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Abstract
Glass is reviewed from fabrication to application, laying emphasis on the wide-ranging physics involved. This begins with liquids and solids and the way in which glasses are defined and can be demonstrated in the classroom. At the atomic level the regular structure of crystals and their irregular counterparts in glasses are explained through easy-to-teach toy models. A future article will describe applications of glasses from optical fibres to self-cleaning windows. The intention throughout is to emphasize the rich resource that glass can provide in class for teaching physics holistically.
... A liquid becomes more viscous with decreasing of temperature and the glass is the limit of this process. From Maxwell's theory [10], [14] the From the Angell plot (figure 2.7), compared to the strong liquid, the fragile liquid has a greater change in its viscosity when approaching the glass transition temperature, T g . ...
... Shear stress in solids and liquids, adapted from[10] When shear force F applies on a surface A of liquid or solid, the formula of the shear stress: σ = F A . The unit of shear stress is N.m −2 . ...
In everyday life, we are familiar with glass. Their applications spread from uses such as lenses, prisms, mirrors for optics, windshields for cars and windows for houses, to glass bres for telecommunications. Glass is everywhere in modern life. Traditionally, glass is made from quenching its liquid counterpart from very high temperature. Therefore, studies of glass-forming in liquid state are important in controlling and predicting the behaviour of the ensuing glass. Aberystwyth University, Daresbury Laboratory
An experimental study was carried out on BME Department of Construction Materials and Engineering Geology to analyse the bending strength of glass pane. The influence of edge strength of single ply and laminated glass specimens were also investigated. Non heat treated and tempered single ply glass specimens of different thicknesses 6 mm, 12 mm and 19 mm and laminated (2×6 mm, 3×6 mm) glass specimens with constant span of 1.0 m and width of 0.36 m were tested in a four-point bending according to EN 1288-3:2000 [1]. The effect of interlayer material (resin and EVA foil) and the effect of temperature (-20°C, +23°C, +60°C) on the structural behaviour of glass products were also studied. Strains were measured with strain gages in two regions of the surface of the glass pane (Region1 and Region2), see Fig. 1. Surface stresses in two regions and bending strength of glass specimens were determined.
Fused impurity p-n-p junction transistors have been made which exhibit the useful circuit characteristics of high-gain, low-noise figure and alpha slightly less than unity. Such transistors are well adapted for application involving high ambient temperatures or high dissipation levels since alpha remains very nearly constant up to 120 degrees C and decreases somewhat above this temperature, permitting their stable use in emitter-grounded circuits at high temperatures. This is in contrast to junction transistors having high-resistivity collector regions, for which alpha often rises above unity at high temperatures leading to circuit instability. Satisfactory operation at several watts collector dissipation has been achieved.
Gray (1731), Desagullier (1742) and Volta (1782) discovered and investigated electric conduction in solids. Davy (1821) found a decrease of the conductivity sigma in metals and Faraday (1833) observed a strong increase with temperature in a number of binary chemical compounds. Hittorf's (1851) measurements on Ag2S and Cu2S led to a linear relation of log sigma against 1/T. The controversial case of Ag2S is described. Hall (1879) and Rowland (1880) discovered a transverse voltage of a current carrying metal film in a magnetic field. Riecke (1901) and Drude (1900) developed the first electron theory of metals and Koenigsberger (1914) tried to explain the temperature dependence of the electrical conductivity by a dissociation theory. Baedeker (1908) was the first to observe semiconducting properties of CuI depending on the stoichiometric composition. Wagner (1933) proved that the conductivity of Ag2S is essentially electronic and not ionic. Gudden (1930) suggested that semiconduction is the result of impurities and imperfections in solids and Wagner and Schottky (1931) developed their theories of lattice defects (Fehlordnungs-Erscheinungen). Wilson (1931) presented the first band theory of intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors. The existence of intrinsic conduction has been questioned by experimentalists and is verified only by the preparation and investigation of high-purity semiconducting elements.
Modern video games use physics to achieve realistic behaviour and special effects. Everything from billiard balls, to flying debris, to tactical fighter jets is simulated in games using fundamental principles of dynamics. This article explores several examples of how physics is used in games. Further, this article describes some of the more important technical details of how physics is actually incorporated in games.
In a single crystal of semiconductor the impurity concentration may vary from p-type to n-type producing a mechanically continuous rectifying junction. The theory of potential distribution and rectification for p-n junctions is developed with emphasis on germanium. The currents across the junction are carried by the diffusion of holes in n-type material and electrons in p-type material, resulting in an admittance for a simple case varying as (1 + iωτp)1/2 where τp is the lifetime of a hole in the n-region. Contact potentials across p-n junctions, carrying no current, may develop when hole or electron injection occurs. The principles and theory of a p-n-p transistor are described.
A three-element electronic device which utilizes a newly discovered principle involving a semiconductor as the basic element is described. The device may be used as an amplifier, oscillator, and for other purposes for which vacuum tubes are ordinarily used. The device consists of three electrodes placed on a block of germanium. Two, called the emitter and collector, are of the point-contact rectifier type and are placed in close proximity on the upper surface. The third is a large area low resistance contact on the base.
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