Pulse consumption in Canadian adults influences nutrient intakes

Abstract

Pulses (dry beans, peas, lentils) are nutrient-dense foods that are recommended as good choices in either the vegetable or meat and alternative food groups in Canada's Food Guide. To examine the prevalence and the effect of pulse consumption on nutrient intake in Canadian adults ( ≥ 19 years), we analysed cross-sectional data (n 20,156) from the 2004 Canadian Community Health Survey, Cycle 2·2. Participants were divided into non-consumers and quartiles of pulse intake. Sample weights were applied and logistic regression analysis was used to explore the association of nutrient intakes and pulse consumption, with cultural background, sex, age and economic status included as covariates. On any given day, 13 % of Canadians consume pulses, with the highest consumption in the Asian population. The pulse intake of consumers in the highest quartile was 294 (se 40) g/d and, compared with non-consumers, these individuals had higher intakes of carbohydrate, fibre and protein. As well, the micronutrient intake of pulse consumers was enhanced, resulting in fewer individuals who were below the estimated average requirement for thiamin, vitamin B6, folate, Fe, Mg, P and Zn, compared with non-consumers. Although pulses are generally low in Na, its intake also was higher in pulse consumers. Among the higher quartiles of pulse consumers, fruit and vegetable intake was one serving higher. These data indicate that pulse consumption supports dietary advice that pulses be included in healthful diets. Further studies elucidating the sources of increased Na in pulse consumers will be necessary so that dietary advice to increase consumption of pulses will maximise their nutritional benefits.

Full text

Pulse consumption in Canadian adults influences nutrient intakes
Adriana N. Mudryj
1
, Nancy Yu
2
, Terryl J. Hartman
3
, Diane C. Mitchell
3
, Frank R. Lawrence
3
and Harold M. Aukema
1
*
1
Human Nutritional Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada R3T 2N2
2
Community Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada R3T 2N2
3
Nutritional Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
(Submitted 27 July 2011 – Accepted 13 September 2011)
Abstract
Pulses (dry beans, peas, lentils) are nutrient-dense foods that are recommended as good choices in either the vegetable or meat and
alternative food groups in Canada’s Food Guide. To examine the prevalence and the effect of pulse consumption on nutrient intake
in Canadian adults ($19 years), we analysed cross-sectional data (n20 156) from the 2004 Canadian Community Health Survey,
Cycle 2·2. Participants were divided into non-consumers and quartiles of pulse intake. Sample weights were applied and logistic regression
analysis was used to explore the association of nutrient intakes and pulse consumption, with cultural background, sex, age and economic
status included as covariates. On any given day, 13 % of Canadians consume pulses, with the highest consumption in the Asian population.
The pulse intake of consumers in the highest quartile was 294 (SE 40) g/d and, compared with non-consumers, these individuals had
higher intakes of carbohydrate, fibre and protein. As well, the micronutrient intake of pulse consumers was enhanced, resulting in
fewer individuals who were below the estimated average requirement for thiamin, vitamin B
6
, folate, Fe, Mg, P and Zn, compared with
non-consumers. Although pulses are generally low in Na, its intake also was higher in pulse consumers. Among the higher quartiles
of pulse consumers, fruit and vegetable intake was one serving higher. These data indicate that pulse consumption supports dietary
advice that pulses be included in healthful diets. Further studies elucidating the sources of increased Na in pulse consumers will be
necessary so that dietary advice to increase consumption of pulses will maximise their nutritional benefits.
Key words: Pulses: Adults: Nutrient intakes: Canadian Community Health Survey
Pulses have been consumed for at least 10 000 years and
are among the most extensively used foods in the world.
Nutritionally, they are characterised by high protein content
(about 20 – 30 %), a very high proportion of carbohydrate
(about 50–65 %) and a very low fat content (about 1 %).
They are a significant source of many nutrients, including
fibre, protein and Fe, as well as many vitamins. However,
their consumption in the Western world remains quite low at
less than 3·5 kg/capita per year. In other parts of the world,
annual pulse consumption can range from 10 kg/capita (South
America and India) to 40 kg/capita (Burundi)
(1,2)
.
Pulses are the edible seeds of members of the Fabaceae
(Leguminosae) family. According to the FAO, pulse crops
refer to crops harvested exclusively for their grain, including
dry beans, peas and lentils. As defined further by the FAO,
the definition excludes crops used for oil extraction, such
as soyabeans and groundnuts or those harvested green
for food, such as green beans and green peas
(3 – 6)
. For the
purpose of the present study, the FAO definition is used and
the term ‘pulses’ refers to the dry, edible variety of beans,
peas and lentils, and excludes soyabeans, fresh beans and
fresh peas.
Research supporting pulse consumption coupled with diets
low in animal protein and high in grains and cereals has been
substantial. Results from six clinical trials reported at the 2008
Pulse Crop Symposium held in Toronto showed that eating
beans, peas, lentils and chickpeas can help combat chronic
diseases such as heart disease, obesity and diabetes and con-
tribute to overall good health. These clinical trials linked pulse
consumption with a reduction in health problems such as
obesity, diabetes and CVD
(7 – 9)
. Pulses contain a mixture of
soluble and insoluble fibre, which lowers total serum and
LDL-cholesterol and aids in gastrointestinal function, respect-
ively
(6,9)
. With respect to cancer, the US Food and Drug
Administration, Canadian Cancer Society and the World
Cancer Research Fund also recommend the consumption of
*Corresponding author: Dr H. M. Aukema, fax þ1 204 237 4018; email aukema@umanitoba.ca
Abbreviations: CCHS 2·2, Canadian Community Health Survey, Cycle 2·2; EAR, estimated average requirement; NHANES, National Health and Nutrition
Examination Survey.
