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Listening Styles: Biological or Psychological Differences?
Abstract
In this investigation, listening was conceptualized as the process of how individuals perceive, process, remember, and understand oral messages (Bostrom, 1990; Rhodes, 1989; Watson and Barker, 1984; Wolvin & Coakley, 1992). Using the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI; Bem, 1976; Bem, 1985) and the Listening Styles Profile (Watson, Barker, & Weaver, 1995); four predominant listening styles were examined as a function of respondent sex and gender-role self-perception. Consistent with expectations, the data show that gender-role self-perception mediated reported listener styles. Independent of sex, the findings revealed that communal respondents prefer a people-oriented listening style; whereas agentic respondents prefer an action, time, and content-oriented listening style. Significant sex-differences were also evident in listening styles. Females reported a relational, people-oriented style of listening while males reported a more action, content, and time-oriented style of listening. Further, no sex by gender role self-perception interactions was evident. The implications of these findings for future research and application are discussed.
... Some people prefer to listen for facts or statistics, while others prefer personal examples. Some prefer to concentrate on content, while others prefer concise and 'to the point' presentations [11][12][13][14]. This variation reflects attitudes, beliefs, and predispositions toward the 'how' , 'where' , 'when' , 'who' , and 'what' of the information reception and encoding process. ...
... This variation reflects attitudes, beliefs, and predispositions toward the 'how' , 'where' , 'when' , 'who' , and 'what' of the information reception and encoding process. This concept is collectively referred to as 'listening style' [11,15]. ...
... Thus, it can be inferred that empathic listening encompasses a combination of listening styles that are used flexibly rather than a fixed preference for the relational or people-oriented listening styles [12,17]. Moreover, listening styles are more staterelated and contextual constructs in contrast to empathy that is more stable; In other words, people tend to have multiple preferred listening styles they employ in different settings [11]. ...
Background
Effective communication is the key to a successful relationship between doctors and their patients. Empathy facilitates effective communication, but physicians vary in their ability to empathize with patients. Listening styles are a potential source of this difference. We aimed to assess empathy and listening styles among medical students and whether students with certain listening styles are more empathetic.
Methods
In this cross-sectional study, 97 medical students completed the Jefferson scale of Empathy (JSE) and the revised version of the Listening Styles Profile (LSP-R). The relationship between empathy and listening styles was assessed by comparing JSE scores across different listening styles using ANOVA in SPSS software. A p-value less than 0.05 was considered significant.
Results
Overall, the students showed a mean empathy score of 103 ± 14 on JSE. Empathy scores were lower among clinical students compared to preclinical students. Most of the medical students preferred the analytical listening style. The proportion of students who preferred the relational listening style was lower among clinical students compared to preclinical students. There was no significant relationship between any of the listening styles with empathy.
Conclusion
Our results do not support an association between any particular listening style with medical students’ empathic ability. We propose that students who have better empathetic skills might shift between listening styles flexibly rather than sticking to a specific listening style.
... Some people prefer to listen for facts or statistics, while others prefer personal examples. Some prefer to concentrate on content, while others prefer concise and 'to the point' presentations (11)(12)(13)(14). This variation re ects attitudes, beliefs, and predispositions toward the 'how', 'where', 'when', 'who', and 'what' of the information reception and encoding process. ...
... This variation re ects attitudes, beliefs, and predispositions toward the 'how', 'where', 'when', 'who', and 'what' of the information reception and encoding process. This concept is collectively referred to as 'listening style' (11,15). ...
... Thus, it can be inferred that empathic listening encompasses a combination of listening styles that are used exibly rather than a xed preference for the relational or people-oriented listening styles (12). Moreover, listening styles are more state-related and contextual constructs in contrast to empathy that is more stable; In other words, people tend to have multiple preferred listening styles they employ in different settings (11). ...
Background: Effective communication is the key to a successful relationship between doctors and their patients. Empathy facilitates effective communication, but physicians vary in their ability to empathize with patients. Listening styles are a potential source of this difference.
We aimed to assess empathy and listening styles among medical students and whether students with certain listening styles are more empathetic.
Methods: In this cross-sectional study, 97 medical students completed the Jefferson scale of Empathy (JSE) and the revised version of the Listening Styles Profile (LSP-R). The relationship between empathy and listening styles was assessed by comparing JSE scores across different listening styles using ANOVA in SPSS software. A p-value less than 0.05 was considered significant.
Results: Overall, the students showed a mean empathy score of 103±14 on JSE. Empathy scores were lower among clinical students compared to preclinical students. Most of the medical students preferred the analytical listening style. The proportion of students who preferred the relational listening style was lower among clinical students compared to preclinical students. There was no significant relationship between any of the listening styles with empathy.
Conclusion: Our results do not support an association between any particular listening style with medical students' empathic ability. We propose that students who have better empathetic skills flexibly shift between listening styles rather than sticking to a specific listening style.
... Similarly, Weaver and Kirtley (1995) found this listening orientation positively associated with expressions of sympathy and empathy, and Chesebro (1999) found it related to conversational sensitivity. Previous studies suggest that women preference People listening (Johnston et al., 2000;Watson et al., 1995;Weaver et al., 1996). ...
... Action listeners tend to exhibit behaviors such as outline-listening, behaviors which reflect their concerns with clearly organized, direct messages. Sex differences have also been reported on LS, with men generally scoring higher than women (Johnston et al., 2000;Weaver etal., 1996). ...
... Engaging in "communicative time management" (Worthington, 2001), these listeners have a tendency to interrupt others and may discourage wordy speakers, whom they perceive as wasting time . Previous LS research suggests that men preference Time listening (Johnston et al., 2000;Weaver etal., 1996). ...
To further our understanding of listening as a cognitive process, a greater understanding of the relationship between listening and other personality and cognitive constructs is needed. To that end, this study explores the relationship between need for cognition and listening style preference. Results indicate that need for cognition is moderately associated with the Content listening style such that participants with higher need for cognition scores exhibit a higher preference for content listening.
... Action listeners are less likely to pay attention to the relational dimension of an interaction and are more likely to search in-coming messages for errors and inconsistencies. They generally favor logical, organized speakers who provide direct and to-the-point messages (Keyton & Rhodes, 1994;Barker & Watson, 2000). Action listeners often like listening in "outline form" and may leap to conclusions when listening (Barker & Watson, 2000). ...
