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Implicit theories about personality and intelligence and their relationship to actual personality and intelligence
Abstract
Implicit theories about the malleability of human attributes have proven to be valuable predictors of cognitions, affects, and behavior in the field of achievement motivation and social judgments (see Dweck, 1999). Implicit theories in the sense used by Dweck distinguish between the belief that human attributes are fixed (entity theory) or malleable (incremental theory). The present study examined to what extent implicit theories are related to personality and intelligence. A sample of 592 adults completed self-report measures of implicit theories and the Big Five factors of personality as well as two short forms of intelligence tests. The results support the notion that implicit theories about the malleability of personality and intelligence are largely unrelated to actual personality and intelligence. Thus, the results represent further evidence for the high discriminant validity of the implicit theories construct.
... Those with incremental beliefs view Intelligence as malleable and improvable through effort, while those with entity beliefs see it as fixed and unchangeable [8][9][10]. These differing perspectives can significantly affect cognition, emotion, and behaviour in various contexts [11]. The role of intelligence beliefs extends beyond academic success to include overall wellbeing and adaptation. ...
... Students frequently encounter tasks they perceive as uninteresting, burdensome, or complex. Persistence in the face of these challenges is crucial for learning and academic success [11,17,18]. Learning motivation, which includes students' expectations of success and their value on task performance, is vital for academic adaptation [18]. ...
... Dweck [7] proposed that intelligence beliefs affect how individuals interpret successes and failures and influence the establishment of progressive goals, ultimately impacting educational adaptation. Dweck's motivational model aimed to understand the psychological resources that allow students to cope with persistent academic challenges [7][8][9][10][11]. Her model suggests that different beliefs about the nature of intelligence shape individuals' responses to challenging tasks [10][11][12]. ...
Background
Academic adjustment is crucial for students' success and well-being, yet the factors influencing this process must be more adequately understood. Although prior research has explored the impact of Intelligence and motivational beliefs on academic outcomes, there is a need to clarify how these beliefs interact to influence academic adjustment. Specifically, the existing literature needs a comprehensive model that integrates intelligence beliefs, motivational beliefs, and academic self-efficacy and examines their combined effect on academic adjustment.
Objectives
This research aims to develop and analyze a model that explains the relationships among intelligence beliefs (fixed and growth mindsets), motivational beliefs (including self-efficacy and intrinsic value) and test anxiety in predicting academic adjustment. This study also seeks to investigate the mediating role of academic self-efficacy in these associations, providing a deeper understanding of the underlying mechanisms that contribute to students' academic adaptation.
Method
The research employed a correlational methodology, targeting male and female undergraduate students at Inner Mongolia Medical University during the 2021 academic year. The statistical population comprised students from various departments, and a convenience sampling approach was utilized. Data collection involved 384 participants who completed questionnaires, including the Academic Adjustment Questionnaire, Intelligence Beliefs Questionnaire, Motivational Beliefs Questionnaire, and Academic Self-Efficacy Questionnaire.
Results
The findings revealed a favourable fit between the proposed model and the collected data. Furthermore, through a comprehensive direct and indirect effects analysis, it was evident that academic self-efficacy mediated the relationships among intelligence beliefs (both inherent and incremental), self-efficacy, intrinsic value, test anxiety, and academic adjustment. These results contribute to a nuanced understanding of the factors influencing academic adjustment among undergraduate students.
Conclusions and implications
In conclusion, this research underscores the pivotal role of academic self-efficacy as a mediator in the nexus between intelligence beliefs (both inherent and incremental) and academic adjustment. The study advocates for heightened attention to these constructs in educational planning. It emphasizes the need for educational interventions that foster positive Intelligence and motivational beliefs and mitigate test anxiety to enhance academic self-efficacy and promote successful academic adjustment. The implications of these findings extend to educators, counsellors, and policymakers involved in shaping the educational experiences of undergraduate students.
... incremental theory) would have a tendency to prefer performance goals rather than learning goals (Burnette et al., 2013;Dinger et al., 2013;Haimovitz et al., 2011;Robins & Pals, 2002) and would report more procrastination-related behavior (Mouratidis et al., 2017;Rickert et al., 2014). Furthermore, global personality variables such as the Big Five were expected to be independent of implicit theories of intelligence as previously reported by Spinath, Spinath, Riemann, and Angleitner (2003). Thus, these personality variables should provide evidence for discriminant validity of the ITIS. ...
... Neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, conscientiousness, and agreeableness have been reported to be unrelated to implicit theories of intelligence (Spinath et al., 2003). Thus, we did not expect significant relationships and aimed to confirm discriminant validity for the German translation of the ITIS with regard to the five broad personality traits. ...
... Consistent with previous findings (Spinath et al., 2003), the Big Five as broad and basic personality traits were unrelated to implicit theories of intelligence. In addition, procrastination was not related to implicit theories of intelligence. ...
Dweck's Implicit Theories of Intelligence Scale (ITIS) assesses laypersons' belief that their own intelligence is a fixed (entity theory) or a malleable trait (incremental theory). The ITIS implies a unidimensional construct but studies using confirmatory factor analyses identified entity and incremental theories as two distinct constructs. Negative wording of half the ITIS items might artificially cause this finding. In two studies, the factorial structure of a German translation of the ITIS was examined in 292 and 195 participants, respectively. Despite high internal consistency (Cronbach's α > .90), a one-factor measurement model did not describe the data well. A two-factor model described the data better, but a wording-effect model provided the best data description indicating a unidimensional construct with a biasing method effect due to negatively worded items. Implicit theories of intelligence were related to goal choice orientation, general self-esteem and lack of confidence in test situations but unrelated to the Big Five personality traits and aspects of procrastination. Thus, considering the wording effect in the ITIS substantially improved data description and interpretation but did not challenge previous results on the nomological network of implicit theories of intelligence.
... In 2008, a research was conducted by Dweck to explore the achievement relevance between mindset and maths/science. The correlation between gender and mindset (Kornilova et al., 2009;Macnamara and Rupani, 2017;Spinath, Spinath and Riemann, 2003;Yan et al., 2014) and between mindset and academic achievement (Castella et al., 2015;Yeager et al., 2014) has also been explored in a few studies. ...
... The relationship between gender and mindset has also been explored in various studies (Kornilova et al., 2009;Macnamara and Rupani, 2017). There are three main views regarding what the findings of these studies suggested: a) Women are more inclined to adopt a fixed mindset than men (Leggett, 1985;Licht and Shapiro, 1982) b) Men are more inclined to have a fixed mindset than women (Spinath, Spinath and Riemann, 2003) c) Women and men do not diverge significantly on their mindsets (Kornilova et al., 2009;Macnamara and Rupani, 2017;Yan et al., 2014). The most common view among the aforementioned ones in the relevant literature is the first one, which suggests that women tend to have a more fixed mindset than men as "Starting in infancy, parents tend to give boys more process praise, an advantage that results in a greater desire for challenge, and a growth mindset, later on." ...
... When the results obtained from the current study are evaluated, it was revealed that there was a statistically significant relationship between gender and mindset in that females tended to adopt growth mindset more than males whereas males had more of a fixed mindset than females. This result is in line with Spinath, Spinath and Riemann's (2003) and Macnamara and Rupani's (2017, Study 1) studies finding out that females considered intelligence (mindset) to be less stable than males did. The results of this study, on the other hand, conflict with some studies claiming that either females or males do not differ on mindsets (Kornilova et al., 2009;Macnamara and Rupani, 2017, (Study 2 & 3) and that female learners tended to have a fixed mindset more than their male counterparts (Dweck, 2008). ...
This study aimed to investigate the correlation between mindset and personal variables of EFL learners at both a private and a state university in Turkey. Quantitative methods were used, and Dweck's Mindset Instrument (DMI), which is a Likert-type scale, was administered to collect a set of data. Three demographic factors; namely gender, the program enrolled, and L2 proficiency level were used as variables. The study was conducted at the Preparatory School of Gazi University and Atılım University, with 203 participants. The data obtained from the scale were analyzed through both descriptive and inferential statistics using SPSS Statistics 21.0. Quantitative methods were used, and Dweck's Mindset Instrument (DMI) was administered to collect data. Findings revealed that male participants tended to have a more fixed mindset than female participants. However, no correlation was found between mindset and participants' program enrolled. Likewise, it was discovered that mindset and L2 proficiency level of participants were not correlated with each other.
... The term "implicit theories of personality" has been used to refer to individuals' beliefs about the malleability of interpersonal competence (e.g., Rudolph, 2010), moral character (e.g. Chiu, Dweck, Tong, & Fu, 1997;Levy & Dweck, 1999;Miller, Burgoon, & Hall, 2007), social status (e.g., as a 'bully' or a 'victim'; Yeager, Miu, Powers, & Dweck, 2013;Yeager, Trzesniewski, Tirri, Nokelainen, & Dweck, 2011), specific personality traits such as neuroticism and openness (Spinath, Spinath, Riemann, & Angleitner, 2003), as well as one's overall personality, or general character (e.g., Markovic, Rose-Krasnor, & Coplan, 2013). For the purposes of this chapter, we adopt an inclusive definition of implicit theories of personality, encompassing beliefs about the malleability about both particular personality-related characteristics and personality overall. ...
... Before describing the links between implicit theories of personality, coping, and mental health, it may be helpful to clarify some basic empirical findings regarding the nature of implicit theories more broadly. First, implicit theories are domain-specific, meaning that people can hold different implicit theories in different domains (e.g., an individual can simultaneously view intelligence as fixed and personality as malleable; Beer, 2002;Dweck et al., 1995;Hong, Chiu, Dweck, & Sacks, 1997;Hughes, 2015;Neel & Lassetter, 2015;Spinath et al., 2003;Schroder, Dawood, Yalch, Donnellan, & Moser, 2015. This domain-specificity also means that mindsets are most strongly related to same-domain outcomes. ...
... Second, implicit theories of personality are unassociated with personality traits (i.e., Big 5 trait dimensions; Spinath et al., 2003). In other words, the degree to which a person is neurotic or open to new experiences (for instance) generally has little bearing on whether they believe personality is changeable or fixed. ...
... Students' perception of the nature of writing talent as either fixed or subject to growth appears to influence their willingness to revise. Students with a fixed mindset have been shown to be more likely to believe achievement setbacks reflect personal ability while those with a growth mindset are more likely to believe the same setbacks reflect lack of mastery of a skill or strategy (Spinath, Spinath, Riemann, & Angleitner, 2003). Because students who view writing as an innate talent that effort won't improve would not see revision as a productive use of time, changing this mindset from a fixed to a growth perspective increases the likelihood that they will make productive efforts to revise. ...
... The instrument assessed students' goals (mastery and approach goals), metacognitive strategy use, behavioural strategies, self-regulation strategies (Kaplan et al., 2009 ) and writing selfefficacy (Kaplan et al., 2009; Boekaerts & Rozendaal, 2007). In addition, we evaluated students' implicit beliefs about whether writing is fixed or subject to growth (Spinath et al., 2003). We administered this pre-test in the second week of classes and the post-test in the final week of classes. ...
... Students' implicit beliefs about whether writing is a fixed skill or one that can be improved with effort and practice (Spinath et al., 2003) changed significantly. Students indicated their agreement with the following statement, " How well you write depends mainly on your own effort " (1= strongly disagree and 5=strongly agree). ...