British Journal of Nutrition (2012), 108, S27–S36 doi:10.1017/S0007114512000724
qThe Authors 2012
British Journal of Nutrition

pulses to reduce cancer risk
(10 – 12)
. Nutritive components of
pulses such as Se, Zn, fibre and folate, as well as phytochem-
icals such as saponins, protease inhibitors and phytic acid also
may be associated with their anti-carcinogenic benefits
(6,13)
.
A high consumption of pulses also is one of the eight
components of the highly lauded Mediterranean diet
(14)
.
Research has shown that their consumption leads to increased
satiety, and high-fibre foods take longer to eat, increasing
one’s feeling of satiety
(15)
. While it remains inconclusive,
studies have shown that pulse consumers had lower body
weights and reduced waist circumferences compared with
non-consumers
(16)
, making pulses ideal for individuals
interested in weight loss
(6)
. In addition to being low in fat
and Na, pulses have a low glycaemic index, which may be
a factor in diabetes prevention and management
(6,17,18)
.
They do not contain cholesterol or gluten, and research has
also examined their protective effects as prebiotics
(8)
.
Canada’s Food Guide recommends the consumption
of pulses as a good choice and considers a half-cup
serving of pulses equal to one serving of vegetables, and a
three-quarter-cup serving equal to one meat or alternative
serving
(19)
. The advisory committee on the Dietary Guidelines
for Americans in 2010 suggested shifting food intake patterns
to include cooked dry beans and peas, while the US Depart-
ment of Agriculture recommends that Americans consume
2·5 to 3·5 cups of pulses per week
(20,21)
. Data from the
US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
(NHANES) 1999–2000 showed that American adults consume
one-third or less than the recommended serving of pulses.
In our recent analysis of pulse consumption in the USA
using the NHANES data we found that the average consump-
tion of pulses was less than one cup per week. We also found
that pulse consumption resulted in higher intakes of fibre,
carbohydrate, protein, Ca, K, folate, Zn, Fe and Mg, with
lower intakes of saturated as well as total fat
(22)
.
The purpose of the present study was to examine the
demographics of the average Canadian pulse consumer
using data from the Canadian Community Health Survey,
Cycle 2·2 (CCHS 2·2). We report the prevalence of pulse intake
in the Canadian population and assess the relationship bet-
ween pulse consumption and nutrient intakes and diet quality.
Experimental methods
Data from the CCHS 2·2 conducted by Statistics Canada were
used for this analysis
(23)
. This cross-sectional survey targeted
respondents from all age groups living in private occupied
dwellings in the ten provinces (Indian reserve occupants, resi-
dents of the territories of Nunavut, Yukon and the Northwest
Territories, individuals residing in institutions and members of
the Canadian Forces were excluded). Data collection began in
January 2004 and continued throughout the year to remove
seasonal effects. The main objectives were to gather infor-
mation on the nutritional status of Canadians, and estimate
the distribution of usual dietary intake in terms of foods,
food groups, dietary supplements, nutrients and eating pat-
terns among a representative sample of Canadians at national
and provincial levels using a 24 h dietary recall. A grand total
of 35 107 adults and children completed the initial 24 h dietary
recall. Following this, a subsample of 10 786 completed
a secondary recall 3–10 d later. The 24 h dietary recalls were
collected primarily by face-to-face interviews by trained
interviewers
(24,25)
. Further details on the methods used in
the CCHS 2·2 are available on the Statistics Canada Website
(26)
.
Data for the present analysis were limited to adults aged
$19 years (n20 156) and to 1 d dietary intakes only. Res-
pondents who did not consume any food or whose recalls
were considered to be unreliable according to Health
Canada were removed. Pregnant and breast-feeding women
were included in the present study and although vitamin
and mineral supplementation was coded for in the CCHS
2·2, these intakes were not accounted for in the present study.
The CCHS 2·2 also gathered physical measurements of the
participants, as well as data on selected health conditions
and socio-economic and demographic characteristics of
respondents. Key demographic variables were examined to
observe the demographic of the average Canadian pulse
consumer. Sex was examined as well as age, and a new
variable was created, splitting the respondents into one of
four age groups: 19–30 years, 31–50 years, 51–70 years and
70þyears. The cultural background variable placed respon-
dents into categories based on their cultural or racial origin
and the education level placed respondents into one of four
categories based on their highest level of education attained.
Income also was examined, splitting the respondents into
four groups based on their income adequacy. The classifi-
cations were as follows: ‘lowest income’ for one or two
individuals with an income of #$15 000, three or four individ-
uals with an income of #$20 000, or greater than five individ-
uals with an income #$30 000; ‘lower middle income’ for one
or two individuals with an income between $15 000 and
29 999, three or four individuals with an income between
$20 000 and 39 999 or greater than five individuals with an
income between $30 000 and 59 999; ‘upper middle income’
for one or two individuals with an income between $30 000
and 59 999, three or four individuals with an income between
$40 000 and 79 999, or greater than five individuals with an
income between $60 000 and 79 999; and ‘highest income’
for one or two individuals with an income $$60 000, or
three or four individuals with an income $$80 000
(23)
.
To identify all foods and food sources that contained pulses,
the following files were used: the food and ingredient details
file, the food description file and the food recipe level file.
