No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Is Poker a Game of Skill or Chance? A Quasi-Experimental Study
Abstract
Due to intensive marketing and the rapid growth of online gambling, poker currently enjoys great popularity among large sections of the population. Although poker is legally a game of chance in most countries, some (particularly operators of private poker web sites) argue that it should be regarded as a game of skill or sport because the outcome of the game primarily depends on individual aptitude and skill. The available findings indicate that skill plays a meaningful role; however, serious methodological weaknesses and the absence of reliable information regarding the relative importance of chance and skill considerably limit the validity of extant research. Adopting a quasi-experimental approach, the present study examined the extent to which the influence of poker playing skill was more important than card distribution. Three average players and three experts sat down at a six-player table and played 60 computer-based hands of the poker variant "Texas Hold'em" for money. In each hand, one of the average players and one expert received (a) better-than-average cards (winner's box), (b) average cards (neutral box) and (c) worse-than-average cards (loser's box). The standardized manipulation of the card distribution controlled the factor of chance to determine differences in performance between the average and expert groups. Overall, 150 individuals participated in a "fixed-limit" game variant, and 150 individuals participated in a "no-limit" game variant. ANOVA results showed that experts did not outperform average players in terms of final cash balance. Rather, card distribution was the decisive factor for successful poker playing. However, expert players were better able to minimize losses when confronted with disadvantageous conditions (i.e., worse-than-average cards). No significant differences were observed between the game variants. Furthermore, supplementary analyses confirm differential game-related actions dependent on the card distribution, player status, and game variant. In conclusion, the study findings indicate that poker should be regarded as a game of chance, at least under certain basic conditions, and suggest new directions for further research.
... To be long-term winners, poker players must make sound decisions, using the information they have and taking into account the missing information they do not. To make the most pertinent decisions and earn money, a player must consistently demonstrate good cognitive skills and self-control Meyer, von Meduna, Brosowski, & Hayer, 2013;Tendler, 2011). Online poker play requires specific skills and characteristics not often associated with other forms of gambling (Moreau et al., 2016). ...
... SD = 4.45). Their socio-demographic characteristics were similar to those found in previous studies (Barrault & Varescon, 2013a, 2013bHopley et al., 2012;LaPlante, Kleschinsky, LaBrie, Nelson, & Shaffer, 2009;McCormack & Griffiths, 2011;Meyer et al., 2013;Zaman, Geurden, De Cock, De Schutter, & Vanden Abeele, 2014; see Table 1). Table 2. themes identified and associated items of oPtS questionnaire, after the analysis of the 10 interviews with poker players and reading from a professional player. ...
... Nonetheless, it should be noted that we did not know if there were multiple responses from the same person. The socio-demographic characteristics of our sample are consistent with those of groups examined in other studies (Barrault & Varescon, 2013a, 2013bHopley, Dempsey, & Nicki, 2012;LaPlante et al., 2009;McCormack & Griffiths, 2011;Meyer et al., 2013;Zaman et al., 2014). However, the sample is composed of French poker players only and future research should replicate this study on populations in other countries. ...
Tilt in poker implies a deviation from an individual’s usual playing style, at a strategic, emotional and behavioural level. It is a specific characteristic of poker, which can affect all kinds of players with varying degrees of frequency. In addition, tilt could be a transitional form of pathological gambling behaviour and a gateway to addiction. The main objective of this research is therefore the design and validation of a measuring scale for tilt episode frequency in an online poker gamblers’ group. Twenty-one items based on the literature and interviews with 10 poker players were created. An online self-administered questionnaire was completed by 263 poker players to validate this scale. The mean age of the sample was 26.7 (SD = 4.45). The Online Poker Tilt Scale (OPTS) consists of 17 items and is the first validated tool for measuring the frequency of tilt episodes associated with online poker. It is composed of two factors: ‘emotional and behavioural tilt’ and ‘cognitive tilt’. Tilt seems to be an essential part of understanding online poker behaviour. This tool will enable researchers studying online poker addiction to perform research on the mechanisms and processes that lead to tilt and its consequences.