Students often express surprise at their grades on papers. This gap between expectation and
achievement may stem in part from lack of facility with revision strategies. How, then, can teachers
work with their students to foster more effective revisions? This question in teaching and learning
has inspired an interdisciplinary collaboration: one of us is a management and leadership professor
(Sharen), and the other is an English/communication professor (Feltham). In this essay, we describe
a research study from winter 2013 in which we explored how a series of interventions improved
students’ mindsets about the process of drafting and revising reports for a second-year-university
course entitled “Women and Leadership.” After outlining key aspects of this study that we feel are of
general interest, we then present a series of reflective suggestions about how to teach revision derived
from both our experiences and a selective survey of the literature on both revision and self-regulation.
... Incremental IT of intelligence demonstrate small negative correlation (r = .18) with intelligence, while no correlation is found between IT of mathematical and sport abilities, IT of personality and intelligence (Spinath et al., 2003). The existing data shows that correlations of partial and general IQ with achievement motivation are about r = .20 ...
... and conscientiousness (r = .13) (Spinath et al., 2003). ...
Implicit theories (IT) reflect core beliefs about malleability of cognitive and personality human attributes. IT participate in the interpretation of the social world, regulate behaviors (through goal setting, adjustments after failures, learning strategies, etc.), and are valid predictors of achievement (Dweck, 2006). Nevertheless, little is known about the IT’s relationship to the components of the intellectual and personality human potential. The purpose of this research is to examine the extent to which IT are related to cognitive (intelligence) and personality (Big-Five personality traits, motivation) structures. A sample of 307 students completed the intelligence test (ICAR), the Ten-Item Personality Inventory and the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule; additionally, GPA was obtained for 49 students. Results demonstrate similar as well as distinctive correlations between the measurements in men and women. In particular, in both men and women, malleable intelligence beliefs do not depend on intelligence level, fluid or crystallized, but are largely related to personality characteristics: conscientiousness (in both men and women), openness to experience (in women), and intraception motivation (in men). Malleability of personality beliefs correlates negatively with crystallized intelligence (only in women). Mastery goal orientation in both men and women is related to openness; academic achievement is predicted by conscientiousness. The results are discussed from the perspective of the integrated intellectual and personality potential.
... This is important because the correlations between mind-sets and outcomes are also domain-specific: Intelligence minds-sets predict academic functioning (Blackwell et al., 2007;Romero et al., 2014), whereas mind-sets about emotion predict emotion regulation strategies during emotional challenges (De Castella et al., 2013;Kappes & Schikowski, 2013;Kneeland, Nolen-Hoeksema, Dovidio, & Gruber, 2016;Tamir, John, Srivastava, & Gross, 2007). Finally, mind-sets in general are not typically related to actual traits (i.e., intelligence mind-set is uncorrelated with intelligence, Dweck et al., 1995, personality mind-set is uncorrelated with personality traits, Spinath, Spinath, Riemann, & Angleitner, 2003). ...
... Finally, our findings add to the mind-set literature more generally. First, the lack of relation between empathy mind-set and dispositional empathy is entirely consistent with mind-set theory (see also Dweck, 1999;Spinath et al., 2003). This provides more evidence to the idea that mind-sets are psychometrically distinct from the domain of interest-that is, they are not overlapping. ...
Empathy plays an important role in creating and maintaining adaptive interpersonal relationships. Accordingly, existing studies often report a negative correlation between empathy and interpersonal aggression. However, findings are sometimes inconsistent, and concerns have been raised about the size of the overall effect. Here, we examined the potential moderating role of empathy mind-sets—beliefs about the malleability of empathy. We hypothesized that the association between low empathy and aggression would be especially strong if individuals also believed that their levels of empathy were unchangeable (i.e., they endorsed a fixed mind-set about empathy); in contrast, a belief that empathy was malleable may weaken the association. Results supported this hypothesis, such that individuals with low levels of empathy were less likely to report aggression—social aggression in particular—if they also believed that empathy was changeable. These results point to a role for beliefs about the malleability of empathy as an important moderator and may point to ways to enhance empathy interventions by targeting mind-sets.
... Among adult samples, investigations of gender and mindset have either observed that women and men have similar mindsets of intelligence on average (Heyman, Martyna, and Bhatia, 2002;Kornilova, Kornilov, and Chumakova, 2009;Yan, Thai, and Bjork, 2014) or that women have more of a growth mindset than men (Spinath, Spinath, Riemann, and Angleitner, 2003). Similarly, while research suggests that holding a fixed mindset negatively predicts academic achievement in children (e.g., Blackwell et al., 2007), these results run counter to the finding that adults with higher levels of education are more likely to hold a fixed mindset than their less educated counterparts (Yan et al., 2014). ...
... Thus, across three studies with 393 participants in all we found either no evidence or contradictory evidence to the suggestion that females have more of a fixed mindset than males. These results replicate previous findings that women and men either do not differ on mindsets on average (Heyman et al., 2002;Kornilova et al., 2009;Yan et al., 2014) or that women have more of a growth mindset than men (Spinath et al., 2003). To synthesize the results from the three studies, we conducted fixed-effect meta-analyses on our results. ...
Intelligence mindset refers to one's belief that either intelligence is a malleable trait that can improve with effort—a “growth” mindset—or is a relatively stable trait—a “fixed” mindset. According to proponents of mindset theory, holding a growth mindset is beneficial (e.g., greater academic persistence) while holding a fixed mindset is detrimental. Is there a relationship between one's intelligence mindset and one's intelligence? Proponents of mindset theory suggest that the answer is yes, and that this relationship differs by gender, with more intelligent females holding more of a fixed mindset (aka, the “bright girl effect”). However, investigations of all three factors—measured intelligence, intelligence mindset, and gender—have only been conducted with children and adolescents. Therefore, we tested whether, among adults, women have more of a fixed mindset than men, and whether women with higher intelligence are more likely to hold fixed mindsets. We found no evidence for women holding fixed mindsets more so than men. We found very limited evidence for a “bright woman effect”: Three-way interactions between age, gender, and intelligence predicting mindset emerged, however, the relationships were not consistently driven by brighter women (young or old) holding more of a fixed mindset than their less intelligent female counterparts or men. Furthermore, we did not find evidence to support the notion that holding more of a growth mindset results in greater academic persistence. We conclude that neither gender nor intelligence is consistently associated with mindset.
... The socially constructed nature of sexual violence is clearly demonstrated by examining historical and social trends (Cunningham, 1995; Kincaid, 1998; Thomas, 2005), with different discourses, especially the feminist rights and the child protection movements, emerging over the last 50 years and which has reoriented discussions *Corresponding author. E-mail: kieran.mccartan@uwe.ac.uk long history in psychology focusing on areas such as intelligence, personality and abnormal psychology, as well as in areas of addiction and crime (Furnham & Bower, 1992; Furnham & Kuyhen, 1991; Mihailides, Devilly, & Ward, 2004; Spinath et al., 2003; Sternberg, 1987). Implicit theory research also exists outside of psychology (Dweck, Chiu, & Hong, 1995), with research being done in other social sciences, including medicine, economics, statistics, law, education (Furnham, 1988), sociology and criminology (Sparks, Girling, & Loader, 2001; Ungar, 2001). ...
... Implicit theories are shaped through people's interactions with the world and, because they impact upon how people interpret the world (Spinath et al., 2003), it would be logical to suggest that implicit theories may be closely tied with notions of social construction; the main conduit of social construction in modern society has become the media, especially on matters relating to crime and criminal justice (Grey, 2009). The media plays a central role in the construction of child sexual abuse in society (see Kitzinger, 2004) contributing to an increase in visibility, as well as increased levels of reporting and recording in recent years (McCartan, 2010), through their reporting on explicit theories, as well as being a vehicle for imparting or discussing implicit theories. ...
This article explores current societal framings and understandings of sexual violence, particularly child sexual abuse. The article starts by explaining how societal perceptions of child sexual abuse are formed through implicit and explicit theories, followed by a brief examination of media, professional and public understandings of child sexual abuse. This is then compared to research-based knowledge on sexual violence and child sexual abuse in particular. A public health approach is presented as a critical way of engaging communities, publics and society in an informed discourse about child sexual abuse, with a view to increasing both understanding and engagement. Finally, the article will posit the hypothesis that with recent news stories, such as the Jimmy Savile case in the UK and the Penn State case in the USA, organisations and individuals are beginning to ask for more information, trying to ask harder questions and this presents a unique opportunity to fully engage with the emerging public health approach of change.
... ability (e.g., Dweck et al., 1995;Plaks & Stecher, 2007;Spinath, Spinath, Riemann, & Angleitner, 2003;Tabernero & Wood, 1999). Next, participants completed a free-recall task, a measure of memory performance that has frequently been used in studies examining the effects of beliefs on older adults' memory function (age stereotypic beliefs: Abrams et al., 2006;Andreoletti & Lachman, 2004;Desrichard & Kopetz, 2005;Hess et al., 2003;Kang & Chasteen, 2009;Levy, 1996;control beliefs: Lachman, Andreoletti, & Pearman, 2006). ...
... This does not necessarily translate into general cognitive inflexibility. Indeed, there is considerable evidence that scores on the ITM are unrelated to existing constructs related to cognitive flexibility such as Need for Closure (Kruglanski & Webster, 1996), IQ, SAT scores, and Big Five personality traits such as Conscientiousness (Dweck, 1999;Levy et al., 1998;Spinath & Spinath, 2003;Church et al., 2003). Moreover, the finding that one can obtain entityincremental effects with temporary manipulations is further evidence that these effects do not reduce to individual differences in generalized cognitive flexibility. ...
The authors examined whether older adults' implicit theories regarding the modifiability of memory in particular (Studies 1 and 3) and abilities in general (Study 2) would predict memory performance. In Study 1, individual differences in older adults' endorsement of the "entity theory" (a belief that one's ability is fixed) or "incremental theory" (a belief that one's ability is malleable) of memory were measured using a version of the Implicit Theories Measure (Dweck, 1999). Memory performance was assessed with a free-recall task. Results indicated that the higher the endorsement of the incremental theory, the better the free recall. In Study 2, older and younger adults' theories were measured using a more general version of the Implicit Theories Measure that focused on the modifiability of abilities in general. Again, for older adults, the higher the incremental endorsement, the better the free recall. Moreover, as predicted, implicit theories did not predict younger adults' memory performance. In Study 3, participants read mock news articles reporting evidence in favor of either the entity or incremental theory. Those in the incremental condition outperformed those in the entity condition on reading span and free-recall tasks. These effects were mediated by pretask worry such that, for those in the entity condition, higher worry was associated with lower performance. Taken together, these studies suggest that variation in entity versus incremental endorsement represents a key predictor of older adults' memory performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved).
... It is also proposed as being domain-specific, so that beliefs in the fixedness of intelligence would not necessarily translate to a fixed conception of social skills. However, this is not borne out by Spinath, Spinath,Riemann & Angleitner (2003)or Kornilova,Kornilov & Chumakova, 2009) who report correlations between domain-specific scales between .48 and .53, indicating that mindset in one domain was actually reasonably predictive of mindset in another. ...
... Interestingly, these appear to operate independent of cognitive ability or confidence in ability (Dweck et al, 1995). It is also perhaps noteworthy that mindset appears to be statistically independent of constructs such as self-esteem (Dweck et al, 1995) and neuroticism (Spinath et al, 2003). Incremental theorists, with their belief in the malleability of their characteristics, are theorised to have higher control convictions (Ziegler & Stoeger, 2010). ...