... They generally favor logical, organized speakers who provide direct and to-the-point messages (Keyton & Rhodes, 1994;Barker & Watson, 2000). Action listeners often like listening in "outline form" and may leap to conclusions when listening (Barker & Watson, 2000). With regard to personality attributes. ...
... One important difference between Action and Content listeners is that Content listeners will work to withhold evaluation, gathering the facts needed to make an informed judgment. To that end, these listeners often will ask speakers to provide additional explanations or evidence to support their arguments and opinions (Barker & Watson, 2000). Listening style research related to personality characteristics has found the Content LS to be associated with extraversion (Weaver, 1998) and Thinking (Worthington, 2003). ...
This article expands on research identifying constructs underlying the listening process. Specifically, this empirical study explores the relationship between a person's tendency to engage in verbal aggressiveness and her or his listening style preference. Previous research has found verbal aggressiveness to be related to a variety of communication traits and dispositions (e.g., self esteem, credibility assessments, external locus of control). Results of the study found inverse relationships between verbal aggressiveness and People and Content listening (N = 167).
... These two dimensions of gender have been linked to listening preferences. Johnston, Weaver, Watson, and Barker (2000) report that individuals possessing a communal orientation prefer a person-centered listening style while individuals embracing an agentic orientation prefer a more task-oriented listening style. By using the four interval level measures of listening orientation measured by the LSP, we hope to further probe the relationship between gender-role and listening styles. ...
... The second canonical function coincides with previous research where an agentic orientation (i.e., higher masculinity and lower femininity) is associated with the other three listening orientations (Johnston et al., 2000). However, unlike prior studies which associated femininity with people-oriented listening and masculinity with content-, action-, and time-orientations in listening, this canonical analysis indicates that people-oriented listening is associated with both high femininity and high masculinity. ...
Extending past research, the present study provides an initial examination of the relationship between trait-like personality variables, communicator style, and individual listening preferences. A series of canonical correlations were run to ascertain to what degree certain communication preferences and trait-like personality variables are related to preferences for receiving information. Results indicated a similar pattern of listening styles is found regardless of the variables under question adding validity to the newly formed scoring method for the LSP. Specifically, people-orientation was advocated by a more competent, caring individual who enjoys conversation and is able to juggle affection with accomplishing conversational goals. The combination of high content- and action-orientations in listening is associated with a more masculine personality and greater tendency to engage in active, precise, and impression leaving arguments. High time and action (and to a lesser extent people) orientations correlates with high neuroticism and a high motive for control. Finally, individuals reporting time- and content-orientations also report high psychoticism and prefer a friendlier, more open communication style.
... Listening has always been discussed as a sequence of perceiving and processing activities which can occur in different varieties. Changes in the character of listening have been associated with the very purpose for listening (Wolvin & Coakley, 1996), with the type of interaction possible or required in a listening situation (Rost, 1990), but also with personal dispositions (Sargent, Fitch-Hauser, & Weaver, 1997; Weaver, Watson, & Barker, 1996), gender in particular (Johnston, Weaver, Watson & Barker, 2000; Purdy & Newman, 1999; Sargent & Weaver, 2003; Tannen, 1990), and cultural context (Hall, 1970; Kiewitz, Weaver, Brosius, & Weimann, 1997). Research along these lines suggests that there are trait-like individual patterns of listening styles, on the one hand, and, on the other hand, that there is also considerable variability in the patterns of listening behavior. ...
... found that males endorse action, content, and time oriented listening more strongly than females who prefer a people oriented listening style (cf. also Johnston, Weaver, Watson, & Barker, 2000). Since significant shifts in listening behavior occurred from people to action orientation depending on the nature of a listening situation, one may wonder if the differences found in earlier studies might rather be due to the different situations that females and males had in mind as they filled out the questionnaires than due to genuine gender specific behavior. ...
Using the Barker & Watson Listening Styles Profile (2000), this study investigates the adaptability of individual listening profiles to varying listening contexts (study, family, friends, work) and listening goals. A sample of 50 students completed the Listening Styles Profile for three different situations of their choice. Stability and variability of the profiles were explored. Results suggest considerable intraindividual variability in listening orientation. This may have ramifications both for further research and for listening training, since aspects of the situation and the setting need to be taken into account more systematically.
... Gender differences in listening skills do exist. Listening training should consider the sex role socialization (Borisoff and Hahn 1997; Booth-Butterfield 1984) and the gender role self-perceptions (Kirtley Johnston et al. 2000) of each participant and train participants to make the proper adjustments. For example, since males tend to listen for facts, while females listen for the emotions behind the communication (c.f., Kirtley Johnston et al. 2000), both genders should probably be trained in the opposite type of listening. ...
... Listening training should consider the sex role socialization (Borisoff and Hahn 1997; Booth-Butterfield 1984) and the gender role self-perceptions (Kirtley Johnston et al. 2000) of each participant and train participants to make the proper adjustments. For example, since males tend to listen for facts, while females listen for the emotions behind the communication (c.f., Kirtley Johnston et al. 2000), both genders should probably be trained in the opposite type of listening. Training should also highlight differences that occur in mixed-sex communication dyads (e.g., a female listening to a male). ...
The primary purpose of this study was further testing of the ILPS scale (Castleberry, et al. 1999). The sample consisted of 101 salespeople from three business-to-business firms in the Midwest. In addition to the ILPS exhibiting good reliability, results are consistent with prior research indicating a significant positive relationship between listening ability and salesperson performance. Results also found a significant positive relationship between listening ability and adaptability and age. Contrary to past salesperson listening research, females were found to be better listeners than men, and there was no significant relationship between listening and salesperson experience. Implications for managers and researchers are offered.
... Mindfulness requires an attentive attitude towards the speakers and active 'de-automated' listening skills (cf. Johnston et al., 2000). In the conversational-analytic views, affiliation or affinity occurs in "claiming access to and understanding of the teller's stance […] to endorse the teller's perspective" (Stivers, 2008, p. 32). ...
... Mindfulness requires an attentive attitude towards the speakers and active 'de-automated' listening skills (cf. Johnston et al., 2000). In the conversational-analytic views, affiliation or affinity occurs in "claiming access to and understanding of the teller's stance […] to endorse the teller's perspective" (Stivers, 2008, p. 32). ...
