed roles of these conjugates include storage,
transport, compartmentalization, protection against
degradation and detoxification.50,66,67 Auxins are re-
ported to play the instructive role in the flower68 and the
fruit development,69 and participate in the coordination
between floral organs.5
To assess the dynamics of auxins during flower
and fruit development of the Christmas rose, endoge-
nous auxin levels (precursor IEt, free IAA, and amide
conjugates) were determined in the different tissues by
LC-MS/MS (consisting of a triple-quadrupole mass
spectrometer and an Acquity UPLC System) using
15N- and/or 2H5-labeled internal standards.70
The results of profile and dynamics of auxins in
perianth, fruit and flower stalk of the Christmas rose
during development have been reported recently.27 Total
auxin level (IAA and amid conjugates of IAA) during
development are shown on Figure 3C. In the fruit, aux-
ins start accumulating drastically during early develop-
ment reaching maximum at last stage of intensive seed
filling. As fruit development proceeds, amount of amid-
conjugates increases following the free IAA level. Ap-
proximately 98 % of total fruit auxins arose in seeds.
Among the conjugates identified in fruit, IAA-Asp and
IAA-Glu are the most abundant. Alongside IAA amino-
acid conjugates described earlier in different plant spe-
cies,50,65 novel conjugates with Val, Gly, and Phe were
identified in Helleborus seed for the first time in the
higher plants.70 IAA-Asp and IAA-Glu are mostly con-
sidered as an irreversible catabolites. Other amid conju-
gates (with Ala, Leu, Gly, Phe, Val), which are good
substrates for auxin amidohydrolases in vitro are sug-
gested to participate in storage and hormone homeosta-
sis as a slow-releasing source of free IAA.67 Seeds of
many species are reported as rich in amide conjugates,
which are the main source of active auxins in the period
of germination until young seedlings are capable to set
up their own de novo auxin biosynthesis.
In the perianth, auxin level was slightly elevated
during anthesis when sepals are still growing, and later,
at "green stage" of post-anthesis, during the intensive
photosynthetic activity and assimilate production. De-
pistilated sepals of the same age contain significantly
less amount of total auxins (Figure 4C).
Hormonal interplay during fruit development
Morphological changes of the Christmas rose flower are
obviously regulated by complex interplay of, at least,
three groups of plant hormones, cytokinins, gibberellins
and auxins. Endogenous hormones analyses showed that
their accumulation in fruit and sepals is tightly regulated
and appears during certain developmental stages. Thus,
GAs, particularly GA4 is the first hormone elevated in
carpels after fertilization (“Male” stage) and reached
peak at early fruit development. GA1 accumulation
starts later and peaked during intensive fruit growth and
elongation (Figure 3). Next stage of fruit development
(“Ligh green”) is, in addition to further increase of GA4,
also characterized by 10 fold increase of free cytokinins.
“Light green” stage of development is period of embryo
and endosperm differentiation and intensive cell divi-
284 B. Salopek Sondi, Reproductive Development of the Christmas Rose
Croat. Chem. Acta 84 (2011) 277.
sions. After that, IAA starts rising during fruit growth
and intensive seed filling. GA1 elevation was observed in
fruit in accordance with IAA accumulation. Time scale
of hormone accumulation in H. niger fruit is mostly in
agreement with that observed for tomato fruit.3 The main
difference is that IAA and cytokinins maintain high in
the Christmas rose fruit until the end of development,
while they decrease much earlier in tomato fruit. In
hellebores fruit high level of cytokinins and auxins may
be connected with immature embryo which need post-
ripening period out of mother plant to accomplish the
full development.24−26 In the sepals hormonal changes
are not such a notable as observed in fruit tissue, but
overall hormonal levels are significantly lower if fertili-
zation failed (Figure 4). Thus, sepals of depistillated
flowers contained approximately four times lower con-
centrations of cytokinins and gibberellins, and two times
less auxins than fertilized counterparts. It seems that, in
part, signals from developing fruit mediate plant hor-
mone biosynthesis in sepals causing their post-anthesis
morphological changes. Plant development is generally
regulated by a complex interplay of different plant hor-
mones. It is clearly documented that auxin and cytokinin
act antagonistically. Auxin may regulate cytokinin meta-
bolism and vice versa. Auxin mediates rapidly negative
control of the cytokinin pool by suppressing the biosyn-
thesis via iPMP, while the effect of cytokinins on the
auxin pool in the plant is slower.71,72 Auxins are also
involved in the regulation of gibberellins biosynthesis
and catabolism.5 The best example is pea fruit in which
auxin (particularly 4-Cl-IAA) can mimic the seeds in
regulation of the GA biosynthesis and catabolic path-
ways in surrounding pericarp tissue enabling its growth
and elongation.73,74 In case of the Christmas rose flower,
further analyses are needed to elucidate a seed-derived
signals and complex hormonal interplays involved in
regulation of the reproductive development.
CONCLUSION
Reproductive development of the Christmas rose (Hel-
leborus niger L.) is one of few examples of the post-
anthesis phenomenon in the world of flowering plants:
following fertilization white perianth becomes green,
photosyntheticaly active and persist during fruit devel-
opment.17−19 Absence of the developing fruit causes
certain inhibition of morphological changes such as
sepal greening and flower stalk elongation. The profile
and dynamics of three main groups of plant hormones
(cytokinins, gibberellins and auxins) were investigated
by LC-MS/MS in the Christmas rose floral tissues dur-
ing development. Developing fruit, mostly seeds, are
rich source of all three group of plant hormones which,
through a complex interplay, coordinate development of
other floral parts.
Acknowledgements. Research was supported by grants (cur-
rently no. 098-0982913-2829) awarded by the Croatian Minis-
try of Science, Education and Sports and by joint research
agreements with the Republic of Slovenia. I am particularly
grateful to my mentor and colleague Dr. Volker Magnus with
whom I started working on Helleborus physiology. Thanks to
all of my colleagues who participated in research presented by
this review.
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