Factors such as personality and ability have been widely associated with a range of outcomes, but does the mere belief that these are fixed or malleable also have a role to play? Perceptions can be powerful and this study aimed to test and extend Dweck and Leggett’s (1988) motivational framework, which proposes that this belief is directly related to the type of goals people pursue. However, empirical support has not been as robust as its theoretical basis would imply, and it was contended that locus of control would mediate this relationship and be predictive of goal orientations and self-efficacy, shown to influence the self-regulatory strategies people use. This study answered calls for greater integration of a range of social cognitive constructs by investigating their influence in relation to public speaking and level of practice at a network of public speaking clubs. Based on a sample of 161 people, confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modelling were used to assess the hypothesised model. Results supported the mediating role of locus of control, as well as the impact of goal orientations on long-term membership at the clubs. The latter also had a positive relationship with public speaking self-efficacy. In common with previous research, self-efficacy was also significantly related to the amount of practice people engaged in, but contrary to expectations, goal orientations were not. A number of methodological issues were identified - most seriously, a large amount of missing data on dependent variables - and discussed alongside the potential implications of this research. This was the first study to test the addition of a mediating construct in Dweck and Leggett’s popular framework (for which full data was available) and these results may illuminate equivocal findings of previous research looking at mindset and goal orientation.
... Besides, Tempelaar et al. (2014) found that, using confirmatory factor analysis, structure with two separate factors showed a superior fit compared to others in their study. Summing up, many other studies using new statistical methods presents evidence to support the two-dimensional structure found in this study (De Castella & Bryne, 2015;Spinath et al., 2003). ...
This scale development study aims to measure the failure beliefs of adults in Turkish culture by addressing the concept of failure based on Carol Dweck's implicit theories. In the study, the stages of the scale development process were followed with a mixed method approach. Firstly, qualitative data was gathered through literature review and focus groups and later the scale was tested by conducting exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses on quantitative data gained from totally 887 adults. As a result of the analyses, the Failure Beliefs Scale was developed consisting of a total of eight items and two factors, one of which measures the beliefs that failure is debilitating, and the other factor measures the beliefs that failure is enhancing. The measurement invariance of the scale across gender was examined and to ensure the reliability of the scale, internal consistency and stability coefficients were calculated. The scale was found to be a valid and reliable measurement tool for measuring adults' failure beliefs. The use of the scale in studies related to failure in different fields such as education and work will contribute to future studies in Türkiye.
... Liu, 2021;Camacho et al., 2023;Dinger & Dickhäuser, 2013), of social interactions (e.g. Spinath, 2003, Froehlich et al., 2016Dweck, 2019) and mental health (e.g. Schleider & Schroder, 2018). ...
Implicit theories of personality fall under social-cognitive theories and underlie studies that have examined the perspectives, beliefs, and judgments that people make about certain phenomena or behaviors. Although the theoretical model of implicit beliefs was originally categorized as theories about the self, the authors Dweck and Leggett (1988) extended it, applying it to the fild of social judgments about the characteristics of other people. In the present paper we aim to illustrate children's and adolescents' entity and incremental beliefs about aggression. In accordance with this purpose, we conducted a theoretical foray into implicit theories and their implications in the area of social judgments in an attempt to capture how implicit beliefs about aggression are projected into the social interactions of children and adolescents. We believe that our remarks and findings can be important resources for educational factors in the effort to improve the effectiveness of programs to prevent aggressive behaviors and attitudes in children and youth.
... Individuals may hold different mindsets for different domains, or characteristics, and mindsets in different domains are only moderately correlated with one another (Spinath et al., 2003). A 2015 meta-analysis found that adolescent mental health may be impacted by mindsets in multiple domains, including intelligence, personality, and peer relationships, with no significant difference in effect strength by domain (Schleider et al., 2015). ...
... Lastly, it is important to note that the present study measured growth mindset using the quintessential implicit theories of intelligence items. Beyond intelligence, research has examined implicit theories of other human characteristics, including personality (Spinath et al., 2003) and relationships (Knee et al., 2001;Rudolph, 2010). Future research examining adolescents' implicit theories of other constructs (e.g., implicit theories of peer relationships, social status) and how these relate to social comparison and learning outcomes represent potentially fruitful new avenues. ...
Peers become especially influential in adolescence, a developmental period marked by a nadir in school motivation. In the classroom, adolescents often engage in social comparison with their peers to ascertain their own academic competence, which can have substantial effects on their motivation and learning. The present experimental study examined how peer mindset and social comparison processes may interact to affect adolescents’ learning outcomes and responses to social comparison. Participants (N = 120, Mage = 12.73 years, 58% female) created avatars to virtually represent themselves and heard growth mindset or neutral statements from purported peer avatars. They then completed a series of online, self-report surveys measuring their learning outcomes, completed problem-solving tasks, and received feedback on their and their peers’ performance via a virtual leaderboard. Multivariate between-group comparison revealed growth mindset peers increased adolescents’ learning outcomes, while social comparison dampened outcomes. No interactions between peer growth mindset and social comparison were found.
... Analogically, a strong belief about malleability (changeability) of human nature entails a subjective perspective of change and development and encompasses the hope that things are going to turn out better. Because the belief about stability is grounded on anxiety toward change and negative emotionality (Dweck, 2000;Lachowicz-Tabaczek, 2004), it is supposed to arise from Neuroticism as a dispositional trait (Spinath, Spinath, Riemann, & Angleitner, 2003). Thus, it is hypothesized that Neuroticism influences subjective well-being by mediation of belief about stability of human nature. ...
... Empirically, mindsets are largely independent of personality traits, with most correlations being non-significant and less than r = .2 (Satchell et al., 2017;Spinath et al., 2003). Billingsley et al. (2021) noted that a growth mindset regarding entrepreneurial abilities correlated positively with conscientiousness and openness (albeit with small effects), but did not consistently correlate with extraversion, agreeableness, or neuroticism. ...
Why do some potential entrepreneurs promptly engage in entrepreneurial behavior while others do not pursue their entrepreneurial intentions or delay acting? This study investigated whether potential entrepreneurs’ mindset shapes engaging in entrepreneurial behavior and the time until they do so. Over a 16-month period, holding more of a growth (vs. fixed) mindset positively predicted taking various entrepreneurial actions and doing so sooner. Interestingly, these effects vanished when individuals faced a less challenging context for entrepreneurship. Post-hoc exploratory analyses revealed that the COVID-19 pandemic magnified the impact of mindsets on entrepreneurial behavior. These findings pave the way for preliminary research on the viability of growth mindset interventions for fostering entrepreneurial behavior.
... Individuals may hold different mindsets for different domains, or characteristics, and mindsets in different domains are only moderately correlated with one another (Spinath et al., 2003). A 2015 meta-analysis found that adolescent mental health may be impacted by mindsets in multiple domains, including intelligence, personality, and peer relationships, with no significant difference in effect strength by domain (Schleider et al., 2015). ...
Background: Perceptions of personal attributes as less malleable are associated with more severe depression symptoms and less active coping in youth. Perceptions of depression itself as relatively fixed have been linked to more severe depression; however, it is not known how beliefs about depression relate to activation and avoidance behaviors. Methods: We gathered information about depression beliefs and activation and avoidance behaviors among 106 adolescents with high depression symptoms. The beliefs examined included prognostic pessimism, or the belief that depression is relatively permanent, as well as beliefs about what causes depression. We calculated correlations between these beliefs and activation and avoidance/rumination behaviors. Results: Prognostic pessimism was negatively correlated with activation scores (r = -.31; p = .001), and was positively correlated with avoidance/rumination scores (r = .30; p = .002). Neither of the causal beliefs about depression were significantly associated with levels of either activation or avoidance/rumination. Conclusions: Adolescents who believe that depression is relatively permanent might feel less motivated to engage in effortful activation behaviors, instead favoring avoidance. These results may help elucidate the ways in which malleability beliefs relate to mental health outcomes among adolescents.
... Greenhaus & Powell (2006) claim that employees would experience positive affect in their non-work life (general psychological well -being in life) through the spillover effect of positive organisational experiences at work. (Dweck & Leggett, 1988) It is argued that there exists a weak empirical relationship between mindset and personality suggesting that it exists independently of personality and not emanating from it (Spinath et al. 2003). Dweck & Leggett (1988) state that entity and incremental theories represent two different self-concept with divergent characteristics that operationally define the self or the individual. ...
Structured Abstract:
Purpose
Theoretical application on a case narrative of a services sector employee to find the
underlying psychological process leading to employee experiences of workplace suffering,
estrangement and alienation.
Method
Two-part theory-based method to analyse the situation of concern and to derive a remedy.
Research limitation and Implication
The model/theory of Dweck & Leggett, 1988 was initially based on children in school
settings but the theory is validated for its generality beyond time and across challenging
situations. Hence it is applied here to study adaptive behaviour and optimal functioning among
employees.
Practical Implication
The study provides enlightenment for aggrieved employees, inquisitive to know, reflect
and improve their workplace behaviour and functioning. The study aims to facilitate early-career
counsellors and practitioners to engage, re-train and re-orient employees estranged and alienated
from work towards a sense of self-worth and work meaningfulness leading to positive workplace
functioning and a desired state of well-being.
Social Implication
The study aims for business organisations to realize in their human resource practices, the
theme of the fifth industrial revolution which focuses on humanism, inclusiveness, purpose,
civility and creativity whereby limiting loss of talent and livelihood.
Originality/Value
Employee experience is captured as a re-telling/case narrative. Scientific theory-based
analysis was adopted to address the case narrative. The study is placed in an interpretive
paradigm with the dimensions of the philosophy of knowledge explained to guide the study.
Keywords: Mindset, Goal orientation, Employee experience, Organisation-based self-esteem,
Meaningfulness of work, Well-being, Case narrative.
Type of Paper: Case study
... For a given task, students with lower abilities will need to invest in more effort than students with higher abilities. Importantly, however, intelligence mindset beliefs are not strongly correlated with estimates of actual intelligence or cognitive ability (Burgoyne et al., 2020;Dweck, 1999;Macnamara & Rupani, 2017;Spinath, Spinath, Riemann, & Angleitner, 2003;Storek & Furnham, 2013). Thus, cognitive ability cannot fully explain differential experiences of effort between the mindsets. ...
Beliefs about the malleability of attributes, also known as mindsets, have been studied for decades in social-personality psychology and education. Here, I review the many applications of mindset theory to clinical psychology and psychotherapy. First, I review social psychological and cognitive neuroscience evidence that mindsets and mindset-related messages are, to a large extent, focused on emotional tolerance. Specifically, the growth mindset, or the belief that attributes are malleable, encourages confronting and tolerating anxiety, frustration, and disappointment in healthy and adaptive ways that promote resilience, whereas the fixed mindset and related messages discourage the experience of these emotions and often leads to helplessness. Second, I review the emerging research on the anxiety mindset and discuss its relevance to clinical work. A model is proposed illustrating connections between mindsets, emotion regulation strategies, treatment preferences, and outcomes. Case examples are used to illustrate practical applications. I conclude that mindsets can inform psychotherapy, research, and public policy.