Soyabeans and fresh beans were excluded from the analysis
according to the FAO definition of pulses used in the present
paper. Food sources included varieties of dry beans (Phaseo-
lus vulgaris) such as the pinto bean, navy bean, kidney
bean and black bean, as well as the mung bean (Vigna
radiata) and peas which included yellow peas (Lathyrus
aphaca), split green peas (Pisum sativum), chickpeas (Cicer
arietinum), black-eyed peas (Vigna unguiculata) and lentils
(Lens culinaris)
(27)
. Pulse consumers were defined as respon-
dents who consumed pulses or a pulse-containing product
for the 1 d dietary intakes. Consumers were further divided
into quartiles based on their level of consumption. Data
for macro- and micronutrients were expressed as absolute
A. N. Mudryj et al.S28
British Journal of Nutrition

values, percentage energy or quantity per 4184 kJ (1000 kcal).
The percentage of consumers and non-consumers with nutri-
ent intakes below the Institute of Medicine’s Dietary Reference
Intakes for nutrients that had an estimated average require-
ment (EAR) were calculated
(28)
. To identify the amount of
pulse product per 100 g of food the Canadian Nutrient File,
version 2007b, recipe database and the US Department of
Agriculture (USDA) Food and Nutrient Databases for Dietary
Studies, version 1.0, were used to find ingredient proportions
and process intake data for nutrient components. Food group
intake data were obtained from the Canada Food Guide
file
(23)
. Further details on both the Canadian Nutrient File
database and the USDA Food and Nutrient Database are
available on their respective websites
(26,29)
.
General linear models were used to analyse macronutrient
and micronutrient intakes and to compare nutrient intakes
and other variables between non-consumers and consumers
as well as between non-consumers and consumers at each
of the four levels of consumption. In addition, similar analyses
were conducted for each of the food groups using the data
from the CCHS’s Canada Food Guide file. Logistic regression
was used to determine whether any demographic variables
(sex, age, culture, province of residence, income adequacy
and education level) increased the likelihood of being
classified as a pulse consumer and OR were calculated.
Cross-tabulations and
x
2
tests were used to compare the
proportions of consumers and non-consumers who had
intakes of nutrients below their respective EAR values. The
significance level was set at P,0·05 for differences and
0·05 ,P,0·10 for trends. All analyses were performed using
PASW SPSS Statistics (version 18; IBM) and SUDAAN Statistical
Analysis Software Package (version 10.0.1; RTI International).
Because the CCHS 2·2 is a multi-stage survey design,
it requires a more complex formula to calculate variance
estimates. The approximation method used by the CCHS 2·2 is
called ‘bootstrapping’. This method is used to estimate standard
errors, coefficients of variation and CI. Bootstrapping is an
approach used to estimate distribution from a sample’s statistics.
It also can be defined as ‘sampling within a sample’ and involves
the selection of random samples known as replicates, and
the calculation of the variation in the estimates from replicate
to replicate
(30 – 32)
. The bootstrapping method was used in all
the data analyses for the present study via SUDAAN software.
Results
Food sources of pulse products
The main sources of pulses in the adult Canadian diet were
mung beans, Mexican or Hispanic mixed dishes, kidney beans,
baked beans, bean soups and chilli. These seven dishes made
up two-thirds of the twenty-two dishes containing pulses in
the Canadian diet mentioned in the 1d recall data (Table 1).
Frequency of consumption and demographics
On any given day, 13·1 % of Canadian adults in 2004
consumed dry beans, peas or lentils (Table 2). Within pulse
consumers, average pulse intake was highest in New
Brunswick and lowest in Quebec, with the provinces of
Ontario and British Columbia having the highest proportions
of pulse consumers as residents. The highest proportion of con-
sumers fell into the 51–70 years age bracket (Table 2). Pulse
consumption in grams also differed between age groups, but
not when expressed relative to energy intake (data not shown).
Participants who identified themselves as Asian Canadian
compared with Caucasian were 3·6 times more likely to be
pulse consumers. As well, participants who identified
themselves as being Arabic, Latin and African Canadian or of
multiple cultural origins were 1·6 times more likely to be
pulse consumers than Caucasians. Sex, income and education
level were not significant determinants of pulse intake (Table 2).
Effects on nutrient intake
When examining differences in dietary intakes across quartiles
of consumption and comparing them with non-consumers
(Table 3), consumers in the third (99 g/d) and fourth quartile
(294 g/d) of pulse consumption consumed 937 kJ (224 kcal)
or 11 % and 1360 kJ (325 kcal) or 16 % more energy per d,
respectively, than the average non-consumer. Pulse consu-
mers in the third and fourth quartiles consumed 13 and 24 %
more carbohydrate and 12 and 19 % more protein, respect-
ively, than non-consumers, while fat intake was only higher
in the third quartile of pulse consumers (by 12 % more than
non-consumers). The higher fat intake in pulse consumers
in the third quartile was consistent with the higher MUFA,
PUFA, linolenic and linoleic fatty acid content in the diets of
these individuals. In addition, a-linolenic acid intake was
44 % higher in the fourth quartile of pulse consumers com-
pared with non-consumers. Fibre intake was increased the
most by pulse consumption, being 34 and 85 % higher,
respectively, in the third and fourth quartile of pulse intake.
Cholesterol intake was 18 % higher in the second quartile
of pulse intake, but not at the other levels of pulse intake.
Table 1. Food sources of pulse products in the adult Canadian diet*
Food source Percentage of source reported
Mung beans 18·2
Mexican or other Hispanic dishes 14·0
Kidney beans† 13·3
Baked beans 11·4
Bean soups 10·7
Chilli 7·4
Lentils 5·3
Chickpeas 3·2
Split peas 3·0
White beans 2·9
Hummus 1·8
Pinto beans 1·3
Refried beans 1·3
Black beans 1·2
Other bean sources‡ ,1
* According to 1 d 24 h dietary recall of the Canadian Community Health Survey,
Cycle 2·2 (2004) of Canadian adults aged $19 years.
