Monitoring Butterflies for Ecology and Conservation
Journal of Applied Ecology
Abstract
Presents results from a long-term butterfly monitoring program, and reviews the ecology of British butterflies.
... Insects are incredibly significant in terrestrial ecosystems (Adarsh et al., 2014;Chovanec & Waringer, 2006;New. 1991;Pollard & Yates, 1993;Aluri & Rao, 2002;Thomas, 2005), constituting a substantial portion of biodiversity and playing crucial roles in ecological balance and food chains (Nimbalkar et al., 2011). Insects are indeed crucial components of bio-indicators, providing valuable insights into the health and conditions of ecosystems. ...
... The study was conducted from August 2021 to September 2023, employing a modified "Pollard Walk" method (Pollard, 1977;Pollard & Yates, 1993) to survey odonates and butterflies in the study area. Two line transects, measuring 500 meters and 350 meters, were established to representatively sample the area's biodiversity and ecology. ...
This study investigates the diversity of Lepidoptera (butterflies) and Odonata (dragonflies and damselflies) in Kalyani Lake Park, Nadia district, West Bengal. Conducted from August 2021 to September 2023, the research employed a modified "Pollard Walk" method to record species and abundance. The findings of this study are significant, given the importance of biodiversity conservation and protection in maintaining ecosystem health, stability, and promoting sustainable development. The study recorded a total of 25 species of dragonflies, 10 species of damselflies, and 75 species of butterflies. Among the odonates, Libelluidae and Coenagrionidae were the dominant families, while Nymphalidae was the dominant family among butterflies. Relative abundance and diversity indices were calculated for all species groups, providing insights into the distribution and interactions of these insects with their environment. The presence of these insect groups indicates a balanced and thriving ecosystem, highlighting the importance of conservation efforts. However, the study area faces significant biotic pressure due to high anthropogenic disturbances in the urban forest area. This emphasizes the need for effective conservation strategies to protect the ecosystem and its inhabitants. The detailed list of recorded Odonata and Lepidoptera species from this study will provide valuable insights into their distribution, interactions with the environment, and conservation status. This information will inform future management and conservation strategies for Kalyani Lake Park, contributing to the preservation of its rich biodiversity and ecosystem services.
... Insects are incredibly significant in terrestrial ecosystems (Adarsh et al., 2014;Chovanec & Waringer, 2006;New. 1991;Pollard & Yates, 1993;Aluri & Rao, 2002;Thomas, 2005), constituting a substantial portion of biodiversity and playing crucial roles in ecological balance and food chains (Nimbalkar et al., 2011). Insects are indeed crucial components of bio-indicators, providing valuable insights into the health and conditions of ecosystems. ...
... The study was conducted from August 2021 to September 2023, employing a modified "Pollard Walk" method (Pollard, 1977;Pollard & Yates, 1993) to survey odonates and butterflies in the study area. Two line transects, measuring 500 meters and 350 meters, were established to representatively sample the area's biodiversity and ecology. ...
Butterflies, dragonflies and damselflies are indeed important for ecosystem productivity, playing roles in pollination and insect control, contributing to a balanced and thriving ecosystem. Their presence showcases the health and abundance of the ecosystem. Biodiversity protection and conservation are indeed essential aspects of both national and international agendas, as they contribute significantly to the sustainable development of regions and countries. Biodiversity ensures the health and stability of ecosystems, provides ecosystem services crucial for human survival and well-being, and supports various industries such as agriculture, fisheries, and tourism. Lepidoptera and Odonata assemblage along with Kalyani Lake Park of Nadia district in West Bengal has been investigated. The study on dragonflies, damselflies and butterfly species were conducted from August 2021 to September 2023. A modified "Pollard Walk" method was used to record species and abundance. In this survey, 25 species of dragonflies, 10 species of damselflies and 75 species of Butterflies were recorded. Among the odonate species, Libelluidae and Coenagrionidae were the dominant families with the maximum number of species being 23 and 08, respectively. In the case of butterflies, Nymphalidae was the dominant family with 27 species while others have fewer representatives. Relative abundance and diversity indices were calculated for all species groups. However, in the case of the urban forest area, the observed high anthropogenic disturbances create significant biotic pressure on the Kalyani Lake Park. Given the significance of understanding the insect diversity in this study area, a detailed list of recorded Odonata and Lepidoptera from the study would provide valuable insights into the specific species present, their distribution, and their potential interactions with the environment.
... For the purpose of butterfly sampling, the line transect method was applied (Hossain and Aditya, 2016) [15] . The entire survey was carried out in the adjoining areas of Mangalajodi wetland covering a distance of about 3 km with 5 m on either side of survey path continuously for five hours maintaining a constant pace between 09:00 h to 13:00 h utilizing the standard Pollard Walk method (Pollard, 1977;Pollard and Yates, 1993) [33,34] . In order to cover the entire survey path, a combination of six transects, each with 500 m of length were studied every day. ...
... For the purpose of butterfly sampling, the line transect method was applied (Hossain and Aditya, 2016) [15] . The entire survey was carried out in the adjoining areas of Mangalajodi wetland covering a distance of about 3 km with 5 m on either side of survey path continuously for five hours maintaining a constant pace between 09:00 h to 13:00 h utilizing the standard Pollard Walk method (Pollard, 1977;Pollard and Yates, 1993) [33,34] . In order to cover the entire survey path, a combination of six transects, each with 500 m of length were studied every day. ...
The present survey on butterfly diversity and abundance was carried out in the adjoining area of Mangalajodi wetland, Sitarampur, Tangi, Odisha for six consecutive days from 10 th to 15 th December, 2024. The vast wetland of Mangalajodi which attract thousands of migratory birds is also endowed with diverse fauna of butterflies. The study recorded the presence of 62 butterfly species belonging to five families and 48 genera namely Nymphalidae (25 species), Papilionidae (7 species), Pieridae (10 species), Lycaenidae (15 species) and Hesperiidae (5 species). Family Nymphalidae recorded the highest number of butterflies (36.89%) followed by followed by Pieridae (28.27%), Lycaenidae (23.96%), Papilionidae (8.03%) and Hesperiidae (2.85%). Based on sightings of butterfly species, 16.07% were found under very common category, 19.94% under common category, 46.02% under not rare category, 17.60% under rare category and 0.37% under very rare category. Nine species among the recorded butterflies are legally protected under various Schedules of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. Values of studied diversity indices such as Shannon's index (H'=3.73) showed the species richness of the butterfly community was high, Pielou's evenness index (J'=0.91) depicted the recorded butterfly species were evenly distributed in the community, Simpson's index (Ds=0.02) indicated a high species abundance persisted in the community. Information from this preliminary survey is expected to be useful towards the conservation of the habitat as well as the butterfly fauna of this wetland surrounding geographic areas.
... For the butterfly sampling, line transect method was implemented (Hossain and Aditya, 2016) [14] . The entire survey was carried out along a stretch of land from Beki River to the gate of Manas National Park and side trails coming out from it with 5 m on either side of survey path for five hours maintaining a constant pace between 09:00 h to 13:00 h using the standard Pollard Walk method (Pollard, 1977;Pollard and Yates, 1993) [26,27] . To cover the entire survey path, a total number of 10 transects, each with 300 m of length were studied per day. ...
... For the butterfly sampling, line transect method was implemented (Hossain and Aditya, 2016) [14] . The entire survey was carried out along a stretch of land from Beki River to the gate of Manas National Park and side trails coming out from it with 5 m on either side of survey path for five hours maintaining a constant pace between 09:00 h to 13:00 h using the standard Pollard Walk method (Pollard, 1977;Pollard and Yates, 1993) [26,27] . To cover the entire survey path, a total number of 10 transects, each with 300 m of length were studied per day. ...