Empathy and mindfulness, that require an attentive attitude towards the speakers, plus de-automated listening skills and collaborative discourses of American and Polish counselors-in-training, are analyzed for developmental patterns and cross-cultural comparisons. The results of the mixed methods analysis reveal that American counselors-in-raining outrank their Polish counterparts in both affective and cognitive empathy, suggesting their greater metacognitive and empathic awareness. By contrast, Polish counselors-in-training show greater focus on people and content during listening (rather than time, for example), which suggests their aural mindfulness. Developmental (pre-/post comparisons) and cross-cultural patterns identified in the (meta)discursive analysis of 124 audio-recorded counseling sessions suggest differential conceptualizations of mindfulness and empathy as expressed in professional discourse by the American and Polish counseling-students. While the American counseling discourse features mostly implicit stance, attenuated and sentiment-rich counseling moves, the Polish discourse showcases epistemic/ evidence-rich reasoning and intersubjective, camaraderie-building ‘social-lubrication.’ Cross-cultural differences reflect different conceptualizations of client needs. Implications are offered for active-listening modification (for the US counseling-students) and multi-dimensionality of empathic-awareness and expression (for the Polish students) in order to enhance mindfulness in counseling-techniques, pedagogy, and/ or therapy-sessions.
... There were no significant differences between the Active Listening and Active Participation scores of the students based on gender. Johnston, Weaver, Watson & Barker (2000) reported in their study titled "Listening Styles: Biological and Psychological Differences" that females had a relational, people-oriented listening style, while males had more action, content and time-oriented listening styles. Başkan and Özkan (2019) investigated Turkish pre-service teachers' listening styles and found that there was a significant difference between "relational listening" dimension scores based on the gender variable and this difference favored the female pre-service teachers. ...
In the present study, emotional intelligence and academic listening skill levels of pre-service teachers and the correlations between these variables were determined. Furthermore, the emotional intelligence levels and academic listening competencies of pre-service teachers were also investigated based on the variables of gender, department, and the preference of the department of study. The study group included 361 freshmen pre-service teachers attending the Faculty of Education and the study was conducted with survey method, a quantitative research method. The study data were collected with the “Academic Listening Skill Competency Scale” and “Rotterdam Emotional Intelligence Scale”. In the study, the regression analysis was conducted to determine the causality between emotional intelligence scores and academic listening skill scores revealed significant findings. The study findings demonstrated that “Total Emotional Intelligence” scores of the students reflected above average emotional intelligence levels. It was determined that the academic listening skill competency scores of the pre-service teachers were above average in both scale sub-dimensions and the total scale score. The results of regression analysis showed that the causality between Total Emotional Intelligence and Total Academic Listening Skills was significant.
... Information giving behavior may include disclosing information with varying degrees of depth, and it serves to alert physicians about patients' current health chronic conditions and symptoms (Johnson, 1996). Time-oriented listeners may seek health information about their chronic illness, but also monitor the length of medical consultations (Johnson, Weaver, Watson, & Barker, 2000). Because time listeners adjust conversations to their time preferences, they may provide and seek relevant health information at their own time convenience. ...
Listening skills are invaluable in health care settings to reduce medical errors and miscommunications, and to facilitate health care interactions and patient–physician relationships. The aim of this study was to explore the relationships between patients’ listening styles and the four components of medical communication competence. Regression analyses were used to examine and identify the associations between listening styles and medical communication competence among 522 self-identified chronically ill patients. Findings revealed associations between the four listening styles, information giving, information seeking, information verifying, and socioemotional communication. Implications suggest listening style preferences may affect patients’ medical communication competence in medical consultation visits.
... Information giving behavior may include disclosing information with varying degrees of depth, and it serves to alert physicians about patients' current health chronic conditions and symptoms (Johnson, 1996). Time-oriented listeners may seek health information about their chronic illness, but also monitor the length of medical consultations (Johnson, Weaver, Watson, & Barker, 2000). Because time listeners adjust conversations to their time preferences, they may provide and seek relevant health information at their own time convenience. ...
The purpose of this study was to examine the role of self-compassion as a predictor and mediator of the relationship between patient self-advocacy and patient satisfaction in health care. A sample of 522 patients completed a questionnaire that asked for their perceptions of their own self-compassion, patient self-advocacy behaviors, including illness education, assertiveness, and mindful nonadherence, and patient satisfaction. This study found that both patient self-advocacy and self-compassion were positive predictors of patient satisfaction. More specifically, patients’ illness education and assertiveness positively influenced patients’ satisfaction with their physician. Self-compassion was also shown to be a mediator between patient self-advocacy and patient satisfaction. The implications of these findings and future directions are also discussed.
... Because content listeners tend to strive for objectivity and fairness, they may be more likely to engage in compassion toward others (Worthington, 2003). Since sex and educational levels are known to affect listening styles and compassion (Johnston, Weaver, Watson, & Barker, 2000;Weaver, Watson, & Barker, 1996), sex and education level will be controlled, and based on the previous social listening styles literature, the following hypotheses are posed. ...
The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of the four listening styles of business communication students on their demonstration of compassion for others and themselves. A sample of 387 business students completed a questionnaire that inquired about their perceptions of their preferred listening style, their compassion for others, and their self-compassion for those in a given organization. This study found that people listening positively affected both compassion and self-compassion. Another finding was that action listening negatively affected both compassion and self-compassion. Other findings are also discussed along with future directions.
... Several research studies have treated listening styles variously: as a set of attitudes, beliefs, predispositions, psychological gender roles, or social-cultural orientations that an individual takes toward people, action, content, and time (Dragan & Sherblom, 2008;Imhof, 2004;Imhof & Janusik, 2006;Johnston, Weaver, Watson, & Barker, 2000;Watson et al., 1995). These studies assume that the listening style adopted represents an underlying cognitive schema that a person uses, either habitually or situationally, to facilitate the processing of social information and understand the conversational experience (Gearhart, Denham, & Bodie, 2014;Vickery, Keaton, & Bodie, 2015). ...
Communication scholars conceptualize communication as constitutive of meaning, arguing that we must place communication first as a primary, fundamental explanation, not as a secondary phenomenon to be explained by psychological antecedents (Cooren, 2012; Craig, 1999; Hecht, 1993; Luhmann, 1992; Manning, 2014). The present study uses a constitutive communication approach to model the relationship of listening to the cognitive states of hope, emotional intelligence, stress, and life satisfaction. A path analysis model lends support to the constitutive communication perspective, indicating that listening styles are predictive of hope, emotional intelligence, stress, and life satisfaction.