... Hence, it remains debatable whether skill or luck is more relevant for the long-term success in these games. For the game of poker, researchers have tried to examine whether skill or luck dominates (DeDonno & Detterman, 2008;Dreef et al., 2003;Fiedler & Rock, 2009;Kelly et al., 2007;Meyer et al., 2013). This is highly relevant in the context of this study, because people can only expect to make a steady income from the game and treat it as an occupational activity if the skill element dominates in the long term. ...
... Nevertheless, these studies arrive at contrary conclusions. I would argue that some researchers used insufficient playouts to get a statistically meaningful result (Meyer et al., 2013), while others argue only on a theoretical/regulatory basis (Kelly et al., 2007). Arguably the most promising study is from Fiedler and Rock (2009). ...
The study addresses the question whether professional gamblers can be considered an occupational group from a sociological perspective. It combines survey data on poker players from the German state North Rhine-Westphalia with sociological theory in order to explain the oxymoron of professional gambling. The descriptive analysis of the survey data is supplemented by ego-centric network data of the poker players to analyze whether hobby and professional players maintain different forms of social relationships. Even when semiprofessionals and professional players are grouped together for the purpose of comparative analysis, they fulfill the criteria of occupational groups according to Salaman’s major work on the topic. The study points to the fact that more research on occupational groups outside of the common fields is needed and bridges the gap between the literature on serious leisure and sociological research on professions and professionalization.
... This ability to estimate one's hand's rank was attributed to a player's skill at poker. In a controlled experimental study by Meyer et al., [15] the authors controlled the randomness of dealing cards by using three classes of hands (winner's hands, neutral hands, loser's hands) dealt to expert and average players. Both categories of players were dealt all types of hands, and it was observed that the expert players did not outperform the average players in terms of final earnings, rather the outcomes were dependent on the hand they were dealt. ...
... Game Start Date: The specific date and time when the poker game or session commenced. 15. Game End Date: The specific date and time when the poker game or session concluded. ...
The paper aims to investigate the degree of cognitive skills required for success in online versions of the popular card game rummy and poker. The study focuses on analyzing the impact of experience and learnable skills on success in the online card game. We also propose a framework to analyze online games to conclude on whether they are games of learnable skill or are they games of chance. The hypotheses proposed aim to test whether online and offline card games are comparable in terms of cognitive engagement and skill requirements. To assess these hypotheses, key elements of gameplay such as shuffling of cards, card deck randomness, and seating of players are analyzed. We also adopted statistical approaches to understand the characteristics of card games in terms of random chance or skill. From the analysis, we could see that the normality of the derived variables deviates significantly from the normal distribution showing a non-linear trend. It signifies that the mean of the involved skill variables is not zero as the user plays a greater number of games, thereby strengthening the assumption that the long-term success in online card games is attributed to skill and not chance. There is no difference in online and offline versions of card games (rummy and poker) from the perspective of requirement of skills. Moreover, our finding suggests that there is a preponderance of skills to succeed in online card gaming. Overall, the findings of this research contribute to a better understanding of cognitive skills in online gaming environments.
... Tilt happens to all players, novices or experienced, in control or at risk (Laakasuo et al., 2015;Moreau, Delieyvin, Chabrol, & Chauchard, 2017;Palomäki et al., 2013Palomäki et al., , 2014). Yet poker players need to remain in control of themselves all the way through the game if they want to make more appropriate decisions (Biolcati et al., 2014;Caballero, Ownby, Rey, & Clauson, 2016;Meyer, von Meduna, Brosowski, & Hayer, 2013). This dilemma is the reason why many books, Internet websites, and even paid coaching programs address how to overcome tilt (Moreau et al., 2017). ...