Butterflies, being a fascinating creature of nature as well as a great ecological indicator, have been on the forefront of conservation initiatives since a long period. A short-term study on diversity and abundance of butterfly community was carried out in North Narayanguri, Assam, an adjoining area of Manas National Park from 10 th to 16 th November, 2024, which recorded a total of 133 butterfly species belonging to six families and 87 genera, out of which ten species were observed to be legally protected under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. When comparing the species percentage composition, Nymphalidae was found as dominant family (40.54%), followed by Pieridae (29.28%), Lycaenidae (18.15%), Papilionidae (6.55%), Hesperiidae (4.20%), Riodinidae (1.28%). Among all the sampled butterfly species, Common Emigrant (Catopsilia Pomona) was found to be the most abundant one constituting 4.20%, closely followed by Mottled Emigrant (Catopsilia pyranthe) with 4.15%. Based on the sightings of the butterflies during the survey period, 87.50% butterflies of the population were under the category very common (VC), 10.66% under common (C), 1.46% under fairly common (FC) and 0.39% under uncommon (UC) category. Family Nymphalidae was recorded with the highest value for the Shannon diversity index (H') (3.57), whereas, the lowest value for this index was recorded from Riodinidae family (0.24). In case of Shannon Hmax, family Nymphalidae (2.98) was again found as the most diverse one, followed by Pieridae (2.84) and Lycaenidae family (2.63). The Whittaker plot and the results of diversity indices, Shannon's index (H'=4.38), Pielou's evenness index (J=0.90) and Simpson's index of diversity (D=0.98) revealed that the butterfly community in the study area was highly diverse with even distribution and high abundance. The vegetations of this site provide a suitable habitat to the butterfly community. For the conservation of this habitat and well-being of this indicator species, there is a need of further studies focussing on assessment of different aspects of butterfly ecology.
... Before every survey wind speed and temperature were recorded using a handheld Kestrel. Transects were walked between 1000 and 1600 h Central Daylight Saving Time when temperature was above 13°C and sunny or if temperatures passed 17°C regardless of cloud cover (Campbell et al., 2007;Pellet et al., 2012;Pollard, 1977;Pollard & Yates, 1993). Transects were not walked if wind speeds surpassed 16 km h −1 (Moranz et al., 2012). ...
... Transects were not walked if wind speeds surpassed 16 km h −1 (Moranz et al., 2012). Temperature and wind constraints were chosen because low temperatures and moderate to high winds can inhibit butterfly flight (Pollard, 1977;Pollard & Yates, 1993). ...
Background
As grasslands decline, grassland‐dependent species such as grassland butterflies have experienced widespread population losses. To manage remaining grasslands, prescribed fire, grazing, and haying are common management practices across the Southern Great Plains of the United States. However, the impacts of management and land use intensity (LUI) on butterfly community composition and butterfly community traits are not well understood. Additionally, local habitat characteristics such as vegetation height and cover, as well as broader landscape categorization, including how much agriculture or urbanization is occurring around the habitat, can alter butterfly communities.
Methods
We conducted standardized butterfly and flowering forb surveys at grassland sites across north‐central Oklahoma.
Results
LUI influenced overall butterfly community composition with sites managed only with fire having the most dissimilar butterfly community compared to three other management regimens. The amount of agriculture, urbanization, and wetlands surrounding study sites also influenced butterfly community composition. Flowering forb community measures differed by site with sites managed by fire alone having lower blooming forbs species richness, diversity, and abundance than sites with other management regimens.
Conclusions
Sites managed with only prescribed fire had the most disparate butterfly community in comparison to other management methods, suggesting that specialist butterfly species may be sensitive to increasing disturbance.
... The sites correspond to different climatic regions including the Subalpine (mean temperature (T) and standard deviation: 9.9 C ± 6.5 C; mean precipitation (P) and standard deviation: 693.8 ± 482 mm; Altitude (A) and standard deviation: 1205.4 ± 380 m) and Mediterranean (T: 16.9 C ± 5.6 C; P: 449.5 ± 399.9 mm; A: 8.7 ± 12.7 m) regions. The characteristics of the management practised in the sampling sites are described in Figure During the surveys, all butterflies within 2.5 m on either side and 5 m in front of the recorder are counted, following the standard procedure outlined by Pollard and Yates (1994). A total of 182 butterfly species were recorded between 1994 and 2021, and all were considered in this study (Data S1). ...
Rural abandonment and agricultural intensification are major threats to the conservation of biodiversity in Europe. Butterflies are excellent bioindicators of environmental change and can be used to assess the impact of global change on agroforestry mosaics.
We used long‐term spatio‐temporal butterfly data to explore how grazing and mowing practices affect butterfly communities in the semi‐natural grasslands of the northwest Mediterranean Basin. Changes in butterfly richness, abundance and habitat indicators were recorded using standardized transect counts. We focused primarily on the impact of management practices but also considered their interaction with other drivers (climate and habitat configuration).
The most intensive levels of grazing did not correspond to the lowest butterfly richness; rather, they were correlated with lower abundances but supported a greater number of open habitat specialists. More intense mowing was also associated with low abundances and communities dominated by common and open‐habitat species. Habitat configuration variables were also influential: open areas favoured greater butterfly richness and abundance, as well as more grassland specialists; greener vegetation, as measured by satellite imagery, led to an increase in butterfly abundance and communities composed of more generalist and forest species.
Our study demonstrates the significant impact of grassland management on butterfly communities and offers insights into adaptive rangeland practices. It also indicates that increased levels of mowing and grazing can alter the composition of butterfly communities without necessarily affecting their diversity. This suggests that a dynamic restructuring of butterfly communities may occur in response to the environmental and habitat changes induced by these practices.
... This information would not be available without grassroots monitoring efforts. For example, the British But-terfly Monitoring Scheme began as a rather humble monitoring project in the mid-1970s in response to concerns about declines in butterfly abundances (Pollard and Yates 1993). This program now boasts the most comprehensive long-term data on butterflies and moths in the world (Fox et al. 2021), in large part due to contribution from volunteers. ...
Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) is one of the most diverse insect orders on Earth. Its members contribute to important ecosystem services such as pollination and herbivory while also serving as principal food for many other animals. Yet in this age of rapid climate change and declining biodiversity, the current distribution of most moth species remains largely undocumented. Here, we describe a novel and low-cost method of bridging this gap, which takes advantage of the fact that many nocturnal insects are attracted to artificial light. A robust network of “moth walls” periodically surveyed by community members serves two purposes: (1) help document moth species diversity and distribution and (2) help stakeholders engage the public about the importance of moths and other nocturnal insects. We contend that moth walls are of relevance to stakeholders interested in biodiversity data, invasive species detection, occurrence data for ranked species, and the ecology of insects attracted to light. The addition of automation and machine learning algorithms could further contribute to the capture and processing of detections across our growing network. Moth walls have already proven fruitful for monitoring and public engagement, yielding new jurisdictional records in Canada while providing local engagement opportunities for agencies and communities.
... In addition to focal point methods, the line transect method known as the 'Pollard-walk method' was also used to estimate butterfly abundance, richness, and density (Pollard et al. 1975;Pollard 1977;Pollard and Yates 1993;Soga and Koike 2012). Each survey took about two hours to cover approximately 1 km 2 (Chowdhury et al. 2017). ...
Butterflies are a widespread species and play a crucial role in pollination and seed dispersal. This study examines the interaction between butterfly communities and their host and nectar plants, as well as the environmental factors influencing butterfly species richness on the Bangalore University Campus (BUC) in Bengaluru, India. Regular sampling was conducted using the standard line transect method to observe butterflies and document their host and nectar plants. A total of 105 butterfly species, 86 larval host plant species, and 25 adult nectar plant species were identified. Among them, one near-threatened species, Parantica nilgiriensis, was recorded, while the rest were classified as least concern. Catopsilia pomona and C. pyranthe were observed year-round, with Acraea terpsicore being the most abundant species. Nymphalidae was the most dominant butterfly family. Among host plants, Cassia tora had the highest density on campus, while Fabaceae was the most abundant and diverse larval host plant family. Cadaba fruticosa attracted five Pierid butterfly species, while Ixora coccinea and Lantana camara were popular nectar sources. Relative humidity showed a positive correlation with the abundance and richness of Nymphalidae butterflies. This study highlights the rich diversity of butterfly species and their host plants at BUC, offering valuable insights for conservation and habitat management.
... Today, they serve as one of the most reliable biological indicators of climate change and environmental degradation. Their populations are particularly sensitive to subtle shifts in environmental conditions, making them excellent indicator species for ecological health (Pollard & Yates, 1993;Thomas, 2005). ...
This research explores the educational potential and threats to biodiversity posed by the overproduction and exploitation of butterflies in live exhibitions. Ecosystems rely on butterflies. They indicate a shift in the climate and play a crucial role in pollination. All three art, culture, and emotions involve them. Insects belonging to the lepidoptera order are useful for many reasons, including pollinating plants, spinning silk, signaling changes in the environment, and being aesthetically pleasing. Ecosystem richness and variety change over time. The variety and number of butterfly species have increased due to the growing popularity of polyculture farms and organic farming methods. A relatively new kind of zoo the butterfly house has exploded in popularity during the last three decades. As a result, a new industry known as the Butterfly House Industry (BHI) has emerged all over the world, focused on the commercial cultivation of butterfly pupae. Here we present the 174 butterfly species and subspecies from 100 genera and 8 families that have been identified so far from the Indian states of Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh.