... ticipants in this study were enrolled in education which may entail that they share a concern for people and that females and males have more in common in this particular group than they otherwise would. This interpretation can be supported by findings which show that listening styles may be determined by personality just as much as by biology (cf. Johnston, Weaver, Watson & Barker, 2000). Whatever the answer will be to the problem, this pattern of results suggests that gender issues be more carefully investigated and that some more fine-grained distinctions ought to be used in the research designs. If gender plays a role in listening, its role is mitigated by listening goals and contexts, especially the nature of the l ...
The differences in the assessment of good and poor listening behavior varies across different situations, perceived levels of listener status, and cultures are investigated using a paper‐pencil questionnaire and different scenarios to collect data. A total of 134 students were sampled in the US and in Germany. Results show that participants' accounts for good and poor listening behavior is subject to significant inter‐ and intra‐cultural variation due to relevant situational factors which determine the character of a listening episode.
... As the listener creates meaning, the "degree of congruence between the cognitions of a listener and the cognitions of a source" (Mulanax and Powers, 2001, p. 70) yields listening fidelity (accuracy). Listening research demonstrates that many psychological variables -including listening styles (Johnson, Weaver, Watson, and Barker, 2000;Mullen and Narain, 2005;Worthington, 2004), apprehension (Schrodt and Wheeless, 2001), and perceptions (Ryan, Kwong See, Meneer, and Trovato, 1994) -influence the way listeners create their meaning from the listening experience. "Successful message reception … requires an understanding of the goals and intentions of the communicator as well as the literal implications of the message being transmitted," note Wyer and Adaval (2003, p. 292), confounded by the listener's purpose and expectations of the complexities of the communication. ...
In this chapter Wolvin reviews some of the principal research and theory in listening in order to provide a foundation for building listening theory. Recognizing that a great deal of work has been done in the study of listening, he proposes that this work can be char- acterized from physiological, psychological, sociological, and communicative perspectives which frame an engagement theory of listening. These perspectives can enable listening scholars, teachers, and practitioners to identify more fully the principles underlying their work in this important communication function. Powers (1995) has offered a conceptual model for understanding the intellectual structure of the communication field, suggesting that we can organize our knowledge into tiers: content and form of messages; communicators; levels of communication; and communication con- texts. Interestingly, most of the theory that groups in the "communica- tors" category centers on the communicator as producer/sender of the communication messages.1 The communicator as receiver/processor has been given short shrift in the communication discipline (Hewes and Graham, 1989). A look at the texts designed for the "Introduction to Communication" course so popular in the 21st century communication curriculum demonstrates how little attention we pay to the receiver. Littlejohn's (1999) seminal text with its chapter on "Theories of Message Reception and Processing" is one important exception. Yet a theoretical foundation for understanding the message receiver, the listener, is critical to an integrated theory of communication. 1 Powers does offer some recognition of the decoding and processing of messages and the effects of messages on recipients in his consideration of the nature of the individual communicator.
Although there is no consensus on the appropriate application of family mediation, research on how a family mediator will be "good" and also what skills they should have has drawn attention to some points. In this study, an effective family mediator is knowledgeable, has advanced conflict resolution skills, has basic knowledge of all stages of divorce and additional expertise that may be required to resolve conflict, is an active listener, patient, can communicate correctly with the parties, can create a sense of trust, respects values, has control. The importance of being a person who can hold hands, manage the emotional transitions of the parties, discover the underlying needs and move them towards a solution, listen and act with empathy was emphasized and the contents were explained. Family mediation requires the practitioner to be able to master a range of skills. Family Mediators are involved in a complex effort in the process. Mastering these skills and ensuring their effective use requires full and complete integration. Time and experience is the best guide.
This is the second neurocognitive study of language assessments produced in our lab. In addition to the experiment, we have proposed the concept of neurocognitive validity in language assessment. We are working towards expanding on this framework. We believe neurocognitive approaches to learning and assessment will be the future of education, and it is best that pertinent frameworks be proposed and tested now.
With the advent of new technologies, assessment research has adopted technology-
based methods to investigate test validity. This study investigated the
neurocognitive processes involved in an academic listening comprehension
test, using a biometric technique called functional near-infrared spectroscopy
(fNIRS). Sixteen right-handed university students completed two tasks: (1)
a linguistic task that involved listening to a mini-lecture (i.e., Listening condition)
and answering of questions (i.e., Questions condition) and (2) a nonlinguistic
task that involved listening to a variety of natural sounds and animal
vocalizations (i.e., Sounds condition). The hemodynamic activity in three left
brain regions was measured: the inferior frontal gyrus (IFG), dorsomedial
prefrontal cortex (dmPFC), and posterior middle temporal gyrus (pMTG). The
Listening condition induced higher activity in the IFG and pMTG than the
Sounds condition. Although not statistically significant, the activity in the
dmPFC was higher during the Listening condition than in the Sounds conditions.
The IFG was also significantly more active during the Listening condition
than in the Questions condition. Although a significant gender difference was
observed in listening comprehension test scores, there was no difference in
brain activity (across the IFG, dmPFC, and pMTG) between male and female
participants. The implications for test validity are discussed.
Background
Effective communication and empathy are fundamental to nurse-patient relationships and good nursing practice. Although the importance of listening is widely accepted in the nursing practice, little research exists regarding the empathic and listening styles of undergraduate nursing students.
Purpose
This study investigated empathic and listening styles of first year nursing students. Method: A cross-sectional study of 135 first year Bachelor of Nursing (BN) students from one Australian university completed paper-based versions of the revised Listening Styles Profile (LSP) and Active-Empathic Listening Scale (AELS).
Results
Participants reported strong preference for ‘people’ listening style and ‘responding’ empathic listening process. No statistically significant differences were found between male and female students. People-oriented LSP was strongly correlated with the three stages of AELS, Content-oriented LSP was strongly correlated with Processing and with Responding AELS and Action-oriented LSP was strongly correlated with Processing AELS.
Conclusion
It is not only important that communication skills training exists in the nursing curriculum but ensuring that knowledge learnt in the classroom is transferred to the clinical setting. Nurses must consistently implement active listening techniques and effective communication skills with all patients.
Recognizing the goal-directed nature of listening, this study investigates how listening style preferences relate to the development of parasocial relationships with hosts of popular media. Participants (N = 149) completed an online questionnaire which asked participants to identify their favorite media host(s), complete the revised listening styles profile, and complete a measure of parasocial relationships. The results of three exploratory research questions reveal that even with a wide variety of reported favorite media hosts, respondents frequently follow their favorite host(s) on social media and that YouTube, in addition to television, is a popular way to access rich visual and audio programming from host(s). Relational listening, in particular, emerges as an important predictor of the strength of parasocial relationships with media personas. We discuss theoretical and practical recommendations for future research at the crossroads of listening, interpersonal communication, and media studies.