... This includes a recent study employing a nationally representative sample of 10th graders in the US, which found that boys and girls were equally likely to hold a growth mindset in maths (Hwang et al., 2019). Although single studies sometimes reveal a stronger growth mindset among either boys (Chen & Pajares, 2010;Diseth et al., 2014) or girls (Spinath et al., 2003;Tempelaar et al., 2015), there appear to be no systematic gender differences across studies. ...
Growth and fixed mindsets have been linked to distinct effort beliefs, goals, and behaviours, creating a seemingly dichotomous pattern of motivation. Yet, students holding the same mindset are unlikely a homogenous group and may further differ in their motivational patterns. The current study employed a person-centred approach to investigate how mindsets and associated constructs naturally cohered and functioned together to influence student achievement. Data were collected from 535 English students (aged 14–16 years) on mindsets, effort beliefs, achievement goals, perseverance, and self-handicapping, along with their English and maths performance at the end of secondary school. Latent profile analyses revealed four distinct profiles. Across the profiles, students’ mindset co-varied with effort beliefs, mastery goals, perseverance, and self-handicapping, but the relationship between mindsets and performance goals was less straightforward. Two profiles supported the classic growth mindset–mastery goal (Growth-Focused) and fixed mindset–performance goal pairings (Ability-Focused). The other two profiles, however, displayed alternative combinations of mindsets and goals that had not been acknowledged in the past. Specifically, some growth mindset students embraced performance goals alongside mastery goals (Growth-Competitive), and some fixed mindset students did not endorse performance goals (Disengaged). The two growth-oriented profiles consistently performed well, and Growth-Competitive students even outperformed Growth-Focused students in maths. Compared to girls, boys were more often found in Ability-Focused and Disengaged profiles. The results indicate a nuanced set of relations between mindsets and achievement goals, highlighting the dynamic integration of motivational beliefs and goals within individuals.
... Although these studies did not use invasive methods (e.g., blood sampling), which provide more reliable and comprehensive results, their results indicate that cognitive factors (e.g., beliefs) could potentially, reciprocally relate to epigenetic activity. In general, behavioral genetic studies are highly limited to quantitative genetics (Tucker-Drob & Harden, 2017) rather than behavioral genetic analyses (e.g., Spinath, Spinath, Riemann, & Angleitner, 2003); that is, the results of previous studies (e.g., Hambrick & Tucker-Drob, 2015) are not derived from actual epigenetic activity caused by immediate environmental effects (e.g., felt anxiety in classroom settings) but instead based on the characteristics of individuals (i.e., monozygotic and/or dizygotic twins) in shared/non-shared environments, considering particular individual difference variables (e.g., beliefs). However, epigenetic activity is open to the immediate environmental effects (e.g., Feil, 2006), which in turn may affect individuals' performance in particular settings, especially stressful situations such as the classroom (Bourgery, Grigorenko, Latham, & Tan, 2017). ...
This experimental study examined whether the language mindset of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) pre-service teachers significantly relates to their task-oriented state-anxiety, changes in epigenetic activity, and task performance on a translation task. A total of 52 EFL pre-service teachers were randomly assigned to either experimental groups (i.e., high incremental mindset-experimental group/low incremental mindset-experimental group) or control groups (i.e., high incremental mindset-control group/low incremental mindset-control group). The results revealed that pre-service teachers’ state-anxiety, microRNA activity (i.e., miR-34c, miR-22, and miR-204), and task performance were significantly, selectively related to each other in terms of language mindset, regardless of the effects of the demographic variables (e.g., gender). The results also showed that the interactions between state-anxiety, miR-22 activity, and task performance were only considerable for the pre-service teachers in the low incremental mindset-experimental group. The results suggest that teacher educators and policymakers should be aware of the fact that the English as a foreign language learning environment, which boosts pre-service teachers’ task-oriented state-anxiety, may have significant consequences in terms of stimulating changes in epigenetic activity, which, in turn, may significantly affect their task performance.
... Several studies have found that females endorse more growth beliefs (e.g., Spinath, Spinath, Riemann, & Angleitner, 2003), while other studies have found females endorse more fixed beliefs (e.g., Diseth, Meland, & Breidablik, 2014). However, most studies have reported no differences between males and females with regard to mindset (e.g., Bodil & Roberts, 2013; Cury et al., 2006Cury et al., , 2008Tarbetsky et al., 2016). ...
Learning a second/foreign language (L2) is a long process and L2 learners certainly will encounter setbacks and discouragements during this process. However, their reactions to these failures might be different based on their perceptions of L2 learning ability and their subsequent effort in L2 learning. Based on this, the present study aimed at exploring two under-researched constructs within the field of applied linguistics, namely grit (“perseverance and passion for long-term goals”, Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews, & Kelly, 2007, p. 1087) and language mindset (individuals’ perceptions of their language learning ability, Mercer & Ryan, 2009). We had five main aims: 1) to examine the factor structure of grit, 2) to examine the factor structure of language mindset, 3) to examine whether there are gender differences in grit or language mindset, 4) to examine the relationships between language mindset and grittiness, and 5) to examine the roles of grit and language mindset as predictors of L2 achievement. To address these aims, a total number of 1,178 university students who were taking general English course took part in our study and completed the questionnaires. Results of confirmatory factor analysis indicated that the two-factor structures for both grit and language mindset fitted the data better than single-factor structures. We also tested several structural equation models and found that a growth language mindset weakly, but positively predicted one component of grit (perseverance of effort), but not the other (consistency of interest). A fixed language mindset did not predict perseverance of effort, but did negatively predict consistency of interest. Finally, only growth language mindset was a weak, positive predictor of L2 achievement. At the end, theoretical and pedagogical implications regarding the role of grit and language mindset in L2 learning are presented.
... Also to date limited research has analysed and compared the impact of different implicit theories. In fact, few studies have conducted comparative analysis focused in deepening the predictive validity of IT: Spinath et al. (2003) analysed the effect of IT of intelligence, personality and specific abilities (sports and maths) on actual personality and intelligence; Tamir et al. (2007) compared the IT of emotion and intelligence on social outcomes; Cabello and Fernández-Berrocal (2015), more recently, explored the effect of IT of EI and emotions on individuals' EI performance. Furthermore, except for the studies of Tamir et al. (2007) and Cabello and Fernández-Berrocal (2015) on emotion regulation self-efficacy, emotional intensity and EI performance, less is known about the influence of implicit theories on emotional outcomes. ...
This study examined and compared the impact of implicit theories (IT) of emotional intelligence (EI) and intelligence on different students’ emotional outcomes. Three hundred forty-three students in secondary school completed measures of IT (EI and intelligence), trait and ability EI, and emotions towards school across a two-wave study. In the first round of data collection, the students were between 14 and 18 years old (Mage = 15.4; SD = .63); the majority were female (58.0%) and the largest group had a high socioprofessional status 35.8% (32.2% middle and 31.9% low status). The results showed that incremental IT of EI on the first year of secondary school had a positive impact on students’ self-perceptions of emotional competence, positive emotions towards school and understanding of emotion performance in the following year. The IT of intelligence had an impact only on students’ future emotional performance, underlining the domain-specificity of the constructs. These findings highlight the importance of addressing students’ implicit theories in the academic context, due to their relevance in promoting students’ positive emotional experiences, which can ultimately impact their academic adaptation and success.
... In sum, groups deemed accountable for their own poor 214 outcomes are evaluated negatively and with decreased empathy (Crandall & Eshleman, 2003). 215controllable than intelligence or specific abilities(Spinath et al., 2003). Further, behaviorally-219 visible stigmas tend to be viewed as controllable(Weiner et al., 1988) -remember that 220 extraverted/introverted behavior is highly visible (Funder, 2012), and being warm (i.e., a key 221 stereotype associated with extraversion/introversion; Hall et al., 2019) is perceived as 222 controllable(Fiske et al., 2007;Goodwin et al., 2014). ...
Despite recent growth in popular press about introversion and negative responses to introversion at work, academic work has yet to directly investigate this topic. This may be at least partly due to a sensitive issue: do negative responses to introversion at work purely constitute mistreatment, or are these legitimate responses to introversion? We propose a framework that incorporates both perspectives as interlinked explanations for this phenomenon: the Stereotype-Driven Process, which is driven by bias and associated with mistreatment, and the Target-Driven Process, which is driven by introversion itself and can be associated with legitimate responses to introversion. As such, this paper describes how negative responses to introversion come about, introduces perceived introversion mistreatment, examines negative outcomes associated with negative responses to introversion, and delineates numerous testable propositions that can guide future research on the topic.
... The extent and nature of the overlap between personality and intelligence have been studied over several decades (Ackerman and Heggestad, 1997;Zeidner and Matthews, 2000). Although implicit theories about personality and intelligence are theoretically independent (Dweck et al., 1995b), they are often correlated in empirical studies ( Spinath et al., 2003;Hughes, 2015). If general components of implicit theories exist, they can be better predictors of different psychological measures. ...
Implicit theories have been widely studied in different domains; however, it is still debatable whether these theories are domain-specific or domain-general. Using the Implicit Theories Scale (ITS) about six fundamental psychological attributes, i.e., intelligence, personality, cognition, feeling, behavior, and emotion, we examined domain specificity versus generality using a factor analytic approach; in addition, we investigated associations between implicit theories about these domains and related psychological attributes. In four sequential studies, we translated a Chinese version of the ITS (Study 1), tested inter-item correlations within and between subscales (Studies 1–4), and conducted exploratory factor analysis (Studies 2 and 3) and confirmatory factor analysis (Studies 3 and 4). We tested associations between implicit theory domains and coping, resilience, grit, and school performance (Studies 3 and 4). Results showed that the six ITS subscales were independent, while the implicit theories about cognition, feeling, behavior, and emotion shared a common component. The implicit theories of intelligence and personality were independent and did not share a common component. The six domains presented different patterns of association with psychological variables. Overall, our results suggest that implicit theories are both domain-specific and domain-general. Future studies are needed to examine the mechanism underlying the domain specificity and generality of implicit theories.
... Further, mindset studies in other domains have found similar relationships between specific mindsets and attributes themselves. For example, personality mindsets do not directly covary with actual personality traits (Spinath, Spinath, Riemann, & Angleitner, 2003) and mindsets about empathy do not relate to actual endorsement of empathy (Schumann, Zaki, & Dweck, 2014). The lack of correlations between AMS and current smoking, previous quit attempts and dependence therefore, speak to the discriminant validity of the AMS. ...
Background:
Lay belief systems about the malleability of human attributes have been shown to impact behavior change in multiple domains. Addiction mindset-i.e., beliefs about the permanence (vs. malleability) of addiction - may affect cigarette smokers' ability to quit, but this has never been examined.
Objectives:
The aims of the present research were to develop a measure of addiction mindset (study 1) and examine its associations with various psychological aspects of quitting smoking (study 2).
Methods:
In Study 1, using factor analysis of current smokers' and nonsmokers' (n = 600) responses to 22 items designed to measure addiction mindset, we developed a reliable six-item Addiction Mindset Scale (AMS). In Study 2, adult smokers (n = 200) completed the AMS, and measures of a number of psychological processes related to smoking.
Results:
Higher scores on the AMS, indicative of the belief that addiction is malleable (referred to as a growth mindset), were positively and significantly associated with greater motivation to quit, greater commitment to quitting, greater self-efficacy to abstain, less attribution of failure to lack of ability to change addiction, and fewer self-reported barriers to cessation (all p's < .05).