... Field surveys were conducted from January to December 2024 to document the diversity of Lepidoptera species. A combination of standardized sampling techniques was employed to ensure comprehensive data collection [15] : ...
... The volunteers (with professional experience in species identification) walk the transects, length of 1.5-3 km and constant location, annually at least seven times between May and late August. Within transects, the individuals of each species are recorded from a 5 × 5 × 5 m 3 cube ahead of the observer as they walk the transect (Pollard and Yates 1993;Heliölä, Huikkonen, and Kuussaari 2022). The standardised transects were 1 km long and surveyed by researchers seven times per summer. ...
Anthropogenic environmental change is altering biodiversity at unprecedented rates, threatening the stability of ecosystem services on which humans depend. However, most of what is known about biodiversity–stability relationships comes from experimental studies making extrapolation to real ecosystems difficult. Here, we ask whether the shape and underlying mechanisms of the biodiversity–stability relationship vary among taxa in real‐world communities. Our study harnesses the power of six terrestrial and aquatic long‐term monitoring datasets, encompassing entire assemblages at hundreds of georeferenced sites providing 20 years long community measurements, covering a 1200 km latitudinal gradient across Finland. In general, we detect a positive relationship between species richness and stability. Structural equation modelling reveals that this relationship is modified by functional trait community composition, with specific mechanisms varying among the taxa. Our study is among the first to highlight the importance of functional traits in elucidating both general and taxon‐specific impacts of biodiversity on community stability.
... W; 116,100 km 2 land area). Fixed transects are walked weekly (April-October) using the Pollard method to count butterflies within a 5-m box centred on the observer (Pollard and Yates 1993). Volunteer recorders select the sites and transects, which span multiple habitat types and vary in length (median 81 min in duration). ...
Climate change is implicated as one contributor to insect declines. Insects may respond to warming by advancing phenology and increasing the number of generations each year (voltinism). However, if earlier phenology changes cue‐response relationships, then late‐season generations might lack time to complete diapause development before winter and result in doomed ‘lost generations’. Using 27 years of monitoring of 30 multivoltine butterfly species, we find the opposite, as larger late‐season generations (voltinism shifts) are associated with more positive overwinter population growth rates. The potential threat of lost generations is limited to late‐season species at cooler sites in years with early frosts. Overall, long‐term population trends are positively correlated with larger late‐season generations, suggesting that they are an adaptive response to climate warming. Still, overwinter population growth rates and long‐term population trends have declined over time as the benefits of voltinism shifts have been insufficient to reverse population declines.
... change and land-use change on the range and populations of butterflies are species-specific. While some studies have shown that habitat loss has a greater impact than climate change on the range and occurrence of butterflies with broad niche breadth (Kwon et al. 2021;Pollard and Yates 1993;Saarinen et al. 2003), others have reported that climate change is a major factor in changes in populations and ranges of butterflies particularly adapted to cold climate conditions (Halsch et al. 2021;Wanger 2020). ...
Climate and land‐use changes are key factors in the habitat loss and population declines of climate change‐sensitive endangered species. We assessed the climate change effects on the distribution of Parnassius bremeri, a critically endangered wildlife species in the Republic of Korea, in association with food availability (Sedum kamtschaticum and Sedum aizoon), land‐use change, and dispersal limitation. We first predicted the current and future distributions of P. bremeri, S. kamtschaticum, and S. aizoon using the presence/absence data and current (2000) and future climate data (2050, 2100) with BioMod2, an ensemble platform for species distribution model projections. Then, the dispersal capacity of P. bremeri and land‐use change were coupled with SDMs using MigClim. We used future climate and land‐use changes predicted according to the SSP scenarios (SSP1‐2.6, SSP2‐4.5, and SSP3‐7.0) and the dispersal model estimated from previous studies. The current distributional areas of P. bremeri were predicted to be about 10,956 km² without land‐cover coupling and 8.861 km² with coupling, showing land‐cover decreased by about 19% of the suitable habitat. The future predictions under climate change only showed the distribution reduced by 56% and 50% in 2050 and 2100 under SSP1‐2.6, respectively, 55% and 48% under SSP2‐4.5, and 44% and 14% under SSP3‐7.0. Applying land‐use change and dispersal capacity further decreased the future distribution of P. bremeri but trivially (about 0.42% on average). The strict conservation policies and measures for P. bremeri's habitats explain the trivial additional decrease, delaying its habitat loss. However, our results suggest that such efforts cannot halt the climate change‐driven habitat loss trend of P. bremeri. Strong climate mitigation efforts and promoting the species' adaptive capacity are the only ways to reverse the tragic decline of climate‐sensitive species.
... [1][2][3][4][5] As one of the most crucial terrestrial ecosystems on the planet, agricultural ecosystems have long been important habitats for arthropods functioning as biocontrol agents, pollinators, pests and decomposers. 6,7 In return, the diversity and abundance of arthropod species can reflect the stability and sustainable development of agroecosystems to a large extent. 8 Therefore, biodiversity monitoring of agroecosystems is a long-term task in ecology-related fields. ...
BACKGROUND
Monitoring arthropod pests and their natural enemies provides essential information for pest control decisions in agricultural production. Traditional monitoring methods, such as trapping and visual surveys, have practical limitations because of their time‐consuming preprocessing steps and the need for knowledgeable taxonomists. We tested the environmental DNA (eDNA) metabarcoding approach for monitoring cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) arthropod pests and their natural enemies across seven climatic sub‐regions of China, comparing it with traditional sample collection and morphological identification methods.
RESULTS
We showed that eDNA metabarcoding reveals a higher species richness of cowpea arthropods than the traditional visual method. The eDNA method detected 163 species, of which 72, 33 and 57 were pests, natural enemies and other insects, respectively, whereas the traditional method only detected 70 species. There were significant differences in alpha‐ and beta‐diversity for arthropods on cowpea in different climatic sub‐regions. We also found that longitude, altitude and geographical distance are associated with species diversity, but latitude, mean air temperature and temperature range are not.
CONCLUSION
This study represents the first use of eDNA metabarcoding to investigate cowpea arthropod communities, providing a novel method for pest monitoring. © 2025 Society of Chemical Industry.
... In the present study Sirumalai Reserve Forest area was divided into eight transects, site 1 (Konganuthu), site 2 (Puli sathuodai), site 3 (Ulkombai saragam), site 4 (Kannimarkovil), site 5 (Vellode), site 6 (Kuranguthopu), site 7 (Ambathur beat), site 8 (Kadaman solai), based on different altitudes. Line transect sampling method (Pollard and Yates, 1993) was followed in the eight sites for monitoring the prevalence of T.minos within the forest reserve. Identification of T. minos was done by using standard keys from literature (Wynter-Blyth, 1957;Haribal, 1992). ...
Southern birdwing Troides minos (Cramer, [1779]), a large swallow tail butterfly, state butterfly of Karnataka, is endemic to south India. T. minos was listed in CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered species of wild fauna and flora) and is of high conservation priority. IUCN also recommends close monitoring of T. minos. The population trend of T. minos, in Sirumalai Reserve Forest, Eastern Ghats was monitored for the period of twenty six months using the line transect method. Higher prevalence of T. minos butterflies were observed and recorded over the study. This study highlights the abundance of T. minos in certain months of the study period and peak abundance during the post monsoon period.
... Butterflies were sampled during the same two periods than those for birds in spring and during an extra period in summer because these insects are active during those periods due to optimal temperatures. Butterflies were monitored by two experts able to identify this taxon to species level at a glance, by means of 500 m transects within a 5 m band (Pollard and Yates 1993;Goded et al. 2019;Sevilleja et al. 2019). The transects were performed in the middle of the day, in the absence of wind and rain, and always with temperatures above 13ºC, and lasted around 20 min. ...