Provincial education supervisors visit primary schools twice a year. Especially, since the aim of supervision is to provide guidance to the teachers during the first visit, teachers could be able to discuss with the supervisors openly the professional assistance they need and the difficulties they face at school. Provincial education supervisors have the skills to be listening to teachers' needs, interests and ideas is an effective tool for understanding. In the research, according to teacher views, provincal education supervisors’ listening skills are analyzed depending on some variables primary school teachers and their principals have. The research is in the general survey model. The study population consists of 24614 teachers working in Konya in 2011-2012 academic years. The study sample consists of randomly selected 251 primary school principals and 882 primary school teachers. The research tries to determine whether the teachers’ and the principals’ educational background, professional seniority, branch, duty and gender affect their perception on the provincal education supervisors’ listening skills
Insan sosyal bir varlik olarak toplumda yasamak zorundadir. Bundan dolayi icinde yasadigi toplumun, kulturun, ozelliklerini, kosullarini cesitli boyutlarda tanimak, toplumsal sorunlarin farkina varmak icin ogrencilerin sosyoloji disiplininin ilke ve kavramlarini ogrenmesi bir gereklilik gibi gorunmektedir. Ogrenicinin merkezde oldugu, arastirma, sorgulama becerisinin gelistirildigi, etkinlik temelli, bireysel farkliliklarin temele alindigi, farki zeka alanlarinin gelistirildigi, ogrencinin aktif katildigi ogretim yontemi olan basamakli ogretim yonteminin kullanilmasi sosyoloji dersinin daha etkili ve verimli olmasini saglayacaktir. Basamakli ogretim programi, ogrenenlerin farkli ogrenme yollarina ve farkli ilgi alanlarina sahip olduklari varsayimina dayanarak, ogrenenlerin bireysel sorumluluklar aldiklari, bilginin birincil kaynaklardan edinildigi, cagdas ogretim yontemidir. Bu makalede basamakli ogretim yonteminin 11.sinif sosyoloji dersinde ornek etkinlikler yoluyla, nasil uygulanabilecegi gosterilmeye calisilmistir.
The current study applies the Listening Styles Profile (LSP16) to nurses and nursing students. Compared to a control group (n = 102), nurses (n = 188) and nursing students (n = 206) show marked differences in listening styles. The majority of participants were people-oriented listeners. People-oriented nurses tend to be more knowledgeable about domestic abuse, as well as hospital policies and procedures. They are also the most confident about their ability to identify and assist victims of domestic abuse. Content-oriented listening is also conducive to effective screening, but time-oriented and action-oriented listening may be detrimental to patients. Implications for nursing education and effective screening are discussed.
Considerable research has been conducted testing Rauscher, Shaw, and Ky's (1993)23.
Rauscher , F. H. ,
Shaw , G. L and
Ky , K. N. 1993. Music and spatial task performance. Nature, 365: 611 [CrossRef], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®], [CSA]View all references Mozart Effect (ME). This study attempts to replicate, in part, research that tested the ME on listening comprehension abilities. Also included in this study is an examination of control group issues in current day research. We hypothesized that students who listen to Mozart would demonstrate greater listening comprehension than students involved in one of four control groups. Students were exposed to one of five treatments and then completed a listening comprehension test about a videotaped lecture they viewed. Ultimately, results uncovered a ME when comparing the Mozart A (alpha) group with the alternative treatment control groups (Mozart B [beta] music and Rock and Roll music), but no ME when comparing the Mozart A group and the non-music control groups (sitting in silence or working on a crossword puzzle). Discussion focused on the ME and listening comprehension as well as on the nature of control groups in experimental research.
In ordinary life we are constantly imbued by listening, and we seem to interact in different contextual dimensions of culture and society (Adelmann, 20021.
Adelmann, K. (2002). Att lyssna till röster. Ett vidgat lyssnandebegrepp i ett didaktiskt perspektiv [Listening to voices: An extended notion of listening in an educational perspective]. (Published doctoral dissertation). Malmö: Dissertations from School of Teacher Education, Malmö University, Sweden. Available with English summary from http://dspace.mah.se/bitstream/handle/2043/6400/adelmann.pdf?sequence=1 (http://dspace.mah.se/bitstream/handle/2043/6400/adelmann.pdf?sequence=1) View all references; Linell, 19986.
Linell , P. 1998. Approaching dialogue: Talk, interaction and contexts in dialogical perspectives, Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins Publishing Company. [CrossRef]View all references), both verbally and nonverbally. “Life by its very nature is dialogic. To live means to participate in dialogue,” according to the Russian scholar Mikhail M. Bakhtin (19843.
Bakhtin , M. 1984 [1929/1963]. “Problems of Dostoevsky's Poetics”. In Theory and history of literature, Edited by:
Emerson , C. Trans . Vol. 8, Manchester: Manchester University Press. View all references, p. 293). In everyday life we get used to many kinds of situations where we hear conversations that we are actually not supposed to hear. For example, while we are waiting for the bus or subway we may listen to people next to us who appear to being having an argument. Usually we do not notice all these routine situations. But sometimes we do notice some interaction and listen with some attention. We have more of an absentminded attention and rarely listen attentively, but what if we did? The activity in listening presented here takes advantage of our daily and personal listening experiences of eavesdropping and use it for the educational purpose of listening development.
This article describes the authors' progress in establishing the validity and reliability of the Listening Styles Inventory (LSI) following their initial report in an earlier study (Barker, Pearce, and Johnson). The LSI provides managers with a self-administered tool for determining their own perceived listening effectiveness. The authors examined the data provided by 359 respondents in diverse managerial groups using factor analysis, Cronbach's alpha, Spearman's rank order coefficient, structured interviews, expert observation, the Statistical Analysis System General Linear Model (GLM) procedure (analysis of variance), and a Tukey Student Range (honestly significant difference or HSD) test. The results yielded further evidence of the validity and reliability of the LSI as a self-administered diagnostic listening tool. The authors conclude that the LSI in its present form can serve as a guide for assessing a manager's perceived listening effectiveness, but further research is needed to refine the instrument and to test other managerial groups.