Conclusions:
The results of this study show a relationship between the beliefs about the permanence of addiction and psychological processes relevant to quitting smoking. The findings underscore the potential of future research exploring how addiction mindsets relate to successful smoking cessation as well as other types of addictive behavior and how they can be applied to change people's behavior.
... Mindset develops from prior experiences with people in the environment where they grew up, such as parents and siblings, peers or teachers at school (Dweck 2006;Good, Rattan, and Dweck 2012;Pomerantz and Kempner 2013). However, it is generally uncorrelated with prior education (Dweck, Chiu, and Hong 1995) Spinath et al. 2003). Students with a growth mindset attach more value to learning than appearing smart, they like to work harder, and see setbacks as a challenge to cope with. ...
Mindset plays a pivotal role in academic achievement. In particular, a growth mindset is related to academic success. This study explored the role of mindset in Secondary Vocational Education and Training (VET). Participants were 1005 VET students attending eight different vocational programmes on three qualification levels in the rural southwest of the Netherlands. They filled out an online questionnaire that was combined with the school administration system for demographical information and school results. Results showed that 13.9% of the participants had a fixed mindset, 47.3% a growth mindset, and 38.8% a mixed mindset. Our findings indicate that VET students’ mean mindset does not substantially differ from the mindset of students in other forms of education. However, the majority of VET students does not have a growth mindset and mindset and academic achievement seem to be unrelated.
... Accordingly, the students develop implicit theories or mindsets which may stress an entity view of more or less fixed and unchangeable abilities -or an incremental view of more or less modifiable and changeable abilities (Dweck & Leggett, 1988;Yeager & Dweck, 2012). Though these implicit theories have been demonstrated to correlate with the student's actual ability level only marginally (Spinath, Spinath, Riemann, & Angleitner, 2003), they significantly affect their motivationally relevant goal orientations, effort beliefs, learning strategies and, eventually, their task performance (Blackwell, Trzesniewski, & Dweck, 2007;Burnette, O'Boyle, VanEpps, Pollack, & Finkel, 2013;Cury, DaFonseca, Zahn, & Elliot, 2008;Jones, Wilkins, Long, & Wang, 2012). These implicit theories principally might not only concern an individual's cognitive ability but also might emerge in a domain-specific manner and refer to the perceived malleability of certain skills or competencies (Dweck & Molden, 2005) -e.g., in the areas of mathematics and language (Davis, Burnette, Allison, & Stone, 2011;Räty, Kasanen, Kliskinen, Nykky, & Atjonen, 2004;Vogler & Bakken, 2007), foreign language learning (Lou & Noels, 2017), academic writing (Karlen & Compagnoni, 2017), music (Smith, 2005), physical activities (Ommundsen, 2003), biology and science (Chen & Pajares, 2010;Dai & Cromley, 2014). ...
At higher education levels, the acquisition and application of research methods appears to represent a great challenge for a considerable number of students. As relevant empirical findings could consistently demonstrate, many students in social or human science programmes tend to evolve and maintain negative attitudes against compulsory method courses and, in particular, perceive statistical demands as threatening study events – thus, being at risk of developing a heightened level of statistics anxiety. Therefore, university settings need to pay attention to this phenomenon and strive for a sound analysis of the students’ concern. Accordingly, over the past decades several questionnaires had been developed to assess university learners’ statistics anxiety in order to get appropriate information for conceptualizing most adaptive instructional and guidance strategies. However, against theoretical and methodological background of test anxiety research, current instruments for assessing university students’ statistics anxiety prevailingly emphasize the affective construct component. In order to unfold the construct in a more exhaustive and differentiated manner, a scale for measuring university students’ worry, avoidance, and emotionality cognitions was developed. In two samples of education science majors the present study aimed at analyzing the scale’s psychometric properties and at gaining preliminary validation results. In both samples, principal com-ponent analysis led to the formation of a unidimensional scale which appeared to be sufficiently reliable. Its relations to domain-specific self-belief and background variables turned out as theoretically expected – thus, for the time being the scale should claim criterion validity. In particular, the scale’s total sum score could be demonstrated to substantially correlate with students’ mathematical self-concept, entity beliefs, and negative instrumental values.
... Theories of intelligence can be broadly discriminated into two categories; implicit theories and explicit theories (Spinath et al. 2003). Implicit theories describe peoples' conceptions of intelligence with pertinent frameworks emerging from their amalgams. ...
The educational significance of eliciting students’ implicit theories of intelligence is well established with the majority of this work focussing on theories regarding entity and incremental beliefs. However, a second paradigm exists in the prototypical nature of intelligence for which to view implicit theories. This study purports to instigate an investigation into students’ beliefs concerning intellectual behaviours through the lens of prototypical definitions within STEM education. To achieve this, the methodology designed by Sternberg et al. (J Pers Soc Psychol 41(1):37–55, 1981) was adopted with surveys being administered to students of technology education requiring participants to describe characteristics of intelligent behaviour. A factor analytic approach including exploratory factor analysis, confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modelling was taken in analysing the data to determine the underlying constructs which the participants viewed as critical in their definition of intelligence. The findings of this study illustrate that students of technology education perceive intelligence to be multifaceted, comprising of three factors including social, general and technological competences. Implications for educational practice are discussed relative to these findings. While initially this study focuses on the domain of technology education, a mandate for further work in other disciplines is discussed.
... Given that mindsets are "malleable personal qualities, rather than fixed dispositions" (Dweck, Chiu, & Hong, 1995: 279), it is not surprising that they are largely empirically independent of personality traits. Specifically, one study (Spinath, Spinath, Riemann, & Angleitner, 2003) found that mindsets are unrelated to neuroticism and correlated only .12 and .13 with extraversion and conscientiousness, respectively. Satchell, Hoskins, Corr, and Moore (2017) observed that a growth mindset is correlated .16 ...
The substantial literature on dispositional antecedents of career success (e.g., extraversion and conscientiousness) implies that being low in career-facilitating traits may hamper people’s careers. We develop a cognitive-affective personality system theory about the role of situational cues, personality, and mindsets regarding the plasticity of one’s attributes in determining when this will occur and how the related dysfunctional dynamics may be mitigated. We draw on trait activation theory to describe how the interaction of situational cues, personality, and mindsets may trigger an array of cognitive-affective units within a cognitive-affective personality system that influence subjective and objective career outcomes. The contributions of this article are to offer the largely between-person careers literature a within-person account of when and why people experience subjective and objective career success as a function of their personalities, situational cues, prevailing mindsets, and career contexts. A theoretical account of how personality predicts subjective career outcomes more strongly than objective career outcomes is thereby provided. Our intent is to also extend trait activation theory by considering the cognitive and affective dynamics whereby personality traits and situational cues have their effects. The conditions under which mindsets are likely to shape career outcomes are outlined. Finally, implications for mindsets, personality, and career theory, research, and practice are discussed.
... Developmentally, such mindsets will emerge from individually preferred attribution patterns -as well as they will, in turn, affect the students' attribution tendencies. Though these implicit theories have been demonstrated to correlate with the students' actual ability level only marginally (Spinath, Spinath, Riemann, & Angleitner, 2003), they significantly affect their motivational orientations, effort beliefs, learning strategies and, eventually, their task performance (Blackwell, Trzesniewski, & Dweck, 2007;Burnette, O'Boyle, VanEpps, Pollack, & Finkel, 2013;Jones, Wilkins, Long, & Wang, 2012;Robins & Pals, 2002;Tempelaar, Rienties, Giesbers, & Gijselaers, 2015). These implicit theories prin- cipally might not only concern a person's cognitive ability but also emerge in a domain-specific manner and refer to the perceived malleability of certain skills or competencies (Dweck & Molden, 2005) -e.g., in the areas of mathematics and language (Davis, Burnette, Allison, & Stone, 2011;Räty, Kasanen, Kliskinen, Nykky, & Atjonen, 2004;Vogler & Bakken, 2007), text composition (Limpo & Alves 2014), music (Smith, 2005), physical activities (Ommundsen, Haugen, & Lund, 2005), biology and science (Chen & Pajares, 2010;Dai & Cromley, 2014). ...
Academic self-beliefs substantially regulate learners' educational performance. In particular, the learners' individual competence and control beliefs must considered as cognitive-motivational core variables. Com-petence beliefs are essentially represented in the learners’ academic self-concepts, control beliefs in their academic attributions of own success and failure. Developmentally, both constructs will not only operate in a mutually reinforcing manner. Rather, the self-concept will directly affect the learners’ success and failure attributions in a certain academic setting. As empirical findings in the field could demonstrate, interindividually existing differences in causal attributions appeared to be substantially affected by the learners’ self-concept. According to the multidimensional feature of cognitive-motivational constructs, these relationships are assumed to be domain- or subject-specific or even task-specific in nature. Therefore, in order to clarify the relations among academically relevant self-concept and attribution variables, their domain- or subject-specific representations should be investigated. The present study aimed at analyzing the relations of their subject- and task-specific self-concepts with their subjective explanations of grammar success and failure in a sample of preadolescent EFL learners from fifth- and sixth-grade classrooms. Additionally, the role of grade level and gender was examined. The results of this study, first of all, could not show any significant grade level and gender effects in the attribution variables. Moreover, multivariate SEM analyses of construct relations could partially substantiate the mediating role of the self-concept variable. In some but not all cases, the learners’ causal attributions of grammar success and failure to master a grammar task could be significantly explained by their grammar self-concept which, in turn, reflected their foreign language achieve-ment. Direct achievement effects onto the learners’ attributional responses were found only to a minor extent. Furthermore, additionally conducted analyses of variance could demonstrate corresponding attributional patterns mostly depending on the students’ grammar self-concept. However, for the learners’ ability at-tributions of grammar success a gender-dependent difference in the high self-concept group occurred. Taken altogether, though not with respect to all causal factors under consideration, the findings of the present study partially confirm the mediating role of the task-specific self-concept with respect to the explanation of related control beliefs in the EFL context.
... Interestingly, there have been only very few studies at all that tested potential determinants of students' implicit theories. We are aware of only three studies that have attempted to directly test determinants of implicit theories: The study by Spinath, Spinath, Angleitner, and Riemann (2003) demonstrated that implicit theories are unrelated to personality and actual intelligence. Using an experimental design, Mueller and Dweck (1998) found that students' implicit theories depend on the type of successrelated feedback they receive: Ability-related praise was associated with a rather entitist view on intelligence, whereas effort-related feedback was associated with a more incremental view on intelligence. ...
Teachers differ in their tendency to prefer temporal comparisons (temporal reference norm orientation, TO) and social comparisons (social reference norm orientation, SO) when judging students' achievements. A TO was postulated to enhance students' motivational beliefs. We used a longitudinal sample of 1 641 students (69 mathematics classes) from comprehensive secondary schools (Gymnasium) across grades 5 and 6 to test this hypothesis. Students' mathematical self-concepts and their implicit theory of math ability as incremental were assessed at each point of measurement. Their math teachers' TO and SO were assessed using aggregated students' ratings. Growth curve modeling showed a decline in students' self-concepts and their implicit theory. Between-class differences in the amount of decline were associated with teachers' reference norm orientations: TO was associated with a decelerated decline in students' self-concepts and implicit theory, SO with an accelerated decline. The SO effects on students' self-concept were more pronounced given lower students' achievement.