Many farmland wildlife species have shown a sharp population decline in European countries, mainly caused by changes in agricultural practices leading to habitat loss or degradation. This is especially interesting in Mediterranean environments, where biodiversity has decreased due to intensification. In this context, and aiming at assessing the benefit to biological diversity of certain agricultural management practices, we analysed the effects of herbaceous covers on biodiversity in olive orchards in central Spain. We compared species richness, overall abundance, and abundance of different functional groups of birds, and butterflies between olive orchards where herbaceous covers are intensively managed (ploughed) and extensively managed (covers are maintained). We found significantly higher bird species richness in olive orchards with herbaceous covers than without them. Birds were more abundant as the herb species richness of the orchards increased. Butterflies were significantly richer and more abundant as the amount of herbaceous cover increased, and all butterfly functional groups were more abundant in orchards with herbaceous covers. Our results show that the maintenance of naturally-growing herbaceous covers in olive orchards is crucial for the conservation of biodiversity in one of the primary agro-ecosystems of the Mediterranean landscapes.
... The interactions of butterflies with selected plants were studied and recorded based on direct observations in the field. Regular fortnight surveys were carried out from November 2022 to September 2023 from 07:00 to 11:00 and 16:00 to 18:00 on fixed routes in the landscape, with different zones and adjoining areas using modified "Pollard walk" method (Pollard, 1977;Pollard, Yates, 1993;Royer et al., 1998). ...
Observations of plant-insect interactions in the Jodhpur, an extreme arid zone of Thar Desert, Rajasthan have been supported by photographic evidence. The research focused on plant taxa: Tephrosia purpurea subsp. purpurea and T. purpurea subsp. apollinea belonging to the Fabaceae family. A total of 26 butterflies belonging to the families Hesperiidae (Skippers), Lycaenidae (Blues), Nymphalidae (Brush-footed Butterflies), Papilionidae (Swallowtails) and Pieridae (Whites and Yellows) have been recorded here. It was found that these two plants were a major source of nectar, being a part of the diet, and they were larval host plants. In the study area, these butterflies visited other desert plant species. However, these observations explain the importance of these two native taxa of plants for the conservation of pollinators in the arid zones of the country.
... We walked once in each subsection four times in 2022 (T1: 19-20 May; T2: 21-22 June; T3: 18-19 July; T4: 12-13 September) and three times in 2021 (T2: 3-16 June; T3: 8-15 July; T4: 20-23 September), after dawn and before dusk (the earliest was 7:30, the latest was 18:30). Transects were walked during optimal weather for butterfly sampling [39]. During each walk, an operator walked at a steady and constant pace of 10 m/min counting all the individual butterflies in an area of 2.5 m on either side, 5 m ahead, and 5 m above the ground. ...
While olive trees are primarily wind-pollinated, biodiversity-friendly management of the groves can contribute to the conservation of pollinating insects in olive agroecosystems. Previous research demonstrated that semi-natural habitats, such as herbaceous linear elements and woody areas, support the community of pollinators in agroecosystems. Less is known about the contribution of low-input olive groves with a permanent ground cover on terraced landscapes. This study investigated the relationship between pollinator communities and semi-natural habitats, including spontaneous vegetation, in a traditional terraced Mediterranean olive grove agroecosystem. The research employed pan traps to monitor wild bees and observation walks to assess the butterfly community across three different habitat types in spring, summer, and autumn during two growing seasons. Floral resources in the habitats were assessed during each sampling time. Analysis showed that herbaceous habitats support a higher abundance of wild bees than woody areas, while olive groves do not differ significantly from either habitat type, despite exhibiting the highest floral abundance. This suggests that habitat structure, rather than floral availability alone, plays a role in maintaining the wild bee community. For butterflies, results demonstrate that the overall abundance does not differ between habitats, while the species composition does. The study emphasizes the importance of preserving diverse habitats, and in particular low-input olive groves, within agricultural landscapes to support a wide range of pollinator species.
... We derived hourly temperature data from USCRN (Diamond et al. 2013). In our study system, wind speed posed a limited concern for arthropod collection during both the sampling periods, as it consistently remained below 6 on the Beaufort scale on our sampling days (Pollard and Yates 1993). ...
Light pollution disrupts the natural dark–light rhythmicity of the world and alters the spectral composition of the nocturnal sky, with far-reaching impacts on natural systems. While the costs of light pollution are now documented across scales and taxa, community-level mitigations for arthropods remain unclear. To test two light pollution mitigation strategies, we replaced all 32 streetlights in the largest visitor center in Grand Teton National Park (Wyoming, USA) to allow wireless control over each luminaries’ color and brightness. We captured fewer arthropods, across most Orders, in the blended-red light compared to white (3000 K). Interestingly, we found an effect of light brightness and color, suggesting that, overall, more arthropods were attracted by brighter, and white color hues compared to blended-red. Our findings provide valuable insights into the mitigation of artificial light at night, likely one of the primary drivers of global arthropod declines.
... Each transect was walked and lasted 15 min between 10:00 and 17:30 to coincide with the flight period of all major pollinating insects. This followed the method developed for the UK Butterfly Monitoring Scheme (BMS) (Pollard & Yates, 1993) and adapted as a standard method for bumblebee surveys (Pywell et al., , 2006. Surveys were only undertaken when standardized environmental criteria were met (wind speed <5.5 m/s, not raining, temperature >17 C if cloudy or >13 C if less than 40% cloud cover). ...
Grassland restoration is an important conservation intervention supporting declining insect pollinators in threatened calcareous grassland landscapes. While the success of restoration is often quantified using simple measures of diversity or similarity to target communities, these measures do not capture all fundamental aspects of community reconstruction. Here, we develop species–habitat networks that aim to define habitat‐level foraging dependencies of pollinators across restored grassland landscapes and compare their value to these more conventional measures of community restoration. We assessed this across Salisbury Plain (UK), which represents the largest area of chalk grassland in northwestern Europe, encompassing six distinct management types aimed at the restoration and maintenance of species‐rich calcareous grassland. Sites that were previously disturbed or reverting from arable agriculture were comparable with those of ancient grasslands in terms of pollinator abundance and species richness. However, intensively managed grasslands exhibited notably lower values across nearly all measured indicators, including flower and pollinator richness and abundance, than ancient grasslands, with unmanaged grasslands following closely behind. This underscores the need for caution with both long‐term neglect and highly intensive management. Applying our species–habitat network approach, we found that pollinator communities in grasslands recovering from past military disturbance showed stronger modular associations with those in ancient grasslands than areas recovering from intensive agriculture. This highlights the importance of habitat history in shaping restoration trajectories. We propose that species–habitat networks should be part of the standard analytical toolkit assessing the effectiveness of restoration at landscape scale, particularly for mobile species such as insects.
... It is made available under a preprint (which was not certified by peer review) is the author/funder, who has granted bioRxiv a license to display the preprint in The copyright holder for this this version posted January 14, 2025. week (i.e., four consecutive visits in July, n = 144 replicates) during favorable conditions 130 for butterfly activity, which included sun and low wind speed, at times between 09:00 h 131 and 17:00 h CET (Pollard & Yates, 1993). CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license perpetuity. ...
1. Researching the properties of mutualistic networks over environmental gradients is a promising but underexplored means to test how global change can affect ecosystem assembly and functioning. We examined how elevation and microclimate influenced butterfly-flower interaction networks at the hottest time of year in a Mediterranean mountain range.
2. Throughout July 2023, we recorded weekly butterfly-flower interaction networks from 36 transects in nine sites, across an 800 m elevation gradient in the Sierra de Guadarrama (Central Spain). We quantified the connectance, nestedness, modularity and robustness to species loss of networks, and related these descriptors using Generalized Additive Mixed Models to elevation, microclimate temperature (modelled using Microclima), date and time of day.
3. The networks were dominated at all sites by one or two abundant butterfly and flower species, but these varied with elevation. Butterfly networks were more robust to plant species loss at higher elevations, where communities showed increased linkage density. Butterfly-plant networks became less nested at higher microclimatic temperatures in July. Network properties also varied through the day, with connectance decreasing markedly from morning to afternoon.
4. In the Mediterranean mountains studied, summer butterfly-flower interaction networks were more resilient to disturbance at high elevations and in cooler microclimates. Nectar availability could become an important limiting factor for insects in a warming climate, and understanding the mechanisms influencing the properties of flower visitor networks is therefore likely to become increasingly important for adapting the conservation of insects to climate change.
... To demonstrate how causal diagrams and superpopulation models might be used to correct biases in a real dataset, we applied them to data from the UK Butterfly Monitoring Scheme (UKBMS). The UKBMS has been running since 1976 (Pollard & Yates, 1996). Data are collected by volunteers, who walk transects at a network of sites in the UK and count the butterflies they see within an imaginary 5-m box when weather permits (Pollard, 1977). ...