Scholars have lamented the lack of focus on theory-driven listening research for several decades. Unfortunately, these discussions have made little headway toward making listening research more grounded in theory. This article argues that one reason for the lack of focus on developing and testing listening theory is that listening researchers may not fully understand the nature and necessity of theory. Thus, a working definition for theory is proposed and a set of criteria that can be used to evaluate social scientific theories of listening is deduced. These criteria are then used to evaluate two listening theories. The article concludes by illustrating how these criteria can be used to inform the development of new listening theory.
An exploration of variables potentially related to Listening Fidelity (LF) was conducted through two separate studies. Study 1 indicated that when the potential fidelity of the stimulus message was varied as a function of the number of words and time length, the message with lowest potential fidelity produced significantly lower LF than either the moderate or high potential LF message versions. The moderate potential fidelity message produced the more normal score distribution although not significantly different LF scores than the high potential message. Differences in LF were not indicated as a function of participant sex, gender, or listening style. Study 2 found that LF and two of the three internal scoring components of LF were significantly correlated with four of five dimensions of the Watson Barker Listening Test. Continued emphasis on developing alternative cognitions and exploring listener confidence, cognitive complexity, and the specific function and relationship of LF with listening outcomes were recommended.
This study investigated connections between listening preferences and patterns of communicator style and apprehension. An initial discriminant analysis was conducted to test whether six categories of listening styles are systematically discriminated by communicator style, communication apprehension, and receiver apprehension. There was one significant discriminant function, whose interpretation was somewhat questionable. Subsequently, a canonical correlation was conducted to test if four interval level listening preferences are systematically related to communicator style, communication apprehension, and receiver apprehension. The results were highly significant and identified three patterns of association between the set of listening preferences and the set of communicator style and apprehension variables.
1. High people-orientation in listening is systematically associated with lower receiver apprehension and dyadic communication apprehension and with a more relationally oriented communication style that attends to and affirms the other person.
2. The combination of high content- and action-orientations is associated with a precise and attentive style of arguing the issues that leaves a strong impression on other people.
3. The configuration of high time- and action-orientations along with a lack of content-orientation is associated with higher receiver apprehension but lower dyadic communication apprehension, and also with a dramatic, animated and forceful style that asserts one's goals/concerns and tends to dominate the other person.
Previous listening research has found a variety of personality traits linked to listening style. Researchers in temperament and personality often address the association between temperament type, personality, and social behavior (e.g., communication preferences, miscommunication, and conflict). This study extends this research. Among the results: People Listening Style is moderately associated with the Myers-Briggs Personality Types Feeling and Intuiting. Additional correlational results are presented.
Do men and women differ in their listening styles or, perhaps, do projections of sex difference primarily reflect cultural stereotypes? Consistent with previous research the data at hand reveal a pattern of sex differences in listening style self-perceptions with women scoring themselves higher on the people listening style and men scoring themselves higher on the content listening style. Also, supporting expectations built from the dual-process theories of person perception, the findings suggest that perceptions of “peers” listening styles are anchored by gender stereotypes. However, inexplicable evidence of systematically biased response tendencies in reporting listening styles also emerged. The implication of these findings for future research and application are discussed.
Quantitative Research in Listening: Explication and OverviewDefining Quantitative ResearchTypes of Quantitative Methods
Quantitative Listening Research: An OverviewApplied Research in ListeningListening Research and the FutureConclusion
References
Educational listening research in the last 80 years covers a broad spectrum. Early research investigated the amount of time spent listening. Later studies identified students' comprehension of oral material. Aspects most often researched fall into the following categories: listening elicitation, listening benefits, and listening instruction. Because instructors must meet the needs of a variety of student listening and learning styles, a significant amount of listening research investigates listening and learning preferences. This research emphasizes the need to identify successful teaching strategies to help teachers elicit effective listening. Teachers have long believed that students who listen better are better students, and research seems to corroborate that effective listeners achieve academic success. Few schools offer listening instruction, and even in courses where listening is supposedly emphasized, only 1% of the time is devoted to listening. The impact of listening instruction is ambiguous despite anecdotal evidence suggesting that instruction improves listening. Listening instruction is especially scarce in primary and secondary schools notwith-standing the fact that listening is linked to both literacy and academic success.
Typescript. Thesis (M.A.)--University of Rhode Island, 2003. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 48-54).
In an experiment with 20 undergraduates, video recordings of actors' faces covered with black makeup and white spots were played back to the Ss so that only the white spots were visible. The results demonstrate that moving displays of happiness, sadness, fear, surprise, anger, and disgust were recognized more accurately than static displays of the white spots at the apex of the expressions. This indicates that facial motion, in the absence of information about the shape and position of facial features, is informative about these basic emotions. Normally illuminated dynamic displays of these expressions, however, were recognized more accurately than displays of moving spots. The relative effectiveness of upper and lower facial areas for the recognition of the 6 emotions was also investigated using normally illuminated and spots-only displays. In both instances, the results indicate that different facial regions are more informative for different emotions. (20 ref)
The resurgence of interest in observational skills and in the generality or specificity of those skills is credited to recent research on individual differences in abilities to decode nonverbal messages. The issues involved in identifying general and specific factors of accuracy are traced to developments in earlier research on observation and to events that shaped contemporary negativism toward observers. An experiment on observational generality, across two different observational settings and three types of observational cues illustrates how easily either bias — toward generality or specificity of skills — can be demonstrated.
According to our social-role theory of gender and helping, the male gender role fosters helping that is heroic and chivalrous, whereas the female gender role fosters helping that is nurturant and caring. In social psychological studies, helping behavior has been examined in the context of short-term encounters with strangers. This focus has tended to exclude from the research literature those helping behaviors prescribed by the female gender role, because they are displayed primarily in long-term, close relationships. In contrast, the helping behaviors prescribed by the male gender role have been generously represented in research findings because they are displayed in relationships with strangers as well as in close relationships. Results from our meta-analytic review of sex differences in helping behavior indicate that in general men helped more than women and women received more help than men. Nevertheless, sex differences in helping were extremely inconsistent across studies and were successfully predicted by various attributes of the studies and the helping behaviors. These predictors were interpreted in terms of several aspects of our social-role theory of gender and helping.