† Excluding chilli.
‡ Includes rice with beans, navy beans, falafel, unspecified beans, bean dip, adzuki
beans, winged beans, and noodles with beans, which each represent less than
1 % of food sources reported.
Pulse consumption in Canadians S29
British Journal of Nutrition

However, when expressed relative to energy intake, choles-
terol levels were lowest in the highest quartile of pulse con-
sumption. A number of micronutrients were higher in the
highest pulse consumers compared with non-consumers
(Table 3). These included folate (45 %), P (20 %), Mg (35 %),
Fe (35 %) and Zn (28 %). As a result, the proportion of those
consuming these nutrients below the EAR was lower in consu-
mers compared with non-consumers, indicating a reduced
level of deficiency in consumers (Table 4). K intake also was
higher among pulse consumers, and, although it lacks an
EAR, analysis using adequate intake levels showed no signi-
ficant difference between consumers and non-consumers
(data not shown). In contrast, the levels of two vitamins
were lower in the fourth quartile of pulse consumers com-
pared with non-consumers: vitamin D (20 %), and vitamin
B
12
(14 %). However, the proportion of those that were
below the EAR for these two nutrients was similar for both
consumers and non-consumers. Finally, Na intake was 31 %
higher in pulse consumers v. non-consumers.
Fruit and vegetable consumption was higher in the higher
quartiles of pulse consumption, when compared with non-
consumers, resulting in approximately one more serving
from this food group. There was no difference in the amount
of total grain products or dairy products between pulse consu-
mers and non-consumers. In the two highest quartiles of
pulse consumers, intakes from the meat and alternatives
food groups were 1–3·5 servings higher when compared with
non-consumers, consistent with the inclusion of pulses in this
food group by Health Canada in this database (Fig. 1).
Discussion
The proportion of pulse consumers in Canadian adults
appears to be similar to that of the US population, despite
important differences in cultural makeup. We previously
reported that 7·9 % of the US populations are pulse consu-
mers, but the NHANES analysis did not include mung beans
or other sprouted forms of beans (such as navy bean sprouts)
Table 2. Demographic characteristics of pulse consumers and non-consume rs based on 1 d intakes from the Canadian Community Health
Survey, Cycle 2·2 (2004)
(Odds ratios and 95 % confidence intervals; mean values and standard errors)
Characteristic
Proportion of
consumers (%) (n20 156) OR 95 % CI
Amount of pulses
consumed (g/d)
Mean SE
Sex
Male 13·1 1 Reference 120·1 6·1
Female 13·2 1·01 0·8, 1·29 105·1 10·1
Age (years)
19–30 11·5 1 Reference 131·9 29·5
31–50 13·2 1·17 0·84, 1·63 114·9 12·3
51–70 14·7 1·32 1·03, 1·69 105·3* 13·7
70þ12·2 1·06 0·77, 1·47 86·2 10·0
Provincial location
Nova Scotia 8·2 1 Reference 124·3† 15·0
Newfoundland and Labrador 12·6 1·61 0·96, 2·71 125·1 20·8
Prince Edward Island 11·3 1·42 0·78, 2·59 109·7 21·8
New Brunswick 10·9 1·37 0·74, 2·53 145·8† 34·9
Quebec 10·4 1·30 0·78, 2·16 82·6 7·8
Ontario 14·5 1·89 1·18, 3·05 128·2†† 23·4
Manitoba 12·9 1·66 0·89, 3·1 105·7 12·4
Saskatchewan 11·3 1·43 0·78, 2·63 98·8 21·4
Alberta 11·3 1·43 0·75, 2·74 96·0 25·9
British Columbia 17·6 2·39 1·35, 4·25 111·4†† 8·7
All of Canada 13·1 112·4 7·2
Culture
Caucasian 10·8 1 Reference 104·8 5·1
African Canadian, Arab, Latin, multiple origins 16·5 1·64 1·05, 2·56 129·5 34·4
Asian Canadian 30·4 3·62 2·04, 6·42 135·1 37·4
Aboriginal 11·1 1·04 0·45, 2·38 90·9 33·1
Other 23·2 2·5 0·94, 6·71 76·5 44·9
Income
Lowest 13·7 1 Reference 113·3 19·3
Lower middle 14·1 1·04 0·52, 2·05 105·6 8·9
Upper middle 12·6 0·91 0·47, 1·78 139·8 30·7
Highest 13·5 0·98 0·47, 2·03 94·2 18·1
Education
,Secondary school 11·0 1 Reference 104·3 6·0
Secondary school 12·6 1·16 0·71, 1·9 120·2 14·2
Post-secondary school 10·3 0·93 0·62, 1·39 92·0 13·3
Post-secondary degree or diploma 14·5 1·37 0·93, 1·56 115·0 10·6
*Mean value was marginally significantly different from that of the 70þyears age group (0·05 ,P,0·10).
Mean value was (marginally) significantly different from that of consumers of the province of Quebec: † 0·05 ,P,0·10, †† P,0·05.