Biodiversity monitoring schemes periodically measure species' abundances and distributions at a sample of sites to understand how they have changed over time. Often, the aim is to infer change in an average sense across some wider landscape. Inference to the wider landscape is simple if the species' abundances and distributions are similar at sampled to non‐sampled locations. Otherwise, the data are geographically biased, and some form of correction is desirable.
We combine causal diagrams with ‘superpopulation models’ to correct time‐varying geographic biases in biodiversity monitoring data. For a given time‐period, expert‐derived causal diagrams are used to deduce the set of variables that explain the geographic bias, and superpopulation models adjust for these variables to produce a corrected estimate of a landscape‐wide mean of for example abundance or occupancy. Estimating a time trend in the variable of interest is achieved by fitting models for multiple time‐periods and, if the drivers of bias are suspected to change over time, by constructing per period causal diagrams. We test the approach using simulated data then apply it to real data from the UK Butterfly Monitoring Scheme (UKBMS).
If the variables that explain the geographic bias are known and measured without error, our method is unbiased. Introducing measurement error reduces the method's efficacy, but it is still an improvement on using the sample mean. When applied to data from the UKBMS, the approach gives different results to the scheme's current method, which assumes no geographic bias.
Where the goal is to estimate change in some variable of interest at the landscape level (e.g. biodiversity indicators), models that do not adjust for geographic bias implicitly assume it does not exist. Our approach makes the weaker assumption that there is no geographic bias conditional on the adjustment variables, so it should yield more accurate estimates of time trends in many circumstances. The method does require assumptions about the drivers of bias, but these are codified explicitly in the causal diagrams. Operationalising our approach should be less costly than full probability sampling, which would be needed to satisfy the assumptions of conventional approaches.
... Over the 8-year study period ( (Pollard and Yates, 1993). The UKBMS uses a two-step method, fitting Generalised Additive Models to the data to produce fitted weekly counts and an overall collated annual index as a relative measure of abundance at each site (Dennis et al., 2013). ...
The importance of genetic diversity has been recognised by the Convention on Biological Diversity but attempts at monitoring or improving the genetic diversity of populations have been minimal.
Here, we investigate changes over time in the genetic diversity of a wild insect species, Maniola jurtina (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) and present a large‐scale investigation into contemporary spatial genetic diversity.
Using microsatellite markers, we calculate multiple measures of genetic diversity and divergence for M. jurtina populations over 8 years in the UK and compare these findings with long‐term abundance trends.
We also conduct a large‐scale spatial analysis into the genetic diversity and population structuring of M. jurtina across Europe.
All UK populations sampled have high levels of gene flow and genetic diversity, with genetic diversity stable over time.
Across Europe, we find some population structuring between populations in the UK and the European mainland, suggesting restricted geneflow between the two regions.
The monitoring of a wild species' genetic diversity is an achievable aim, and one that could be carried out for many species, particularly Lepidoptera. Future approaches may aim to develop higher resolution genetic markers and cover a wider range of species.
The use of abundance data offers additional insight, and we find that concurrent, dedicated genetic monitoring can provide effective tracking of biodiversity trends.
... In this study, odonate data was collected through seasonal monitoring, with the year divided into three seasons based on rainfall patterns: pre-monsoon (February to May), monsoon (June to September), and post-monsoon (October to January). During each season, four surveys were conducted at each grid, following a standardized 300-meter transect route, as per the Pollard method (Pollard, Pollard & Yates, 1993). Observations took place between 8 am and 6 pm, allowing for a comprehensive record of odonate activity, including field observations of their behavior, such as egg-laying and mating habits. ...
Dragonflies are aquatic insects that are intimately tied to the presence of freshwater ecosystems. The decline of dragonfly populations in rural areas can be attributed to various factors, including habitat destruction, water pollution, and altered ecosystem dynamics. This comprehensive study investigated the diversity and distribution of Odonates (dragonflies and damselflies) in a coastal ecosystem of Namkhana, West Bengal, India. A total of 39 species were recorded, comprising 26 dragonflies and 13 damselflies, across four sites with distinct biodiversity profiles. Statistical analysis revealed significant variations in species composition, abundance, and distribution patterns across the grids, with Grid 4 emerging as the most diverse. Seasonal monitoring showed changes in species distribution and abundance, with some species exhibiting significant increases or decreases during different seasons. Behavioral aspects, including feeding other Odonates, egg-laying, mating, territorial defense, and communal roosting, were also explored. Advanced statistical analyses, including species packing curve, abundance, and paired group UPGMA hierarchical cluster analysis were employed to elucidate the ecological patterns. Alpha diversity analysis and individual rarefaction analysis provided further insights into species diversity. The findings highlight the importance of conservation efforts to protect these vulnerable species and their habitats, and provide valuable insights into the ecological significance of Odonates in coastal ecosystems.
... Butterflies were sampled over a period of four months from April to July 2022 in Harding Park using the Pollard Walk Method (100m each) (Pollard & Yates, 1993), which is a wellestablished technique for monitoring butterfly populations. Transects measuring 100 meters were walked during each sampling session, which lasted between 20 to 30 minutes. ...
Butterflies serve as crucial bioindicators susceptible to habitat degradation, emphasising the need of green spaces in urban conservation efforts. Current study investigates butterfly diversity in Harding Park, Patna, within a very high density, heavily anthropogenically impacted urban area. This study documented 1,089 butterfly individuals of 45 species belonging to five families using the Pollard Walk Method (100m each) between April and July 2022. The Hesperiidae family was most abundant, comprising 36.2% of total butterfly abundance, with Rice Swift as highest recorded species followed by Pieridae (27.4%) Nymphalidae (27.6%) and Papilionidae (9%) that were notably prevalent. However, the reduced occurrence of Lycaenidae (8%) indicates a potential need for species specific habitats. Diversity indices (Shannon, Simpson, and Evenness) were mainly used to compare diversity across different months. Shannon diversity peaked in May (3.217), with highest species richness (37 species) and evenness (0.73, whereas the lowest diversity was recorded in July (2.382) and this was associated with an increase in dominance as a few species became predominant during July. In April, the lowest richness (24 species) and abundance (137 individuals) were reported, perhaps attributable to dry, less humid pre-monsoon conditions. Butterfly abundance increased consistently, reaching 540 individuals in July, presumably due to favourable monsoon conditions. The butterfly assemblages of May and June had a similarity of 68%, whereas the July assemblages, with a similarity of approximately 54%, as it distinctly separated from assemblages of other months. The current study highlights the significance of Harding Park in offering green environment and thus microclimatic conditions supporting butterfly populations and other biodiversity. The study further discusses the role of urban parks in conserving biodiversity, particularly in the context of increasing urbanisation.
... Butterfly surveys were conducted between 8:00 and 11:00 a.m. and between 03:00 pm and 04:00 p.m. during summer and spring seasons, while in winter and autumn, surveys took place between 10:00 a.m. and 04:00 p.m. The method used was line transects derived from a standardized protocol for Lepidoptera inventories, the "Butterflies Monitoring Scheme" (Pollard 1977;Pollard 1982;Pollard & Yates 1993). ...
Butterflies are essential bioindicators of environmental health and play a critical role in maintaining ecosystem stability. Understanding their diversity and distribution in urban areas is crucial for biodiversity conservation. We conducted a survey of butterflies in Setif city to address the lack of information on butterfly diversity in Algerian urban environments. Butterflies were surveyed using pollard’s transect walking technique, with transects ranging from 500 m to 1 km. The observer recorded individuals within a 5x5x5 m area while walking each transect at a steady pace. Butterfly survey was conducted twice to three times each month from September 2021 to June 2023. In total, 726 individuals were collected, belonging to 32 species. The most abundant families were Pieridae and Nymphalidae, while Hesperiidae had the fewest species and individuals. Pieris rapae and Pararge aegeria were the most frequent and abundant species. The highest biodiversity indices were found in the Amusement Park (Shannon H = 2.43, Simpson 1-D = 0.867), and the lowest in Kitab Chahid Garden (Shannon H = 1.758) and Zenadia Forest (Simpson 1-D = 0.765). Equitability ranged from 0.67 to 0.88. Cluster analysis revealed two distinct groups of butterfly communities among the green areas. Pararge aegeria and Pieris rapae accounted for 50% of the differences between the green areas.
... We applied the models to brown argus count data obtained through the United Kingdom Butterfly Monitoring Scheme (UKBMS), based on weekly counts during favourable weather between early April and late September each year [48,49]. This gives a maximum of 26 visits (j) per site (i), per year (k), though our approach can account for variation in survey effort (number of visits) (electronic supplementary material, S1.2). ...