The outcomes of 148 studies of whether men and women differ in how easily they are influenced are examined meta-analytically. The analysis indicates that (a) women are more persuasible and more conforming than men in group pressure situations that involve surveillance by the influencing agent. In situations not involving surveillance, women are also more conforming, but this effect is vulnerable to the "file-drawer" problem discussed by R. Rosenthal (1979). Effect-size estimates show that the sex difference in influenceability is generally small. The present article also describes a study with 83 male and 118 female undergraduates that supported the hypothesis that sex of researchers is a determinant of the sex difference. 79% of the authors of influenceability studies were male, and men obtained larger sex differences in the direction of greater persuasibility and conformity among women. In studies authored by women, there was no sex difference. (43 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Tested the 2-process theory of detection, search, and attention presented by the current authors (1977) in a series of experiments. The studies (a) demonstrate the qualitative difference between 2 modes of information processing: automatic detection and controlled search; (b) trace the course of the learning of automatic detection, of categories, and of automatic-attention responses; and (c) show the dependence of automatic detection on attending responses and demonstrate how such responses interrupt controlled processing and interfere with the focusing of attention. The learning of categories is shown to improve controlled search performance. A general framework for human information processing is proposed. The framework emphasizes the roles of automatic and controlled processing. The theory is compared to and contrasted with extant models of search and attention. (31/2 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Located 165 studies that reported data on gender differences in verbal ability. The weighted mean effect size was +0.11, indicating a slight female superiority in performance. The difference is so small that we argue that gender differences in verbal ability no longer exist. Analysis of tests requiring different cognitive processes involved in verbal ability yielded no evidence of substantial gender differences in any aspect of processing. Similarly, an analysis of age indicated no striking changes in the magnitude of gender differences at different ages, countering Maccoby and Jacklin's (1974) conclusion that gender differences in verbal ability emerge around age 11 yrs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Developed the expanded dyadic interaction paradigm, a research paradigm for the study of naturalistic social cognition, and examined whether the paradigm can be used to obtain reliable and valid measures of the actual thoughts and feelings that individuals experience in unstructured dyadic interactions. The paradigm's utility in empirically revealing the ways in which social behavior and social cognition are related in unstructured, dyadic interactions was also assessed. Data from 31 female and 29 male undergraduates provide evidence for the interrater reliability and the construct validity (i.e., face and content validity, concurrent validity, divergent and convergent validity) of the thought and feeling measures obtained by this procedure. The degree of Ss' behavioral involvement in their interactions was related to a number of thought–feeling indices (e.g., total number of entries, percentage of positive partner entries), and its relations with the percentages of positive, neutral, and negative entries were further moderated by internal correspondence and private self-consciousness. Some parallels in the behavioral and thought–feeling correlates of gender were noted (e.g., females' affective tone of their thoughts and feelings was more positive and less negative than that of males). (72 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Summarizes results of 75 studies that reported accuracy for males and females at decoding nonverbal communication. The following attributes of the studies were coded: year, sample size, age of judges, sex of stimulus person, age of stimulus person, and the medium and channel of communication (e.g., photos of facial expressions, filtered speech). These attributes were examined in relation to 3 outcome indices: direction of effect, effect size (in standard deviation units), and significance level. Results show that more studies found a female advantage than would occur by chance, the average effect was of moderate magnitude and was significantly larger than zero, and more studies reached a conventional level of significance than would be expected by chance. The gender effect for visual-plus-auditory studies was significantly larger than for visual-only and auditory-only studies. The magnitude of the effect did not vary reliably with sample size, age of judges, sex of stimulus person, or age of stimulus person. (60 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Observed 128 Ss in mixed- and same-sex dyads to examine effect of interaction on sex differences in influence. Ss discussed 2 topics on which they disagreed. During the 2nd discussion, 1 S in each pair was told to influence the other. Ss showed more agreement and positive social behavior when paired with a woman and more disagreement and task behavior when paired with a man. Although women were more easily influenced, this effect was mediated by the partners' behavior. Ss were influenced more by a partner who agreed with them and less by one who disagreed. Path analyses and ANCOVAS revealed that Ss' sex predicted the partners' behavior toward them, which in turn predicted the sex difference in influence. When instructed to be influential, Ss increased disagreements, but only with male partners. Results indicate that the masculine interaction style used when interacting with men is less effective than the feminine style used when interacting with women. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Three basic models of attributional sex differences are reviewed: General Externality, Self-Derogation, and Low Expectancy. Although all of the models predict that women are unlikely to attribute their successes to ability, the models were quite different in other predictions. A meta-analysis of 21 studies examining sex differences in success-failure attributions was done to determine which of these three models had the most empirical support. Wording of attribution questions was also assessed. Results indicated only two consistent sex differences: Men make stronger ability attributions than women regardless of the outcome when informational attributional wording is used; and men attribute their successes and failures less to luck. Empirically, none of the models was well supported.
In our meta-analytic review of sex differences in aggressive behavior reported in the social psychological literature we found that although men were somewhat more aggressive than women on the average, sex differences were inconsistent across studies. The magnitude of the sex differences was significantly related to various attributes of the studies. In particular, the tendency for men to aggress more than women was more pronounced for aggression that produces pain or physical injury than for aggression that produces psychological or social harm. In addition, sex differences in aggressive behavior were larger to the extent that women, more than men, perceived that enacting a behavior would produce harm to the target, guilt and anxiety in oneself, as well as danger to oneself. Our interpretation of these results emphasizes that aggression sex differences are a function of perceived consequences of aggression that are learned as aspects of gender roles and other social roles.
Sex differences in children's conversation are explored to determine if they exist and, if so, when they emerge. Forty preschool children were randomly assigned to groups (female-female, female-male, male-male) and were audio-taped in conversation while playing. Transcripts of their conversations were analyzed for interruptions, overlaps, lapses, gaps and number of initiated unit-types. Significant differences between heterogeneous and homogeneous groups were found for interruptions. Boys interrupted girls 2 to 1. Conversational sex differences seem to be acquired early in life, developing in conjunction with general conversational skills.
When memory is required, sentence reading time patterns are U-shaped over the phrases, with prolonged pauses at phrase boundaries. Qualitative hypotheses suggest why subjects engage in higher-level coding at phrase boundaries. Quantitative models account for how long subjects pause there. A two-process additive model accounts well for the data and better than nine other models. Beyond a base reading and motor time, the model includes an organization process for words in the current phrase and a contextual integration process for all preceding words in the sentence. This model is similar to serial processing models previously proposed for coding word lists, and an analysis of past research reveals coding similarities for sentences and word lists when memory demands are high.