... In contrast, a person who has more of a fixed mindset believes that his or her intellectual ability is relatively unchangeable. Mindsets are thought to be separable from basic personality traits and accordingly exhibit effects that are independent of traits (Dweck, 2006;Plaks, Levy, & Dweck, 2009;Spinath, Spinath, Riemann, & Angleitner 2003). ...
Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is a relatively common and debilitating mental health condition. Research has indicated associations between maladaptive personality traits and BPD. A separate line of work suggests that beliefs about how much one’s anxiety can change (i.e., anxiety mindset) may in uence a wide range of mental health symptoms, many of which people with BPD often exhibit. We begin to integrate these two perspectives in the current study by evaluating the relative effects of maladaptive personality traits and anxiety mindset on BPD symptoms in a large sample of undergraduates (N = 998). Results indicate that traits and mindsets are independent statistical predictors of BPD symptoms. These ndings suggest that both maladaptive traits and anxiety mindset are relevant to BPD, which may inform future research on the connections between personality processes and BPD as well as clinical intervention.
... From ancient times to the end of the first millennium; and through each of the centuries, down to the present day; great philosophers, scientists, theologians, and atheists alike have rigorously sought for and proffered explanations to intelligence, how the human cognition, brain or mind works (Balchin, 2010). But there is no definitive explanation that is by itself coherent enough to be mutually accepted by virtually all for human intelligence Fischman;1993;Spinatha, Spinatha & Riemann, 2003); and the day that such explanation will eventually be arrived at to end all plausible debates on this attribute, is not yet at sight, and may most likely never be (Dilalla, 2000). By 'definitive explanation', I mean a definition or a theory of intelligence that is anchored on unquestionable verifiable evidence, and is indeed the very best of all kinds and unlikely to be further improved upon in serving as a true representative of every relevant aspect and facet of the trait to people of various spheres of life (Kpolovie, 2016;. ...
... Implicit theory assessment. Participants provided their ideas about the malleability of their self-generated strength or weakness on a three-item implicit theory scale (adapted fromDweck, 1999;Spinath, Spinath, Riemann, & Angleitner, 2003) from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree). The order of the items below was randomized. 1. ...
Across six studies, this research found consistent evidence for motivated implicit theories about personality malleability: People perceive their weaknesses as more malleable than their strengths. Moreover, motivation also influences how people see themselves in the future, such that they expect their present strengths to remain constant, but they expect their present weaknesses to improve in the future. Several additional findings suggest the motivational nature of these effects: The difference in perceived malleability for strengths versus weaknesses was only observed for the self, not for other people. When the desirability of possessing a certain trait was manipulated, that trait was perceived to be more malleable when it was depicted as undesirable. And these different beliefs that people have about how malleable their traits are, and how they will develop in the future, were associated with their desire for change, which is higher for weaknesses versus strengths.
... Individual differences in the tendencies to endorse the entity versus incremental theories may be measured using the Implicit Person Theories Measure (IPTM; Dweck, 1999 ). This measure has been found to be independent of other potentially relevant constructs such as political orientation, attributional complexity, and Big Five traits (Dweck, Chiu, & Hong, 1995; Levy, Stroessner, & Dweck, 1998; Spinath, Spinath, Riemann, & Angleitner, 2003). Whereas most studies in the Person Memory literature have operationalized the " consistency " of a target's behavior with respect to a focal trait or stereotype (e.g., an intelligent person engaging in intelligent versus unintelligent behaviors; Hastie & Kumar, 1979), the implicit theories approach states that perceivers define consistency with respect to their own working model of trait fixedness (Plaks & Halvorson, 2013). ...
The present study examined whether perceivers' implicit theories about the fixedness of intelligence would modulate neurophysiological responses to stereotype-violating and stereotype-confirming information. Brain activity was recorded using EEG as participants read a series of stereotype-confirming or stereotype-violating behaviors performed by a target character. Compared to incremental theorists (who believe that intelligence is malleable), entity theorists (who believe that intelligence is fixed) displayed more pronounced N400 responses to stereotype-violating behaviors. In contrast, incremental theorists exhibited more pronounced N400 responses than entity theorists to stereotype-confirming behaviors. These results shed light on basic processes in Person Memory by suggesting that perceivers make a distinction at the neurocognitive level between stereotype violations versus implicit theory violations.
... Given that mindsets are "malleable personal qualities, rather than fixed dispositions" (Dweck, Chiu, & Hong, 1995: 279), it is not surprising that they are largely empirically independent of personality traits. Specifically, one study (Spinath, Spinath, Riemann, & Angleitner, 2003) found that mindsets are unrelated to neuroticism and correlated only .12 and .13 with extraversion and conscientiousness, respectively. Satchell, Hoskins, Corr, and Moore (2017) observed that a growth mindset is correlated .16 ...
For almost a century, career scholars have developed theories, research and interventions to help people to (i) find a career role that fits their given character type (i.e., personality), as well as to (ii) develop their more malleable career attributes (e.g., networking skills). We revisit this broad dichotomy drawing upon research on mindsets about the malleability of human attributes – such as personality and cognitive ability – that influence how people think and act in career relevant ways. We show how mindsets can prime change in the presumably stable dispositions of personality and cognitive ability that are associated with both objective and subjective career success. The scope for mindsets to be altered also has implications for understanding and influencing the development of human capital, as well as a host of other personal attributes (i.e., self-efficacy, networking skills, and adaptability) addressed by the career facilitation literature. By critiquing the presumed rigidity of some of the most well-established antecedents of career success, we show how mindset theory and research can fruitfully inform careers theory, research, and interventions aimed at fostering career success.
... -Yaşadıkları başarısızlıkların nedenlerini etkili olmayan çalışma yöntemlerine ve ortaya koydukları çabanın yeterli olmayışına bağlarlar (Delavar, Ahadi & Barzegar, 2011; Roedel & Schraw, 1995). Bireylerin örtük zekâ teorisi kapsamında yer alan varlık teorisi ve artımsal teoriden hangisini ne düzeyde benimsedikleri bilişsel ve duyuşsal özelliklerini etkilediğinden (Garcia Cepero & McCoach, 2009; Spinath, Spinath, Riemann & Angleitner, 2003Abd-El-Fattah & Yates, 2006; Da Fonseca, Schiano-Lomoriello, Cury, Poinso, Rufo & Therme, 2007; Dweck, 1999; Dweck & Henderson 1989; Stipek & Gralinski, 1996) hangisinin Türkçe'ye uyarlanmasının daha uygun olacağı konusunda araştırmacıların karar vermesine yardımcı olmuştur. ÖZTÖ'nün 5 dakika gibi kısa bir sürede uygulanabilen kullanışlı bir ölçme aracı olması, araştırmacıların ÖZTÖ'yü Türkçe'ye uyarlama konusundaki kararlarını etkileyen bir diğer faktördür. ...
The purpose of this study is to adapt the Implicit Theory of Intelligence Scale (ITIS) by Abd-El-Fattah and Yates (2006) to Turkish and to investigate its psychometric properties. The study was conducted on four different samples which consisted of 689 students who studied different subjects at the Ziya Gokalp Faculty of Education, Dicle University, during the Fall Term of the 2012-2013 Academic Year. The findings on the linguistic equivalence indicated that the correlation between the items included in the Turkish and original form varied between .81 and .96. The factor analysis concluded that the Turkish version had a two-factor structure in parallel with the original one. As for the concurrent validity, the calculation of correlation between the ITIS and AGOS reported findings similar to the ones in the literature. The reliability coefficients were over .70 for both the entity theory and incremental theory. The item analysis reported that the corrected item total correlations ranged from .33 and .63 and the differences between the top and bottom 27% groups were significant for all the items included in the scale. All these findings suggest that the Turkish version of the ITIS is a valid and reliable instrument that can be used to measure university students’ beliefs about intelligence.
... For instance, a person could hold a growth mindset about her quantitative ability and a fixed mindset about her ability to work with difficult customers (Dweck, 1999). Mindsets are also only weakly empirically related to personality (e.g., Spinath, Spinath, Riemann, & Angleitner, 2003), which suggests they exist independently of personality rather than emanating from it. Although relatively few studies have examined mindsets in the context of work (see Heslin and colleagues for exceptions), the related construct of goal orientation (cf. ...
Engaged employees work vigorously, feeling dedicated and mentally absorbed in their work. Much is known about the kinds of jobs and work environments that stimulate employee engagement, yet levels of disengagement remain high in many organizations. To provide fresh insights into how to increase engagement, we draw on theory and research in social, educational, and organizational psychology to illuminate how mindsets are a personal resource that may influence employees' engagement via their enthusiasm for development, construal of effort, focus of attention, perception of setbacks, and interpersonal interactions. We outline several avenues for future research, as well as practical implications for organizational, managerial, and individual-level initiatives for increasing engagement via supporting employees in adopting and sustaining a growth mindset with regard to the challenges they encounter at work.
... p b .05) with incremental theory of intelligence for women (Spinath, Spinath, Riemann, & Angleitner, 2003). But this finding is weak, and may not necessarily apply to the present sample. ...
The present study investigated the relation between self-esteem, self-efficacy and implicit theories of intelligence (entity and incremental) in a sample of 6th and 8th grade Norwegian students (N = 2.060) in order to test the factor structure of these variables, how they may differ according to gender and grade level, and how they may predict academic achievement level. The results showed positive relations between self-esteem, self-efficacy and incremental theories of intelligence, and a negative relation between entity and incremental theories of intelligence, but this latter relation was significantly stronger among 8th graders. Despite better academic achievement among 8th grade girls, they had lower levels of self-esteem, self-efficacy, and incremental views of intelligence than boys. In conclusion, evaluative components of self-beliefs (self-esteem and self-efficacy) and implicit theories of intelligence constitute separate, but related factors, and there are age and gender specific differences which are of theoretical and practical importance.
... Dweck et al. proposed a distinction between an incremental theory-the belief that a given characteristic is flexible and can be cultivated over time-and an entity theory-the belief that a given characteristic is stable over time and not amenable to efforts for change. In addition to being unrelated to personality traits (Spinath et al., 2003), lay theories are also domain specific. For example, a person's lay theory about the malleability of intelligence may not be the same as his or her lay theory regarding the stability of personality. ...
This study investigated the relationship between lay theories of cigarette smoking and expectations to smoke. An incremental lay theory of smoking entails the belief that smoking behavior can change; an entity theory entails the belief that smoking behavior cannot change. Undergraduate nonsmokers and smokers completed a survey that assessed lay theories of smoking and smoking expectations. Results demonstrated that lay theories of smoking were differentially associated with smoking expectations for nonsmokers and smokers: stronger incremental beliefs were associated with greater expectations of trying smoking for nonsmokers but lower expectations of becoming a regular smoker for smokers. Implications for interventions are discussed.
... The questions were modeled after past implicit theories research showing that participants respond more reliably to entity theory worded questions (Hong et al., 1999). As in past research (Hong et al., 1999; but see Spinath, Spinath, Riemann, & Angleitner, 2003), there was a non-significant correlation between SAT scores and implicit theories, in this case math SAT and math implicit theories, r(78) ¼ .10, p ¼ .40. ...
Two studies investigate manipulating implicit theories as a function of participants' self-theories. Women were primed with a malleable or fixed view of math intelligence before completing a math test. Study 1 utilized highly skilled participants and revealed that entity theorists experienced less anxiety when exposed to a malleable prime versus a fixed prime; however, entity theorists in the fixed condition performed better on the math test than incremental theorists. Incremental theorists were unaffected by the malleable prime. Study 2 utilized moderately skilled participants and found that incremental theorists attempted more math questions when exposed to a malleable prime versus a fixed prime, whereas entity theorists were unaffected by the primes. The relationship between self-theories and different ability levels is discussed.