Phenological responses to climate change vary across trophic levels. However, how trophic phenological synchrony determines species’ distributions through its effects on population dynamics has rarely been addressed. Here, we show that phenological variation underlies population and geographical range dynamics in a range-shifting herbivore, and demonstrate its interplay with changing trophic interactions. Using a novel modelling approach, we identify drivers of variation in phenology and population growth (productivity) for populations of the brown argus butterfly (Aricia agestis) feeding on ancestral and novel host plants in the UK. We demonstrate host plant-specific links between phenology and productivity, highlighting their role in the consumer’s range expansion. Critically, later butterfly phenology is associated with higher productivity in the annual second brood, especially on novel annual hosts where later activity improves synchrony with germinating plants. In turn, later phenology and higher second brood productivity are associated with more rapid range expansion, particularly in regions where only the novel hosts occur. Therefore, phenological asynchrony imposes limits on local population growth, influencing consumer resource selection, evolutionary responses and emergent range dynamics. How existing and future trophic phenological synchrony determine population dynamics will be critical for the ecological and evolutionary outcomes of climate change.
... This contrasts with the UK Butterfly Monitoring Scheme (UKBMS), which began in 1976 and is considered the "gold standard" for butterfly population monitoring. It predominantly consists of a national network of >2000 transects on which counts of butterflies are made weekly, under standardised favourable weather conditions, from 1st April to 29th September (Pollard and Yates 1993). UKBMS data are used to estimate population trends for 58 of the 59 UK resident and regular breeding butterfly species (UKBMS 2023), to help monitor population status (Fox et al. 2023), and contribute to Red List assessments (Fox et al. 2022) and official biodiversity indicators (JNCC 2022). ...
Citizen-science data are increasingly used to contribute to our understanding of biodiversity change, but analysing such data requires suitable statistical methods, often to deal with forms of bias. We develop a new approach for modelling data from a snapshot, mass-participation citizen-science scheme for UK butterflies, the Big Butterfly Count (BBC). Butterfly abundance varies throughout the year as one or more generations of each species emerge and die off, and the timing (phenology) of emergences varies annually due to weather and climate. Thus, counts from the short 3-week BBC sampling period are susceptible to bias due to this inter-annual variation in phenology. We adapt the Generalised Abundance Index, drawing upon phenology estimates from standardised monitoring scheme data, to account for phenological bias in the estimation of species’ abundance trends from BBC data. The method is demonstrated via application to empirical and simulated data, revealing that not accounting for phenology leads to biased trend estimates, particularly for summer-flying single-generation species. Drawing upon phenology information, the new approach allows for the reporting of abundance trends from a snapshot citizen-science scheme, creating the potential to maximise available data sources to increase our understanding of changes in butterfly populations, particularly in urban environments.
... Direct observation and documentation of the butterflies was done in the field using the "Pollard Walk" method (Pollard 1977;Pollard and Yates 1993), with the required modifications. Three 1,000-m transects were available for each location. ...
... 4 employed, hampering standardization and therefore wider use of community science 26 datasets to monitor moth abundance. In contrast to butterflies, for which standardised 27 'Pollard walks' (Pollard and Yates, 1993) ...
1. A wide variety of light sources are employed to trap moths, differing in brightness and spectrum. Relatively little is known about how these factors affect the resulting sample. 2. We analyse 7 moth trap bulb types using 10 years of records from the Garden Moth Scheme to provide the largest and most comprehensive comparison of moth trap bulb types to date. 3. 125W Mercury Vapour (MV) bulbs collected the largest samples. The next largest samples were collected by 60W Actinic bulbs (67.80% of 125W MV catch), followed by 15W Actinic (56.66%), 80W MV (55.91%), 40W Actinic (49.12%), 20W Actinic (36.56%) and 6W Actinic (34.33%). 4. We demonstrate that MV bulbs, which emit a larger proportion of long wavelength radiation, collected a distinct fauna to Actinic bulbs, which emit primarily short-wave radiation. Species composition also varied between Actinic bulbs which differ in brightness, with brighter Actinic traps tending to collect a larger proportion of large-winged species. 5. We provide robust support for the ‘mobility hypothesis’ whereby large-winged, strong flying moths are more strongly affected by artificial light (in moth traps or from other sources), suggesting selective pressure against large winged species in landscapes affected by artificial light at night (ALAN). Our findings have significant consequences for survey design, citizen science projects, and for understanding the impact of ALAN on the moth community.
... Butterfly abundance data were obtained from the UKBMS over the period 1976-2020 (Botham et al., 2020), representing weekly counts of adult butterflies over 26 weeks from the beginning of April until the end of September along fixed routes at specific monitored sites, provided that the weather conditions were favorable for butterfly activity (Pollard and Yates, 1994). This monitoring procedure was repeated annually, allowing for a comparison among years at a particular site as well as among sites. ...
... En aquestes estacions s'hi duen a terme comptatges de papallones seguint la metodologia BMS (Pollard & Yates 1993), la qual parteix de recomptes visuals d'exemplars adults de papallones diürnes al llarg d'un transsecte en què es compten les papallones que estan a una distància de 5 m per davant i als costats de l'observador. El transsecte consta de diverses seccions corresponents a hàbitats diferents i es recorre un cop per setmana, de l'1 de març al 30 de setembre, a una velocitat constant. ...
Mud-puddling: A study of butterfly puddling sites in Catalonia Some butterflies and other insects acquire nutrients from puddles, stream banks, rotting fruit, carrion, excrement and even sweat. This behaviour, which is called mud-puddling, produces a calling effect generating butterfly clusters. It has been widely studied in tropical areas, however, there are still many gaps in knowledge in temperate latitudes. The work presented is a study of this behaviour in two locations in Catalonia, one in the Alpine region and another in the humid Mediterranean region. This work combines censuses of diurnal butterflies in the chosen puddles with data from the Catalan Butterfly Monitoring Scheme (CBMS) and the use of photo-trapping cameras, during the summer 2022. In the censuses, 1462 individuals of 70 species, mainly belonging to Lycaenidae and Hesperiidae, have been observed. Also, Lycaenidae, Hesperiidae and Pieridae prefer puddles and excrement, while Nymphalinae and Satyrinae combine puddles and flora exu-dates. Our results also show that the participants are mainly young males, that there is an activity peak between 12 a.m. and 2 p.m. in both localities and that butterflies' activity leaking from puddles increases with the temperature except for extreme temperatures (38-40 ºC). The study highlights many gaps in knowledge related to this behaviour in temperate latitudes that should be taken into account in future works: such as puddles function in drought periods and predation rate suffered by butterflies.
[CAT] Resum
El mud-puddling, o beure del fang, és un comportament que tenen algunes papallones i altres insectes d'adquirir nutrients que es troben a tolls enfangats, marges de rieres, fruita podrida, excrements, carronya i, fins i tot, suor. Aquest comportament, que produeix un efecte crida que genera «abeuradors de papallones», ha estat molt estudiat en zones tropicals, mentre que en latituds temperades és poc conegut. El treball que es presenta és un estudi sobre aquest comportament en dues localitats de Catalunya, situades a la regió alpina i la regió me-diterrània humida. Aquest treball combina censos de papallones diürnes en els abeuradors escollits amb dades del Programa de seguiment de papallones de Catalunya (CBMS) i l'ús de càmeres de fototrampeig durant l'estiu del 2022. En els censos s'han observat 1462 individus de 70 espècies, pertanyents sobretot als licènids i hespèrids. Hem detectat també que els licènids, hespèrids i pièrids prefereixen beure del fang i d'excrements, mentre que els nimfalins i satirins combinen beure del fang i d'exsudats d'arbres o flors. Els resultats també mostren que els mascles joves són els que més duen a terme aquest comportament, que hi ha un pic d'activitat a mig matí a totes dues localitats i que l'activitat augmenta amb la temperatura exceptuant temperatures extremes (38-40 ºC). L'estudi destaca mancances de coneixement entorn a aquest comportament en latituds temperades que caldria tenir en compte en futurs treballs, com la funció dels abeuradors en períodes de sequera i la taxa de depredació que hi pateixen les papallones. Paraules clau: Abeurador, mud-puddling, beure del fang, papallones diürnes, comportament, càmeres de fototrampeig, regió mediterrània, regió alpina, temperatura, precipitació, patró d'activitat.