A. N. Mudryj et al.S30
British Journal of Nutrition

Table 3. Pulse amount and macronutrient, micronutrient and energy intakes per d for non-consumers and by quartiles (Q) of pulse consumers based
on 1 d intakes from the Canadian Community Health Survey Cycle 2·2 (2004)
(Mean values with their standard errors)
Non-consumers
(n17 750) Consumers (n2406)
Intake category... –Q1Q2Q3Q4
Mean SE Mean SE Mean SE Mean SE Mean SE
Pulse intake range (g) 0 0–28·89 28·90–66·29 66·30–137·19 .137·2
Pulse intake (g) 0 12·9 0·7 47·2 1·1 99·1 2·4 293·9 39·8
Pulses (g/4184 kJ)‡ 0 6·1 1·2 22·8 1·2 38·5 5·3 75·6 3·4
Food amount (g) 3219 119 3540 441 3280 174 3315 139 3619† 337
Energy
kJ 8640 561 9535 1331 8895 347 9619* 556 10 000** 494
kcal 2065 134 2279 318 2126 83 2299* 133 2390** 118
Macronutrients
Carbohydrate (g) 253 16 280 38 256 12 286*** 16 314*** 25
Protein (g) 84·5 5·3 94·3 12·6 91·9 4·5 94·9* 7·9 100·7*** 6·7
Total fat (g) 75·6 5·1 81·2 12·2 77·8 3·6 84·5* 6·4 78·9 6·1
SFA (g) 24·8 2·0 24·8 3·1 22·8 1·6 26·2 2·3 23·6 2·2
MUFA (g) 30·3 2·1 32·9 5·3 32·1 1·5 34·6* 2·6 32·9 2·9
PUFA (g) 13·3 0·6 15·9 3·0 15·7 0·9 16·2* 1·7 14·9 0·9
Linoleic fatty acid (g) 10·6 0·4 12·9 2·9 12·4 0·7 12·8* 1·4 11·7 0·8
Linolenic fatty acid (g) 1·9 0·09 2·3 0·32 2·4 0·18 2·5* 0·34 2·6** 0·28
Carbohydrate (% kJ) 49·1 0·3 49·4 0·9 48·7 1·4 49·7 0·9 52·4 1·9
Protein (% kJ) 16·5 0·1 16·7 0·5 17·2† 0·4 16·5 0·6 16·9 0·6
Fat (% kJ) 31·5 0·2 30·6 0·7 31·5 1·2 31·4 0·9 28·0 2·5
SFA (% kJ) 10·3 0·2 9·4† 0·4 9·1* 0·4 9·7* 0·4 8·3† 1·0
MUFA (% kJ) 12·5 0·1 12·4 0·4 12·9 0·5 12·9 0·4 11·6 1·1
PUFA (% kJ) 5·5 0·2 5·8 0·2 6·5*** 0·3 6·0 0·3 5·3 0·3
Linoleic fatty acid (% kJ) 4·4 0·1 4·6 0·3 5·1** 0·2 4·7 0·3 4·2 0·3
Linolenic fatty acid (% kJ) 0·8 0·02 0·9* 0·05 1·0** 0·08 1·0 0·11 0·9 0·09
Cholesterol (mg) 279 19 316† 33 330* 32 303 34 239 36
Cholesterol (mg/4184 kJ) 139 2 140 11 150 9 131 10 103* 13
Fibre (g) 16·6 0·4 18·1 1·67 18·7 1·13 22·2*** 1·6 30·7*** 2·2
Fibre (g/4184 kJ) 8·5 0·4 8·5 0·6 9·4 0·6 10·5*** 0·4 13·8*** 0·7
Micronutrients
Vitamin D (mg) 5·7 0·1 6·0 0·8 6·0 1·0 6·3 1·5 4·6* 0·4
Vitamin D (mg/4184 kJ) 2·8 0·2 2·7 0·3 2·9 0·4 2·7 0·9 2·0*** 0·2
Thiamin (mg) 1·7 0·06 1·8 0·26 1·7 0·08 1·9* 0·15 1·90 0·23
Thiamin (mg/4184 kJ) 0·9 0·04 0·8 0·03 0·8 0·03 0·8 0·03 0·8 0·10
Riboflavin (mg) 1·9 0·10 2·1 0·25 1·9 0·08 2·1† 0·14 2·0 0·09
Riboflavin (mg/4184 kJ) 0·96 0·02 0·94 0·03 0·95 0·03 0·93 0·03 0·87** 0·02
Niacin (mg) 39·6 2·5 43·3 5·8 42·7 2·0 43·1* 2·7 43·9 2·3
Niacin (mg/4184 kJ) 19·7 0·1 19·7 0·6 20·6 0·5 19·0 0·5 19·0 0·5
Vitamin B
6
(mg) 1·87 0·1 2·09 0·3 1·99 0·1 2·09† 0·1 2·12** 0·1
Vitamin B
6
(mg/4184 kJ) 0·94 0·02 0·97 0·03 0·99 0·05 0·95 0·06 0·91 0·03
Vitamin B
12
(mg) 4·4 0·3 5·1 0·7 4·9 0·7 4·2 1·0 3·8* 0·3
Vitamin B
12
(mg/4184 kJ) 2·2 0·04 2·2 0·32 2·4 0·63 1·9 0·60 1·7** 0·16
Folate§ (mg) 453 34·1 470 66·6 450 16·1 541† 80·3 656*** 59·0
Folate§ (mg/4184 kJ) 229 3·7 216 6·3 218 10·0 241 16·3 289*** 17·0
Folic acidk(mg) 119·8 18·95 157·3 43·4 130·2 28·0 139·0 32·1 133·2 20·7
Folic acidk(mg/4184 kJ) 58·5 5·8 68·0 10·12† 59·7 9·8 58·9 7·8 56·3 8·50
Ca (mg) 865 62·3 885 93·5 749 52·5 937 69·8 953·8† 92·9
Ca (mg/4184 kJ) 432 4·1 405 18·9 369·5*** 16·0 416·4 15·8 402 26·1
P (mg) 1330 63·1 1454 186·9 1352 61·8 1497** 84·4 1597*** 107·9
P (mg/4184 kJ) 660 11·4 650 17·8 657 18·9 671 19·1 687 25·0