Across multiple studies, we found that people with a growth mindset (whose abilities are believed to be developable) are more likely to see artificial intelligence (AI) devices as human‐like. This effect holds for intelligent personal assistants, where growth‐mindset users attributed more human qualities to these AI helpers. Furthermore, people with a growth mindset were more open to new experiences and felt less threatened by AI, which in turn made them see AI as more human‐like. Interestingly, the more human‐like the AI features became, the less a growth mindset influenced how human‐like people perceived the AI. Our findings highlight the importance of designing AI that can be personalized and adapt to user needs. They also suggest a connection between how human‐like AI appears and how threatening people perceive it. This knowledge can be used to create AI technology that is user‐centered and fosters positive interactions.
Research on growth mindset has increased dramatically in recent years, and the school climate is critical to growth mindset of middle school students, yet the underlying mediating mechanism is rarely known. This study investigated the chain mediating effect of perceived social support, positive personality between school climate and growth mindset of middle school students. To be specific, 992 junior high school students were taken as the study sample, in which participants completed questionnaires on growth mindset, perceived social support, and positive personality. After controlling for age and socioeconomic status, this study found that there was no gender difference in growth mindset, and school climate was not directly correlated with growth mindset of junior high school students. Moreover, perceived social support and positive personality could mediate the chain between school climate and growth mindset of junior high school students.
Intelligence mindset, which denotes individual beliefs about whether intelligence is fixed versus malleable, shapes academic success, but the neural mechanisms underlying mindset-related differences in learning are unknown. Here, we probe the effects of individual differences in mindset on neural responses to negative feedback after a competence threat manipulation. We hypothesized that when their competence was threatened, participants with fixed mindsets would interpret further negative feedback as punishing. After receiving either no score or a competence-threatening IQ score, participants performed a learning task with feedback that emphasized either the evaluative or informational weight of negative feedback. Participants who experienced the competence threat had the strongest predictive relationships between mindset, performance, and caudate activation. The competence threat may have compounded the subjective punishment of negative feedback for fixed mindsets relative to growth mindsets, causing poorer learning from negative feedback in the evaluative context and inflexible striatal responses to negative feedback across feedback contexts.
The current study intended to model the link between implicit theories of intelligence (ITI) and students' academic achievement, within a meta-analytic review procedure. To assess studies' effect size, the Pearson's correlation coefficient (r) was used. The review of 46 studies (94 effect sizes) with 412,022 students presented a low-to-moderate association between the ITI and students' academic achievement. The results indicated that incremental theorists are more likely to have higher grades in specific subjects (verbal and quantitative) and in overall achievement. The entity beliefs were positively associated with students' specific verbal and quantitative domains but at a lower magnitude than incremental beliefs. Moreover, the moderator effect analyses results indicated that the link between ITI and students' achievement was not moderated by gender, but there was a moderate association in student's middle school grade. Additionally, the ITI assessment based on the most recent versions of Dweck's scales, the use of specific academic scales instead of general ITI scales, and the use of the original measures rather than adapted versions strongly moderated the link between ITI and achievement. Moreover, students from Eastern continents (Asia and Oceania) reported a positive association between incremental beliefs and achievement, Europe displayed a positive link between entity beliefs and achievement, whereas North America presented negative correlations between entity perspectives and academic achievement. This meta-analysis updates the current evidence supporting the direct link of ITI and students' academic achievement and acknowledges specific effects that ITI could have in different academic outcomes.
Older adults are not sufficiently active against the current recommendations. The approach adapted in this thesis was that physical inactivity was partly due to psychological barriers, notably aging stereotypes. The main objective of this thesis was to identify the role of aging stereotypes, and their relation with physical activity. We defend the thesis that aging stereotypes affect older adults’ health-behaviors. In the first study, we contribute to the validation of a psychometric tool which measuring aging stereotypes in the physical activity domain. The second study reveals that openness to experience and implicit theories of ability are personal correlates of internalization of aging stereotypes, and are linked to the level of physical activity in older adults. The third study shows that endorsement of aging stereotypes in physical activity domain predicted health though ego depletion, including lowering the subjective vitality in active older adults. The fourth study suggests that incremental theories of ability are more effective on a task related to the physical capacities when counter-stereotypical information is given. The last study of this thesis shows that older adults who participated on exercise program combined with psychosocial intervention report higher scores of stereotypes related to benefits of the physical activity, physical self-perceptions, quality of life and physical endurance, and lower scores of stereotypes relative to risks of physical activity.
Objectives: The goal of this study was to identify the personal correlates (openness to experience and implicit theories of ability) of internalization of aging stereotypes and its relationships with physical activity.
Design: Cross-sectional survey.
Method: One hundred and ninety-two older adults (78 men and 114 women) from 60 to 93 years (Mage = 73.44, SD = 7.34) completed a series of questionnaires measuring openness to experience, implicit theories of ability, stereotypes about older people and physical activity, attitude toward own aging, physical self-worth, physical activity level, self-rated health and education level.
Results: The main results showed that (a) openness to experience positively predicted physical activity level through incremental theories, endorsement of aging stereotypes relative to benefits, attitude toward own aging, and physical self-worth; and (b) entity theories negatively predicted physical activity level through endorsement of aging stereotypes relative to risks, attitude toward own aging, and physical self-worth.
Conclusion: The present study indicates that openness to experience and implicit theories of ability are correlates of endorsement of aging stereotypes and suggests that endorsement may be an important factor of engagement in physical activity in older adults.
Publisher Summary
This chapter discusses the openness which cannot be understood as the culture that is acquired through education or good breeding, not as intellect or any other cognitive ability. Openness must be viewed in both structural and motivational terms. Openness is seen in the breadth, depth, and permeability of consciousness and in the recurrent need to enlarge and examine experience. Openness also suggests a passive or uncritical receptivity, which is clearly inappropriate. Open people actively seek out experience and are apt to be particularly reflective and thoughtful about the ideas they encounter. A structural account of openness may be necessary, but it does not seem to be sufficient. Open people are not the passive recipients of a barrage of experiences they are unable to screen out; they actively seek out new and varied experiences. Openness involves motivation, needs for variety cognition sentience, and understanding. The heritability of openness might be explained by the heritability of intelligence. Psychologists have spent more time and effort studying intelligence, than any other trait by adopting the term “Intellect.” Personality psychologists could claim this vast literature as their own. Openness could be construed as intelligence itself or as the reflection of intelligence in the personality sphere.
In this article, we show how people's implicit theories about the nature of human attributes predict trait- vs. process-focused social judgments. We present research demonstrating that those who conceive of human attributes as fixed entities (entity theorists) tend to infer global traits more readily and strongly from behavior and to see these traits as explanations for behavior. In contrast, those who conceive of attributes as malleable or increasable qualities (incremental theorists) are more likely to focus on more specific mediating processes (goals, needs, emotion states). Entity and incremental theorists' differential focus on traits versus processes in understanding their social world also fosters different reactions to the same social information. Findings are presented across intellectual, moral, and social domains and in terms of self-perception, perception of individual others, and perception of groups. Broader implications for research on social perception are discussed.
The authors hypothesize that different people would use information differently in their social decision making depending on their implicit theory about human character traits. Past research has shown that entity theorists (who believe traits are fixed entities) tend to make more rapid, global trait judgments and to accord traits greater weight in explaining behavior as compared to incremental theorists (who believe traits are more malleable qualities). This article examines how potentially trait-relevant information might influence the decision making (verdicts in a fictitious murder case) of entity versus incremental theorists. Results from three studies showed that such information (e.g., the defendant’s dress at the crime) had a marked effect on entity theorists’ verdicts but little effect on incremental theorists’ verdicts. In addition, entity theorists were more likely than incremental theorists to request additional character information. Implications for the role of implicit theories in social decision making are explored.
In the 45 years since Cattell used English trait terms to begin the formulation of his “description of personality,” a number of investigators have proposed an alternative structure based on 5 orthogonal factors. The generality of this 5-factor model is here demonstrated across unusally comprehensive sets of trait terms. In the first 3 studies, 1,431 trait adjectives grouped into 75 clusters were analyzed; virtually identical structures emerged in 10 replications, each based on a different factor-analytic procedure. A 2nd study of 479 common terms grouped into 133 synonym clusters revealed the same structure in 2 samples of self-ratings and in 2 samples of peer ratings. None of the factors beyond the 5th generalized across the samples. In the 3rd study, analyses of 100 clusters derived from 339 triat terms suggest their potential utility as Big-Five markers in future studies.
Five experiments supported the hypothesis that peoples' implicit theories about the fixedness versus malleability of human attributes (entity versus incremental theories) predict differences in degree of social stereotyping. Relative to those holding an incremental theory, people holding an entity theory made more stereotypical trait judgments of ethnic and occupational groups (Experiments 1, 2, and 5 ) and formed more extreme trait judgments of novel groups ( Experiment 3 ). Implicit theories also predicted the degree to which people attributed stereotyped traits to inborn group qualities versus environmental forces (Experiment 2). Manipulating implicit theories affected level of stereotyping (Experiment 4), suggesting that implicit theories can play a causal role. Finally, implicit theories predicted unique and substantial variance in stereotype endorsement after controlling for the contributions of other stereotype-relevant individual difference variables (Experiment 5). These results highlight the importance of people's basic assumptions about personality in stereotyping. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Past work has documented and described major patterns of adaptive and maladaptive behavior: the mastery-oriented and the helpless patterns. In this article, we present a research-based model that accounts for these patterns in terms of underlying psychological processes. The model specifies how individuals' implicit theories orient them toward particular goals and how these goals set up the different patterns. Indeed, we show how each feature (cognitive, affective, and behavioral) of the adaptive and maladaptive patterns can be seen to follow directly from different goals. We then examine the generality of the model and use it to illuminate phenomena in a wide variety of domains. Finally, we place the model in its broadest context and examine its implications for our understanding of motivational and personality processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Belief in romantic destiny holds that potential relationship partners are either meant for each other or they are not. As hypothesized, a longitudinal study of romantic relationships revealed that the relation between initial satisfaction and relationship longevity was stronger for those who believe in romantic destiny. In addition, belief in destiny was associated with avoidance coping strategies in dealing with relationship stressors, and with taking more responsibility for ending the relationship. Belief in growth independency holds that successful relationships are cultivated and developed, and was associated with long-term approaches to dating, relationship-maintaining coping strategies and, once the relationship had ended, disagreeing that it seemed wrong from the beginning. Implications and future research avenues are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This research sought to integrate C. S. Dweck and E. L. Leggett's (1988) model with attribution theory. Three studies tested the hypothesis that theories of intelligence—the belief that intelligence is malleable (incremental theory) versus fixed (entity theory)—would predict (and create) effort versus ability attributions, which would then mediate mastery-oriented coping. Study 1 revealed that, when given negative feedback, incremental theorists were more likely than entity theorists to attribute to effort. Studies 2 and 3 showed that incremental theorists were more likely than entity theorists to take remedial action if performance was unsatisfactory. Study 3, in which an entity or incremental theory was induced, showed that incremental theorists' remedial action was mediated by their effort attributions. These results suggest that implicit theories create the meaning framework in which attributions occur and are important for understanding motivation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
ABSTRACT Previous behavior-genetic research on personality has been almost exclusively based on self-report questionnaire measures. The purpose of this research was to measure personality constructs via self- and peer reports on the items of the NEO Five-Factor Inventory (Costa & McCrae, 1989). The sample included 660 monozygotic and 200 same sex and 104 opposite sex dizygotic twin pairs. We collected self- and two independent peer reports for each of the twins. Our analysis of self-report data replicates earlier findings of a substantial genetic influence on the Big Five (h2= .42 to .56). We also found this influence for peer reports. Our results validate findings based solely on self-reports. However, estimates of genetic contributions to phenotypic variance were substantially higher when based on peer reports (h2= .51 to .81) or self- and peer reports (h2= .66 to .79) because these data allowed us to separate error variance from variance due to nonshared environmental in-fluences. Correlations between self- and peer reports reflected the same genetic influences to a much higher extent than identical environmental effects.