... The whole study was classified into four seasons to record the diversity upon abundance of flora in each season. Pollard walk method (Pollard 1979, Pollard andYates 1993) was adopted for observing butterflies, i.e., walking along the fixed paths while recording and collecting the species. The observation width was limited to about 5 M. Butterflies were observed from 8:00 hrs to 12.00 hrs twice in a week .The study was restricted to spotting, digital recording, collecting and releasing the specimen as and when required for confirming the species. ...
Kisan P.G. College, Simbhaoli, Hapur, contains a large quantity of green spaces. Kisan P.G. College Simbhaoli with its plant diversity in the form of small grassland, scrubland and some dense green belt area provide good habitat for butterfly’s species. Moving vehicles cause heavy metal toxicity, and high sulphur dioxide in the air is particular harmful to butterflies. During smog episodes, the caterpillar mortality was very high and only a few to survive to turn into full-fledged butterflies. People are happy because the brightly coloured flyers are flourishing in the lockdown period. With the pollution load dropping due to lockdown, butterflies seem to be doing extremely well. Butterflies have a shorter life, so it wasn’t easy to determine the effect of lockdown in the beginning, but over the weeks, it is evident that the butterfly populations have gone up dramatically. They may have been aided by stoppage in human activity. The present study was carried out to assess the Butterfly diversity from 1 February 2019 to 31 December 2020 by applying standard technique. During the study period, a total of 53 species of butterflies belonging to 5 families were observed.
... Throughout the study, exclusively during clear and sunny conditions, the censuses started from a different vegetation type transect and/or in a different direction to avoid order effects. Any butterfly visiting a flower within 10 m on either side of the transect or flying along it were counted, following the method of Pollard & Yates [32]. The term "flower visit" was used to describe the act of a butterfly species probing for nectar, which was recorded from the instant the proboscis was inserted into the corolla until it was withdrawn. ...
Habitat disturbance driven by human activities poses a major threat to biodiversity and can disrupt ecological interactions. Butterfly–plant mutualisms represent an ideal model system to study such anthropogenic impacts, as butterflies exhibit intimate dependencies on larval host plants and adult nectar sources, rendering them highly sensitive to habitat changes affecting the availability of these floral resources. This study examined flower-visiting butterfly communities and their associations with flowering plants in a landscape altered by anthropogenic factors in central Mexico. The study area encompassed a mosaic of vegetation types, including native juniper forests, agricultural lands, and introduced eucalyptus plantations, representing different degrees of human-induced habitat modification. Monthly surveys were conducted over a single year, covering both rainy and dry seasons, to analyze butterfly and plant diversity, community composition, and interactions. Results showed the highest diversity in juniper forests, followed by eucalyptus and agricultural sites. Seasonal turnover was the primary driver of community changes, with habitat-based segregation persisting within seasons. Butterfly diversity strongly correlated with flower abundance, while plant richness played a secondary role. SIMPER and indicator species analyses identified key taxa contributing to compositional dissimilarities among habitats and associated with specific vegetation types and seasons. Our research provides insights into temporal dynamics structuring butterfly–plant interactions across this forest disturbance spectrum, highlighting how habitat changes and seasonality shape these mutualistic communities in changing landscapes.
Multispecies indicators are an important source of information for quantifying changes in biodiversity. An example is the European Grassland Butterfly Indicator, which gives a trend of 17 species characteristic of European grasslands using data from different European Butterfly Monitoring Schemes. However, adapting this indicator to the regional scale is problematic for several reasons, including changes in habitat preferences in different parts of a species’ range, as well as significant loss of information in highly diverse regions where many local species associate with grasslands. Here we develop a regional indicator that uses data of 143 species present in the Catalan Butterfly Monitoring Scheme, but that weights their contribution according to their degree of association with open habitats. This indicator showed a decline of 54.6% over three decades, substantially higher than a downward trend of 39% when calculated without weighting. Although similar results were obtained using fewer species, the accuracy of the estimates increased dramatically as more species were added to the indicator. Using the same data set but giving more weight to forest species, we also developed a forest indicator. This indicator showed a decline of only 18.1%, in line with the fact that forest species are favoured by widespread land abandonment but are negatively affected by climate change in the Mediterranean region. In summary, our method represents a flexible and powerful tool for assessing biodiversity trends in grasslands and forests at a regional scale. Moreover, it is applicable to other taxa for which comprehensive monitoring data exist.
Urbanization drives biodiversity loss, but green spaces in Pontianak City may still serve as important refuges for butterflies. This study aims to assess butterfly species richness across different habitat types in Pontianak City, including agricultural, agroforestry, city parks, suburban areas, and marginal lands. Data were collected using the time-constrained counts method with a 30-minute observation period per site. Species richness was estimated using Chao1 estimator, diversity was analyzed with Hill numbers, and species composition was compared using the Chao-Sørensen similarity. A total of 438 individuals from 50 species were recorded. Agroforestry, suburban areas, and city parks exhibited relatively similar levels of species richness (28, 26, and 25 species, respectively), with agroforestry demonstrating the highest species richness and diversity (Shannon = 20, Simpson = 16). Conversely, agricultural areas (14 species) and marginal lands (7 species) showed comparatively lower species richness. The highest estimated species richness was found in city park habitats (36 species). Agricultural and marginal lands had the highest species similarity (0.77), whereas agroforestry and marginal lands had the lowest (0.22). These findings highlight agroforestry, suburban areas, and city parks as key conservation areas for butterflies. Habitat management strategies should prioritize these habitats to support butterfly diversity in Pontianak City.
The shift towards “close-to-nature forestry” in Central Europe led to an area-wide decrease of open forest structures and a decline of many photophilous species or taxa. One of them, the endemic taxon Zygaena angelicae elegans, only occurs on the western margin of the Swabian Alb, Germany. Five of only 37 (mostly small) populations became extinct since 2000; hence, this evolutionary significant unit is at the verge of extinction. We assessed landscape-scale drivers of population persistence by comparing contemporary surveys with data from the 1990s and analysed larval microhabitat selection to provide target values for habitat management, which we tested in a case example. While population size was highest in open, south-exposed slopes, population persistence strongly decreased with increasing distance to the next occupied patch, with high extinction risk above 1.3–1.5 km. Occurrence and abundance of larvae was mostly driven by afternoon insolation (> 135 min) and the availability and height of the larval host plant Coronilla coronata (> 15 and > 25 cm for occurrence and abundance, respectively), which in turn depended on low canopy (< 61%) and shrub cover (< 26%).
Implications for insect conservation
Habitat management reducing forest encroachment based on these thresholds resulted in an immediate boost of local population size. Management plans targeting a stable metapopulation must focus on the expansion of current relict habitats and creation of new habitats in close vicinity (1.5 km) to existing populations, with rapid population responses indicating that a consequent implementation may save the highly endangered taxon from extinction.
Butterflies are key indicators of urban biodiversity and one of the most vulnerable organism groups to environmental changes. This study, conducted from June 2023 to November 2023 in Colombo, Sri Lanka, aimed to assess the composition and biodiversity of butterflies in two urban habitats: the 'Diyasaru' Wetland Park (urban park) and a home garden in Colombo. Data were collected at each location using the plot sampling method in an area of the same extent during five sampling events (8:00–8:15 am, 10:00–10:15 am, 12:00–12:15 pm, 2:00–2:15 pm, and 4:00–4:15 pm). Species composition, monthly variation and diurnal variation of butterfly species and diversity, of five sampling events were analyzed. Correlation analysis was used to find the relationships between cloud cover, wind speed, and butterfly abundance and richness. Both sites recorded five butterfly families (Papilionidae, Pieridae, Nymphalidae, Lycaenidae, and Hesperiidae), with 33 species in 'Diyasaru' Wetland Park and 31 species in the home garden, predominantly from the Nymphalidae family. Monthly and diurnal variations revealed notable fluctuations, particularly in the Nymphalidae and Pieridae families. The highest richness value and Shannon–Wiener's diversity index were recorded at both the home garden (29, 2.76) and 'Diyasaru' Wetland Park (24, 2.69) during the 12:00 pm to 12:15 pm time event. Correlation analysis revealed, that in 'Diyasaru' Wetland Park, Pieridae and Hesperiidae positively correlated with cloud cover, majority of families (except Lycaenidae) and species richness correlated positively with wind speed. In the home garden, Pieridae correlated positively with cloud cover, and Nymphalidae, Pieridae, and Papilionidae showed positive correlations with wind speed. These results underscore the conservation potential of urban spaces like parks and home gardens for butterfly populations. Effective management and public awareness initiatives are essential to mitigate urbanization's impacts and enhance urban biodiversity.