Mg (mg) 323 14·2 359 45·6 339 14·8 375*** 17·1 438*** 39·5
Mg (mg/4184 kJ) 166 4·5 166 3·7 171 5·5 175† 4·8 192† 9·7
Fe (mg) 13·9 0·7 14·8 1·6 14·1 0·5 16·04*** 0·7 18·7*** 0·8
Fe (mg/4184 kJ) 7·0 0·1 6·8 0·2 7·0 0·2 7·2 0·4 8·3*** 0·3
Zn (mg) 11·2 0·6 12·5 2·0 11·8 0·8 12·7** 0·7 14·3*** 0·6
Zn (mg/4184 kJ) 5·5 0·1 5·6 0·3 5·7 0·24 5·7 0·2 6·2*** 0·2
Na (mg) 3050 169·6 3320 412·0 3369† 141·2 3581† 202·9 3988* 250·4
Na (mg/4184 kJ) 1522 32·6 1503 39·5 1613† 57·7 1584 122·4 1721† 143·2
K (mg) 3074 93·5 3351 438·4 3192 160·0 3476 133·4 3927 152·5
K (mg/4184 kJ) 1584 56·4 1564 40·5 1597 86·8 1608 62·7 1708** 66·2
Mean value was significantly different from that of the non-consumer group: * P,0·05, ** P,0·01, *** P,0·001.
† Mean value was marginally significantly different from that of the non-consumer group (0·05 ,P,0·10).
‡ 4184 kJ is equivalent to 1000 kcal.
§ Folate intake from food in dietary folate equivalency.
kFolic acid is the synthetic form of folate, found in fortified foods.
Pulse consumption in Canadians S31
British Journal of Nutrition

Table 4. Prevalence of inadequacy for nutrients‡ with an estimated average requirement (EAR) in Canadian adults
based on 1 d intakes from the Canadian Community Health Survey, Cycle 2·2 (2004)
Percentage of intakes less than EAR
Male Female§
Non-consumers Consumers Non-consumers Consumers
Ca
19–30 years 42·7 42·9 55·0 52·0
31–50 years 50·4 41·9 56·8 62·1
51–70 years 57·3 56·2 78·4 75·8
.70 years 76·9 73·8 82·1 83·1
Vitamin D
19–30 years 85·3 84·7 90·0 89·5
31–50 years 86·9 87·8 90·5 92·4
51–70 years 85·6 75·6 91·8 93·5
.70 years 85·3 88·9 90·7 92·6
Thiamin
19–30 years 15·3 7·2 26·2† 16·3
31–50 years 15·7 13·8 21·9† 15·3
51–70 years 16·4** 9·1 24·6 23·2
.70 years 20·0 17·5 27·5 20·9
Riboflavin
19–30 years 11·7 12·2 18·6 10·0
31–50 years 11·8 11·4 13·3 9·7
51–70 years 14·0 11·3 15·2 10·3
.70 years 19·6 16·7 17·9 12·6
Vitamin B
6
19–30 years 15·7 6·2 34·9* 21·2
31–50 years 16·2 16·9 30·4 18·8
51–70 years 32·4 24·3 41·8 33·9
.70 years 39·0 28·0 42·9 36·4
Folatek
19–30 years 22·2 9·7 44·2** 22·7
31–50 years 26·8** 19·0 40·6** 29·0
51–70 years 27·0** 20·0 42·8† 30·1
.70 years 39·5 27·3 54·1 39·5
Vitamin B
12
19–30 years 24·5 27·4 41·1 41·4
31–50 years 21·7 22·1 36·5 39·2
51–70 years 24·5 22·6 38·7 32·0
.70 years 34·6 32·5 42·8 38·5
Fe
19–30 years 5·1 1·1 27·2* 15·2
31–50 years 4·3** 0·8 26·1† 12·7
51–70 years 5·0*** 2·0 7·2 3·4
.70 years 8·2 3·4 7·0 4·1
Mg
19–30 years 49·7 31·8 49·1* 31·6
31–50 years 56·7 40·8 47·3† 31·9
51–70 years 60·6*** 45·1 46·3† 32·1
.70 years 66·7*** 55·2 53·1 36·4
P
19–30 years 5·6 1·2 13·7† 5·3
31–50 years 4·6 4·7 11·1† 5·3
51–70 years 5·8*** 4·4 12·1 6·9
.70 years 10·0 10·2 14·9 9·3
Zn
19–30 years 33·3 17·8 36·6* 21·7
31–50 years 35·1* 20·4 35·1* 18·7
51–70 years 42·7*** 28·2 34·8 23·0
.70 years 53·5* 39·0 43·3 28·4
Mean value was significantly different from that of non-consumers in the same life-stage group: * P,0·05, ** P,0·01, *** P,0·001.
† Mean value was marginally significantly different from that of non-consumers in the same life-stage group (0·05 ,P,0·10).
‡ Not including K (which lacks an EAR) and niacin (analysis showed no significant difference between groups).
§ Excluding pregnant or lactating women.
kFolate intake from food in dietary folate equivalency.