It was hypothesized that gender composition variations and task structure would significantly interact to affect communicative behavior in small groups. Groups of college-aged men and women were composed to vary in the number of men and women serving as group members. Each group was assigned to complete two tasks: One task was a highly structured ranking assignment; the other task was a human relations case study with relatively low outcome structure. Results of Interaction Process Analysis data obtained during group discussion supported the hypothesized interaction onlyfor dominance acts of giving suggestions. Small groups composed solely of men were significantly higher in this category under structured task conditions, whereas groups composed predominantly of men were significantly lower in dominance acts under unstructured task conditions. Two subsidiary hypotheses concerning the separate effects of composition and task variables were partially supported. Results are discussed in regard to make situational adaptation tendencies and the influence of task variables on group communication behaviors.
Reviews the literature to identify key issues in gender communication that will allow clinicians and teachers to conduct self-assessments of their gender stereotypes in communication. The 1st issue is that gender is a primary social category and thus has pervasive influences on interpersonal communication. Second, gender influences cannot be identified through simple lists of communicative differences. Third, stereotypic gender expectations seem to have a strong influence on interactions. The 4th issue is that gender differences that do exist are largely socially created and must be examined in the social context of a patriarchal society. The 2nd and 4th issues call for ethnographic and feminist approaches to assessment, so that the context of social hierarchies and male dominance are considered in language development. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examined the relationship between empathy and flexibility of moral reasoning. 28 male and 38 female early adolescents (mean age 12.72 yrs), 78 male and 54 female middle adolescents (mean age 16.9 yrs), and 71 male and 63 female late adolescents (mean age 19.78 yrs) completed a flexibility of moral judgment index and an emotional maturity scale. Findings indicate that emotional empathy and flexibility of moral reasoning were not related. There was a significant main effect for sex, with females demonstrating higher emotional empathy than males, especially between early and middle adolescence. Flexibility of moral reasoning was greater for later than early adolescents, especially for males. Possible explanations for the absence of a relationship between moral reasoning and emotional empathy are discussed. It is concluded that the nature of peer influence, the type of life variety to which one is exposed, and experience with moral conflict and choice may be significant factors in determining how people make decisions about moral situations. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The Listening Styles Profile (LSP-16) is a sixteen-item inventory designed to assess four distinct approaches--labeled people-, action-, content-, and time-oriented styles--to receiving information. Responses from a large sample of young adults were employed to evaluate the psychometric characteristics of the LSP-16. Specifically, an extensive scrutiny of the factor structure underlying the LSP-16 was conducted and the internal consistency, stability, and reliability of the four style subscales was assessed. The data at hand suggest that the Listening Styles Profile (LSP-16) may have considerable utility in clinical, training, and research environments for measurement and study of the ways that people prefer to listen.
In this investigation, communication style was conceptualized as the way individuals perceive themselves interacting with others. Using the Bern Sex Role Inventory (BSRI; Bem, 1976, 1985) and the Communication Styles Profile Test (CSPT; McCallister, 1992), three predominant communication styles were examined as a function of respondent sex and gender role self-perception. Consistent with expectations, the data show that gender role self-perception mediated reported communication style. Independent of sex, the findings revealed that communal respondents prefer a sharing, expressive communication style; whereas agentic respondents prefer a dominating, assertive communication style. Although a less distinctive pattern, significant sex-differences were also evident in communication style preference. Females reported a socially-oriented style of communicating while males reported a more direct, results-oriented communication style. Further, no sex by gender role self-perception interaction was evident. The implications of these findings for future research and application are discussed.
This study tests competing socialization- and identity-based hypotheses concerning the impact of variations in speech style (powerful/powerless) on perceptions of male and female managerial job applicants. In addition, we investigate the effect of the gender of the observer on sensitivity to variation in speech style. Supportive of the socialization hypothesis, speech style has a significant effect on expectations of success and acceptance in a managerial position, as well as on attributions of situationally relevant traits regardless of the gender of the applicant. However, the identity perspective is supported by the finding that gender of the applicant affects perceptions of liking and attributions of gender-linked traits. We argue that the relevance of evaluative dimensions and traits for a particular context affects the impact of gender on the interpretation of actions. As predicted, female observers were more sensitive to variations in speech style. In fact, the effects of speech style on evaluations of applicants disappeared when only male responses were considered. The implications of these findings for equal opportunity in hiring and promotion are discussed.
Two stimulus tapes were created to manipulate male and female communicators' use of task and socioemotional behavior, pronunciation of-ing word endings, interruptions, amount of words, pitch, and intonation. To determine the source of perceptual attributions to male and female communicators, this study compared subjects' perceptions of male and female communicators who use gender-appropriate language features with perceptions of the same male and female communicators who use gender-inappropriate language features. Results indicate that regardless of whether they are used by a male or female communicator, female language features consistently contribute to the communicator's credibility; a communicator, regardless of gender, who uses male language features is consistently perceived as more extroverted. It was concluded that (1) communicators are differentially perceived as a consequence of linguistic features in their messages, rather than as a consequence of mere identification of source gender; (2) one's language should not be restricted by traditional sex-role prescriptions, but should be guided by situational appropriateness.
The relationship between gender role and person-perception accuracy was examined in this research. Young adults who were masculine, feminine, androgynous, or undifferentiated in their gender role interacted with a child, and with a peer, in role-playing situations that focused on parenting and marital behaviors. The accuracy with which subjects predicted the child's perception of them, and the accuracy with which they perceived the interpersonal traits of the peer, were assessed. The results indicated that androgynous subjects were clearly superior in predicting the child's perceptions of them, but were no better than the other gender-role groups in terms of peer perceptions. Rather, females were more accurate than males in perceptions of gender-related traits. Implications of this research for the relationship between gender role and parenting behavior, and directions for future research that examines person-perception accuracy, are discussed.
In order to investigate the role of facial movement in the recognition of emotions, faces were covered with black makeup and white spots. Video recordings of such faces were played back so that only the white spots were visible. The results demonstrated that moving displays of happiness, sadness, fear, surprise, anger and disgust were recognized more accurately than static displays of the white spots at the apex of the expressions. This indicated that facial motion, in the absence of information about the shape and position of facial features, is informative about these basic emotions. Normally illuminated dynamic displays of these expressions, however, were recognized more accurately than displays of moving spots. The relative effectiveness of upper and lower facial areas for the recognition of these six emotions was also investigated using normally illuminated and spots-only displays. In both instances the results indicated that different facial regions are more informative for different emitions. The movement patterns characterizing the various emotional expressions as well as common confusions between emotions are also discussed.
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