В статье представлены результаты многолетних наблюдений за динамикой состава, численности и встречаемости булавоусых чешуекрылых на восточном макросклоне Полярного Урала в среднем течении р. Собь. Установлено, что в период с 1993 г. по 2023 г. число зарегистрированных видов увеличилось с 56 до 74. Коренной состав локальной фауны выявлен полностью и насчитывает 45 видов, остальные относятся к категории сезонных мигрантов и адвентивных видов, проникших на изучаемую территорию в последние три десятилетия. Расселение видов шло на фоне обозначившейся тенденции к потеплению климата по речным долинам и вдоль железнодорожной ветки, пересекающей осевую часть Урала. Выросла численность и встречаемость многих представителей интразонального комплекса, значительная часть адвентивных видов успешно натурализовалась в местных природных сообществах.
Study documents butterfly diversity of suburban and rural stretches of district Hooghly located in southern West Bengal within the Saraswati-Ganga floodplain. Here five habitat patches were considered varying from fruit orchards with closed canopy cover, bamboo forest to open agroecosystem or suburbs with varying anthropogenic activity as study sites during a survey spanning March, 2022 to February, 2024. Overall, 53 butterfly species from five families of Hesperiidae (16.98 %), Papilionidae (15.09 %), Pieriidae (20.75 %), Nymphalidae (28.04 %) and Lycaenidae (16.98 %) were identified. Abundance of butterflies found to be positively correlated with the arrival of monsoon and availability of diverse host plants with relatively low disturbance. Parallel to this a botanical survey records 61 species from 24 families of nectaring and egg-laying host plants. Family Nymphalidae showed broad choice for host plants (14 families) compared to the others. Study also documents the biotope preferences in butterflies and host plant similarities (iso-vegetational similarities) within the habitat patches depending on the species availability.
The rising introduction of invasive species through trade networks threatens biodiversity and ecosystem services. Yet, we have a limited understanding of how transportation networks determine spatiotemporal patterns of range expansion. This knowledge gap may stem from two reasons. First, current analytical models fail to integrate the invader's life‐history dynamics with heterogeneity in human‐mediated dispersal patterns. Second, classical statistical methods often fail to provide reliable estimates of model parameters, such as the time and place of species introduction and life‐history characteristics, due to spatial biases in the presence‐only records and lack of informative demographic data. To address these gaps, we first formulate an age‐structured metapopulation model that uses a probability matrix to emulate human‐mediated dispersal patterns. The model reveals that an invader spreads radially along the shortest network path, such that the inter‐patch network distances decrease with increasing traffic volume and reproductive value of hitchhikers. Next, we propose a hierarchical Bayesian statistical method to estimate model parameters using presence‐only data and prior demographic knowledge. To show the utility of the statistical approach, we analyze zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) expansion in North America through the inland commercial shipping network. Our analysis suggests that zebra mussels might have been introduced before 1981, indicating a lag of 5 years between the time of introduction and first detection in late 1986. Furthermore, using our statistical model, we estimated a one in three chance that they were introduced near Kingsville (Ontario, Canada), where they were first reported. We also find that survival, fecundity, and dispersal during early life (1–2 years) play a critical role in determining the expansion success of these mollusks. These results underscore the importance of fusing prior scientific knowledge with observation and demographic processes in a Bayesian framework for conceptual and practical understanding of how invasive species spread by human agency.
Several studies have highlighted the global decline of pollinator insects, with Lepidoptera being particularly affected in large parts of Europe in recent decades. Given the important biogeographic and conservation implications from faunal studies on the large Mediterranean islands, we focused on assessing butterfly diversity within the Culuccia Peninsula in north-eastern Sardinia (Italy). This area, characterized by an environmental mosaic largely untouched by human activities over the last century, is still unknown in terms of flora and fauna. For this reason, we compiled the first butterfly checklist of the Culuccia Peninsula and produced a detailed land cover map of the area to investigate the influence of the land use classes on Lepidoptera communities across seasons. The butterflies were sampled in five sessions from April to October 2022, along seven fixed transects selected to cover land use classes representative of natural and human-exploited areas for agriculture and grazing. Despite the small size of the study area, 23 of the 56 species present in Sardinia were recorded. The butterfly communities presented high dissimilarity across the different land use classes, which was driven primarily by species turnover. Significant differences in Lepidoptera diversity were observed between land cover classes with sparse vegetation and dense maquis, with higher species richness observed in the former. Shrub-dominated land use classes were associated with cooler butterfly communities compared to open environments, suggesting that they could serve as refugia in response to predicted climate change.
Citizen science platforms have revolutionized biodiversity monitoring by enabling large-scale data collection. However, concerns about potential biases, such as urban sampling bias, have raised questions about the quality and representativeness of these datasets. This study assesses the spatial distribution of butterfly observations collected through the citizen science platform Biodiversidad Virtual in the Iberian-Balearic region over a 23-year period (2000–2023). Butterfly records were classified into three ecosystem types—urban areas, grasslands, and forests—and three population density zones—urban, peri-urban, and rural areas—using land cover and population density maps. Temporal trends in observation growth and minimum distances of records to urban and rural areas were analyzed. The results show consistent growth in butterfly observations across all ecosystem types, with rural and natural areas contributing significantly more records than urban areas. Observations in grasslands exhibited the highest growth rate, followed by forests and urban areas. The analysis of distances revealed preference for recording biodiversity in natural areas, with records consistently closer to rural areas than urban centers. These findings challenge the perceived dominance of urban bias in citizen science datasets and highlight the capability of citizen science platforms to capture data from diverse ecosystems. This study shows that, for one of the most important georeferenced datasets on butterflies of the Iberian Peninsula, urban biases are minimal, and geographic representation is robust. Further research is recommended to examine cultural and regional factors in other databases, enhancing their application in ecological research and conservation planning.
This study compares the Lepidoptera diversity at two sites at Cotton Tree, Mahaica-Berbice, Guyana. This research was conducted in three phases. Phase one included the collection of Lepidopteran specimens from the sites. Phase two consisted of data identifying the sampled Lepidopteran specimens and phase three included the data analysis to compare the results and determine which of the two sites had the highest Lepidopteran diversity. Sampling plots of 1000-meter squares were taken at each of the two sites. During this field investigation, one thousand four hundred fourteen (1,449) Lepidopteran specimens composing of seventeen (17) families, forty-one (41) genera, and forty-four (44) species were recorded from the two (2) study sites. In addition, of the overall results of this study, eighteen (18) species of butterflies from sixteen (16) genera and five (5) families were sampled and recorded, whereas, twenty-six (26) species of moths from twenty-five (25) genera and twelve (12) families were documented and reported on. Site No. #1 and Site No. #2 both recorded thirty-six (36) Lepidopteran species. The communities were compared using Simpson's Diversity Index. Results showed that Site No. 2 Lepidopteran community had a higher species richness, species evenness, species diversity, and abundance than Site No. 1.
The conservation status of the species collected and observed in the Vesuvius Na-tional Park (VNP) and included in the Red List of Italian butterflies has not been monitored for 17 years; therefore, there is currently no knowledge of how the bio-diversity and populations of Rhopalocera have changed over these years. A list of 72 species of Lepidoptera with diurnal behaviour is reported. Five species are men-tioned for the first time for the Park. Catocala puerpera (Giorna, 1791) is men-tioned in Campania for the first time. Of particular interest are the findings of: Eu-plagia quadripunctaria (Poda, 1761), this specie is included in European Com-munity Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC); Cacyreus marshalli Butler, 1898, alien specie of South Africa origin; Glaucopsyche iolas (Ochsenheimer, 1816), that is considered "almost threatened" following IUNC Red List.
The goal of the current study was to compile a list of the butterfly species found in the 35-hectare Yeldari zone of Forest Park. Study was completed from Aug.2024 to Sep.2024. The present studies numbers of 36 species of butterflies of belonging order Lepidoptera and 5 Families Hesperiidae 2, Pieridae 7, Papilionidae 4, Nymphalidae 16, Lyaenidae 7 were recorded. We have recorded 36 species of butterflies in this study. In the present day, 452+ species are included in Wildlife (Protection) Act,1972. This Act has been included for protection and conservation The species diversity of butterflies of Forest Park, Yeldari. (Latitude 19° 72’ N; Longitude 76° 74’ E) is situated near the Yeldari Dam. Butterflies are also called flying flowers. A large number of butterfly host plants have been introduced in the park. Butterflies represent powerful and profound meanings of life.
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