A. N. Mudryj et al.S32
British Journal of Nutrition

as a source of pulse consumption
(22)
. When these were
removed from our pulse database, the proportion of the
Canadian adult population classified as pulse consumers
dropped from 13·1 % to 10·7 %. In the Continuing Survey of
Food Intakes by Individuals 1994 – 1996, 14 % of US residents
consumed at least one pulse-containing food over a 2 d
period
(33)
. Similarly in our analysis, when the smaller subset
of 10 786 respondents with both day 1 and day 2 recalls
were combined, 14·7 % were pulse consumers. When the
smaller subset of respondents who completed the day 2
recall was examined alone, the rate of consumption was
12·6 %. Other differences between these studies include
larger sample size for the CCHS 2·2 data and the inclusion
of foods such as lima beans (which we excluded in our
analyses), and exclusion of lentils, split peas and yellow
peas, which represented approximately 8 % of the food
sources reported in the CCHS 2·2 survey.
In terms of the most frequently consumed pulse-containing
foods, in the NHANES study pinto beans and refried beans
were predominantly consumed, which mimicked results
found in the Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals
study
(33)
. In Canada, however, pinto and refried beans rep-
resented only 1 % of the pulse foods reported, while mung
beans were the most popular pulse in the CCHS 2·2 dataset.
This probably can be ascribed to the differences in the cultural
mosaic of the USA and Canada. The US Hispanic population
represents 16 % of the US population
(34)
, while the same
group represents approximately 1 % of the Canadian popu-
lation
(35)
. Conversely, the Asian population in Canada is
approximately 10 %, making up approximately 66 % of
Canada’s visible minority population
(35,36)
, while Asian
Americans represent less than 5 % of the US population
(37)
.
The provinces with the highest proportion of Asians, Ontario
and British Columbia, were also the two provinces found to
contain the highest proportion of pulse consumers
(35)
, fitting
in with the finding that Asian Canadians were found to be
almost four times more likely to be pulse consumers. In contrast
to the US data, neither education level nor income level influ-
enced pulse consumption in Canadians, perhaps reflecting
the differing cultural backgrounds of Canadian consumers, or
the higher proportion of US citizens (27 %) having less than
a high school education compared with Canadians (16 %)
(22,33)
.
Overall, consumption of pulses is associated with improved
nutrient intakes, especially in the highest quartile of intake.
Similar effects on dietary quality were observed in our pre-
vious analysis of the NHANES population
(22)
. The nutrient
intake which improved the most with pulse consumption
was fibre. Consumers in the highest quartiles of pulse con-
sumption in both Canada and the USA consume almost
twice as much fibre as non-consumers. Although this level
of intake still does not meet the dietary recommendation for
this nutrient, it should be noted that the Canadian Nutrient
File lacks data on functional fibre (i.e. isolated, extracted or
synthetic fibre) so it is possible that the fibre intakes may be
underestimated in this analysis.
The higher intakes of carbohydrate, protein and fibre are
probably due to these macronutrients being present in large
amounts in pulses. This also contributes to the improvement
of diet quality observed in pulse consumers, as 32 % of
males and 21 % of females, aged 19 years and older, have
carbohydrate intakes below the acceptable macronutrient
distribution range
(38 – 40)
. Several micronutrients (folate, Mg, Fe,
9
8
7
6
Servings
Grain
products
Fruits and
vegetables
*
†
*
*
**
***
***
Food groups
Dairy and
dairy products
Meat and
alternatives
5
4
3
2
1
0
Fig. 1. Food group intakes among non-consumers ( ) and by quartiles ( , quartile 1; , quartile 2; , quartile 3; , quartile 4) of pulse consumers based on 1 d
intakes from the Canadian Community Health Survey Cycle 2·2 (2004). Food groups and serving sizes are from the Canada Food Guide
(23)
. Pulses are included
in the meat and alternatives group. Values are means, with standard errors represented by vertical bars. Mean value was significantly different from that of the
non-consumer group: * P,0·05, ** P,0·01, *** P,0 ·001. † Mean value was marginally significantly different from that of the non-consumer group
(0·05 ,P,0·10).
Pulse consumption in Canadians S33
British Journal of Nutrition

K and Zn) that were consumed by pulse eaters in larger
amounts also can be explained by these nutrients being
found in higher levels in pulses
(6,41)
. Indeed, there were
fewer pulse consumers that had inadequate intakes (below
the EAR) of Mg, Zn, folate and Fe. Health Canada recently
reported that 34 % of adults consume Mg in quantities below
the EAR, with this number being higher than 40 % in some life
stage groups. There also is a low prevalence of inadequacy
for Zn, folate and Fe, ranging from 10–41 % for specific age
and sex groups that consume less than the EAR. Similarly,
median K intakes of Canadian adults are below the adequate
intake value
(38,39)
. The current analysis using EAR values was
consistent with these findings and further demonstrates that
fewer pulse consumers had intakes of nutrients below the EAR.
Pulse consumption is associated with higher Na intake,
contributing to the reported 78 % of Canadian adults that
exceed the tolerable upper intake level for Na
(38,39)
. This is
probably not due to the composition of the pulses themselves,
but may reflect an increased intake of pulse-containing foods
traditionally high in Na, such as Mexican or other Hispanic
dishes and bean soups. These dishes account for approxi-
mately 25 % of all pulse products consumed. It is also possible
that the increased Na intake among pulse consumers is due
to the Na that is added to canned beans during processing,
but such conclusions cannot be made from this dataset.
Another potential concern associated with pulse consumption
was the lower intakes of vitamins B
12
and D, as 10 – 35 % of
Canadian adults have an intake of vitamin B
12
that is below
the EAR
(38,39)
and the median intake of vitamin D in Canada
is below the recently revised RDA for this nutrient
(38 – 40,42)
.