Lay dispositionism refers to lay people's tendency to use traits as the basic unit of analysis in social perception (L. Ross & R. E. Nisbett, 1991). Five studies explored the relation between the practices indicative of lay dispositionism and people's implicit theories about the nature of personal attributes. As predicted, compared with those who believed that personal attributes are malleable (incremental theorists), those who believed in fixed traits (entity theorists) used traits or trait-relevant information to make stronger future behavioral predictions (Studies 1 and 2) and made stronger trait inferences from behavior (Study 3). Moreover, the relation between implicit theories and lay dispositionism was found in both the United States (a more individualistic culture) and Hong Kong (a more collectivistic culture), suggesting this relation to be generalizable across cultures (Study 4). Finally, an experiment in which implicit theories were manipulated provided preliminary evidence for the possible causal role of implicit theories in lay dispositionism (Study 5).
A rationale and procedures for the development of a taxonomic basis for personality research and theory construction are outlined. Some prior research efforts in this area are briefly reviewed and evaluated. Results of a series of studies are presented which employed primarily groups of university male Ss who varied in length and intimacy of previous associations. Data were obtained using peer nomination rating methods. These analyses yielded clear and consistent evidence for the existence of 5 relatively orthogonal, easily interpreted personality factors. Behavioral correlates of selected patterns of scores on these factors are briefly discussed and suggestions are made concerning subsequent research efforts warranted by these findings.
Personality traits are organized hierarchically, with narrow, specific traits combining to define broad, global factors. The Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R; Costa & McCrae, 1992c) assesses personality at both levels, with six specific facet scales in each of five broad domains. This article describes conceptual issues in specifying facets of a domain and reports evidence on the validity of NEO-PI-R facet scales. Facet analysis-the interpretation of a scale in terms of the specific facets with which it correlates-is illustrated using alternative measures of the five-factor model and occupational scales. Finally, the hierarchical interpretation of personality profiles is discussed. Interpretation on the domain level yields a rapid understanding of the individual interpretation of specific facet scales gives a more detailed assessment.
This publication is the opening number of a series which the Psychometric Society proposes to issue. It reports the first large experimental inquiry, carried out by the methods of factor analysis described by Thurstone in The Vectors of the Mind
1. The work was made possible by financial grants from the Social Science Research Committee of the University of Chicago, the American Council of Education, and the Carnegie Corporation of New York. The results are eminently worthy of the assistance so generously accorded. Thurstone’s previous theoretical account, lucid and comprehensive as it is, is intelligible only to those who have a knowledge of matrix algebra. Hence his methods have become known to British educationists chiefly from the monograph published by W. P. Alexander8. This enquiry has provoked a good deal of criticism, particularly from Professor Spearman’s school ; and differs, as a matter of fact, from Thurstone’s later expositions. Hence it is of the greatest value to have a full and simple illustration of his methods, based on a concrete inquiry, from Professor Thurstone himself.
This research sought to integrate C. S. Dweck and E. L. Leggett's (1988) model with attribution theory. Three studies tested the hypothesis that theories of intelligence-the belief that intelligence is malleable (incremental theory) versus fixed (entity theory)-would predict (and create) effort versus ability attributions, which would then mediate mastery-oriented coping. Study 1 revealed that, when given negative feedback, incremental theorists were more likely than entity theorists to attribute to effort. Studies 2 and 3 showed that incremental theorists were more likely than entity theorists to take remedial action if performance was unsatisfactory. Study 3, in which an entity or incremental theory was induced, showed that incremental theorists' remedial action was mediated by their effort attributions. These results suggest that implicit theories create the meaning framework in which attributions occur and are important for understanding motivation.
Four meta-analyses were conducted to examine gender differences in personality in the literature (1958-1992) and in normative data for well-known personality inventories (1940-1992). Males were found to be more assertive and had slightly higher self-esteem than females. Females were higher than males in extraversion, anxiety, trust, and, especially, tender-mindedness (e.g., nurturance). There were no noteworthy sex differences in social anxiety, impulsiveness, activity, ideas (e.g., reflectiveness), locus of control, and orderliness. Gender differences in personality traits were generally constant across ages, years of data collection, educational levels, and nations.
In this article, the authors propose that individuals' moral beliefs are linked to their implicit theories about the nature (i.e., malleability) of their social-moral reality. Specifically, it was hypothesized that when individuals believe in a fixed reality (entity theory), they tend to hold moral beliefs in which duties within the given system are seen as fundamental. In contrast, when individuals believe in a malleable reality (incremental theory), one that can be shaped by individuals, they hold moral beliefs that focus on moral principles, such as human rights, around which that reality should be organized. Results from 5 studies supported the proposed framework: Implicit theories about the malleability of one's social-moral reality predicted duty-based vs. rights-based moral beliefs.
Evaluative processes are often considered to be a cornerstone of social perception. The present study seeks to understand an individual-difference factor that is linked to evaluative processing. Specifically, past studies have shown that individuals who believe that people have fixed traits (“entity theorists”) are more inclined to diagnose traits from person information than are those who believe that people's personality is malleable (“incremental theorists”). Because evaluation is typically an integral part of trait diagnosis, we hypothesized that relative to incremental theorists, entity theorists would process person information in a more evaluative manner. To test this, subjects were presented with the test scores of a fictitious pilot trainee. Later, they were asked to perform on a priming task in which the test scores were used as primes on some trials. As predicted, entity theorists' response times indicated that they attached evaluative meaning to the test scores, but those of incremental theorists did not. In addition, subjects' judgments of the trainee's performance and recall of his test scores suggested different processing strategies among entity theorists than among incremental theorists.
In their research, the authors have identified individuals who believe that a particular trait (intelligence, personality, or moral character) is a fixed disposition (entity theorists) and have contrasted them with those who believe the trait to be a malleable quality (incremental theorists). Research shows that an entity theory consistently predicts (a) global dispositional inferences for self and other; even in the face of limited evidence, as well as (b) an over reliance on dispositional information in making other judgments and decisions. An incremental theory, by contrast, predicts inferences that are more specific, conditional, and provisional The implicit beliefs seem to represent not only different theories about the nature of traits but also different mental models about how personality works-what the units of analysis are and how they enter into causal relations. Implications for the literature on person perception are discussed.
In this target article, we present evidence for a new model of individual differences in judgments and reactions. The model holds that people's implicit theories about human attributes structure the way they understand and react to human actions and outcomes. We review research showing that when people believe that attributes (such as intelligence or moral character) are fixed, trait-like entities (an entity theory), they tend to understand outcomes and actions in terms of these fixed traits (''I failed the test because I am dumb'' or ''He stole the bread because he is dishonest''). In contrast, when people believe that attributes are more dynamic, malleable, and developable (an incremental theory), they tend refocus less on broad traits and, instead, tend to understand outcomes and actions in terms of more specific behavioral or psychological mediators (''I failed the test because of my effort or strategy'' or ''He stole the bread because he was desperate''). The two frameworks also appear to foster different reactions: helpless versus mastery-oriented responses to personal setbacks and an emphasis on retribution versus education or rehabilitation for transgressions. These findings are discussed in terms of their implications for personality, motivation, and social perception.
Developed a short form of W. Horn's (1962) intelligence test for brain-damaged patients that consists of 6 of its subtests. Multiple regression analyses showed high concurrent validity and numerical congruence with total test scores. All computations needed in psychometric single-case diagnosis that do not require knowledge of individual test scores are included in table form. (English abstract) (10 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
propose that people's conceptions or theories of intelligence often (1) play a more fundamental role than does confidence in predicting reactions to achievement setbacks and (2) predict when confidence will or will not make a difference for achievement processes (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Speed of information processing, as measured by reaction times (RTs) in elementary cognitive tasks (ECTs), has been found to be an important correlate of human psychometric intelligence. While the heritability of psychometric intelligence is well understood, we know only a little about genetic and environmental influences on ECT performance, particularly about genetic and environmental contributions to ECT–intelligence relation. These questions were studied by employing two widely used ECTs (Sternberg's memory scanning and Posner's letter-matching task) as well as two psychometric intelligence tests (Advanced Progressive Matrices and Leistungs–Prüf System) in a large sample of 169 monozygotic (MZ) and 131 dizygotic (DZ) twin pairs. As expected, RTs correlated negatively with psychometric intelligence. Moreover, heritability estimates were substantial for both psychometric intelligence and RTs in ECTs. Finally, multivariate genetic analyses suggested that most of the phenotypic correlation between mental speed and intelligence is due to genetic factors.
In this chapter we describe the goals and methods of an extensive observational study of twins reared together (German Observational Study on Adult Twins, GOSAT). In GOSAT, a multimodal data set is collected, emphasising objective personality and temperament measures.
A sample of adult Ss of reasonably normal intelligence were given an ‘IQ’ test, a series of RT tests using 0, 1, 2, 3 bits of information in a Hick paradigm and an RT task requiring choice of 1 of 3 lights as an ‘odd-man-out’ on the basis of its relative position. Negative correlations were found between both RT and measures of variation in RT and ‘IQ’ for both of the two tasks. Recent results showing no correlation between Hick slope and ‘IQ’ and no increase in correlation between ‘IQ’ and RT with increasing number of bits, are confirmed. An explanation for findings of Ss whose RT data do not conform to Hick's law is tested and found inadequate. The ‘odd-man-out’ task is found to show an effect of ‘learning’ across the period of the task, the size of the learning effect was found also to correlate with ‘IQ’, but no evidence for learning was found with the choice RT task.
Social judgment and trait ascription have long been central issues in psychology. Two studies tested the hypothesis that children who believe that personality is a fixed quality (entity theorists) would make more rigid and long-term social judgments than those who believe that personality is malleable (incremental theorists). Fourth and fifth graders (mean age 10.2 years) viewed a slide show of a boy displaying negative behaviors (Study 1--being shy, clumsy, and nervous; Study 2--lying, cheating, and stealing) and then made a series of ratings. Half of the subjects saw a consistent (negative) ending, and half saw an inconsistent (more positive) ending. Even when they viewed positive counterevidence, entity theorists did not differ in their ratings of the focal traits, but incremental theorists did. Entity theorists in Study 2 also predicted significantly less change in the short term and the long term than did incremental theorists. Study 2 further revealed that, when the behaviors were more negative, entity theorists made more generalized and global negative trait evaluations of the target, showed less empathy, and recommended more punishment. Differences in the social judgment processes of entity and incremental theorists are discussed, and implications for issues (such as stereotyping) are explored.
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