However, the proportions of respondents below the EAR
for both vitamin D and B
12
were similar among consumers
and non-consumers, suggesting that pulse consumption does
not compromise the nutrient status of these individuals in
this regard and that the majority of Canadians, regardless
of pulse consumption, are not consuming sufficient levels of
these nutrients.
On the other hand, pulse consumers tended to consume
higher levels of Ca, a finding that was significant in the US
data analysis. This cannot be explained by altered dairy
product intake, as consumption of foods from the milk and
milk product group was not increased in pulse consumers.
The increase in Ca is perhaps due to the fact that common
pulse dishes such as Hispanic foods contain Ca
(22)
. Further
detailed analysis on the connection between ethnic
background and food choices may shed some light on the
relationship between pulse intake and vitamin D status.
Overall energy intake was higher in pulse consumers,
a finding consistent with the US population analysis
(22)
.
It would be expected that this higher energy intake by pulse
consumers would be associated with an increased body
mass. However, although mean BMI was higher in pulse
consumers (28·0 (SE 0·75) and 27·3 (SE 0·11) kg/m
2
, respec-
tively), this difference was not statistically significant. This
trend is in contrast to other findings which suggest that
high-fibre foods such as pulses lead to an increased feeling
of fullness and may lead to a healthier body weight when
eaten at higher amounts
(15,16)
. The reason for this apparent
discrepancy cannot be determined from the survey data, but
it may be that other foods consumed along with pulses may
counteract the expected satiating effects of high-fibre pulses.
The effect of pulse consumption on body weight also
may be confounded by the fact that a large proportion of
Canadians are in the overweight BMI category
(43)
.
In the USA, the percentages of total energy from total and
saturated fat were significantly lower in the diets of consumers
in the third and fourth quartiles of pulse consumption
(22)
.
This trend also was observed in Canadians in the present
analysis, but not as strongly as in the US data. It is interesting
to note that while US pulse consumers in the highest quartile
of intake consume 20 g more of total fat than non-consumers,
Canadians in the third quartile consume 10 g more total fat,
but in the fourth quartile, fat consumption is similar to non-
consumers. These differences may be due to the differences
in the types of foods commonly consumed in the different
data sets. Mung bean dishes more commonly consumed
in Canada are typically lower in fat compared with pinto
and refried bean dishes more commonly consumed in the
USA. This also may explain why the intakes of MUFA
and PUFA in the Canadian pulse consumers were higher
than in non-consumers, while this trend was not observed in
the US data
(22)
.
In addition to the predominantly positive effect of pulse
consumption on nutrient intakes, further evidence of
improved dietary quality with pulse consumption is demon-
strated by the extra serving of fruits and vegetables eaten by
consumers compared with non-consumers, a goal of the
Food Guide that most Canadians do not achieve. In contrast,
pulse consumers in the NHANES data consumed more grain
products, but not other food groups
(22)
. These differences
are probably due to the difference in the sources of pulses
being eaten by Canadian compared with US consumers.
There are some limitations in this research. As with the
NHANES study, the consumption of pulses in the CCHS 2·2
is based on a single reference day, meaning that those who
were not identified as a consumer during a single day of
intake may still be a pulse consumer. Although second-day
consumer values were similar to the first day, the frequency
of consumption is impossible to determine based on the
24 h recall method. Information was not collected on specific
types of diets (i.e. low-carbohydrate, vegetarian or vegan
diets) which may have been helpful in further examining
the demographic of the average consumer, or on food prep-
aration techniques, which may affect the nutrient content
(for example, added salt) of the dishes consumed. It is also
impossible to determine whether the 24 h dietary recall was
truly representative of the respondent’s normal diet, as
respondents may over- or under-report their food consump-
tion, even with trained experts administering the dietary
recall. Because the CCHS 2·2 was a cross-sectional look at
the dietary habits of Canadians, the results should be inter-
preted with caution. It is entirely possible that the survey
would have provided differing results if another time-frame
had been chosen, with either higher or lower amounts of con-
sumers. As well, cause and effect cannot be assumed, as pulse
consumption may be a component of an overall lifestyle.
A. N. Mudryj et al.S34
British Journal of Nutrition

The CCHS 2·2 also does not take into account those residing
on Indian reserves, residents occupying any of the three terri-
tories, those living in institutions or members of the Canadian
Forces
(24,25)
.
These results demonstrate that an increased intake of dry
beans and peas, especially at higher intakes, is associated
with higher intakes of fibre, protein, carbohydrate, folate,
Mg, Fe, K and Zn in Canadians, leading to improved diet qual-
ity. Clarification of the reasons for the effects of pulse con-
sumption on these potential improvements in the diet as
well as the potential increase in Na intake will need to be elu-
cidated so that dietary advice to consume pulses can include
ways to enhance or mitigate any positive or negative effects,
respectively. In this way, the potential beneficial effects of
pulse consumption on nutrient intake can be realised.
Acknowledgements
We would like to offer many thanks to Dr Ian Clara and Kelly
Cranswick at the Manitoba Research Data Centre for their
ongoing statistical help and support. The present study was
supported by grants from Saskatchewan Pulse Growers and
as part of the Pulse Innovation Project, through Canada’s
Agricultural Policy Framework (APF), a Federal–Provincial-
Territorial initiative. All authors were responsible for the
study design and assisted in revision of the manuscript. A. N. M.,
N. Y. and H. M. A. were responsible for data analyses,
interpreting the results, drafting of the manuscript and critical
revision of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the
final manuscript. All authors declare no conflicts of interest.
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