... This limits the generalization of the present results to online poker players willing to participate in poker studies. The overall characteristics of the present sample (age, professional situation, gender) are similar to those reported in other studies made on the poker players population (Barrault & Varescon, 2013a, 2013bHopley, Dempse, & Nicki, 2012;LaPlante, Kleschinsky, LaBrie, Nelson, & Shaffer, 2009;McCormack & Griffiths, 2011;Meyer et al., 2013;Zaman, Geurden, De Cock, De Schutter, & Vanden Abeele, 2014). A second limitation is related to the underrepresentation of female players with a low playing frequency, in the French sample in particular, where half of the female participants played at least once a day. ...
Tilt in poker is a phenomenon characterized by a loss of control. Tilt could be a risk factor for the development of problematic gambling in poker. To monitor the frequency of tilt episodes during online poker sessions, the Online Poker Tilt Scale (OPTS) was created within the French population. The aim of this study was to develop a short version of this scale, one that was faster to complete, and therefore more appropriate for the online poker player population, which was characterized by an impulsive personality and low survey participation rate. The short version is composed of nine items split into two factors (cognitive regulation and emotional regulation). The OPTS-9 version displayed good psychometric qualities and its scores were strongly correlated with those of the original version. Moreover, this shorter version allows rebalancing of the scale's factorial structure, which facilitates interpretation of the results. This revised scale will measure the relative frequency of tilt episodes and allow to appropriately study the links between problem gambling and tilt episodes. This shortened 9-item version could be included in future experimental studies, as well as in prevention and treatment programs. Résumé L'inclinaison (tilt) au jeu de poker est un phénomène caractérisé par une perte de contrôle. Elle pourrait être un facteur de risque pour le développement d'un jeu xx Journal of Gambling Issues Volume 44, Month 2020 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/xxx-xxxx-xx http://igi.camh.net/doi/pdf/xxxx pathologique au poker. Pour suivre la fréquence des épisodes d'inclinaison pendant les séances de poker en ligne, l'échelle Online Poker Tilt Scale (OPTS) a été créée au sein de la population franc¸aise. Le but de cette étude était de développer une version courte de cette échelle, plus rapide à remplir, donc plus appropriée pour la population de joueurs de poker en ligne qui se caractérise par une personnalité impulsive et un faible taux de participation à des sondages. La version courte est composée de neuf éléments répartis en deux facteurs (régulation cognitive et régulation émotionnelle). La version OPTS-9 présente de bonnes qualités psychométriques et ses pointages sont fortement corrélés avec les pointages de la version originale. De plus, cette version courte permet de rééquilibrer la structure factorielle de l'échelle, ce qui facilite l'interprétation des résultats. Cette échelle révisée mesurera la fréquence relative des épisodes d'inclinaison et permettra d'étudier de fac¸on adéquate les liens entre le jeu pathologique et les épisodes d'inclinaison. Cette version raccourcie à neuf éléments pourrait être incluse dans les futures études expérimentales, ainsi que dans les programmes de prévention et de traitement.
... Besides the discussion of contributions of skill to performance in finance, a legal question -whether poker is a game of chance or a game of skill -has been discussed for some time [21][22][23]. ...
... Levitt [10] states that luck is the "dominant factor", although skill may have marginal influence. Meyer [22] opted for a controlled experiment to confirm that experts failed to financially outperform average players. ...
We propose a controlled simulation within a competitive sum-zero environment as a proxy for disaggregating components of success. Given a simulation of the Risk board game, we consider (a) Talent to be one of three rule-based strategies used by players; (b) Context as the setting of each run of the game with opponents’ strategies, goals and luck; and (c) Perspective as the objective of each player. Success is attained when a first player conquers its goal. We simulate 100,000 runs of an agent-based model and analyze the results. The simulation results strongly suggest that luck, talent and context are all relevant to determine success. Perspective -- as the description of the goal that defines success -- is not. As such, we present a quantitative, reproducible environment in which we are able to significantly separate the concepts, reproducing previous results of the literature
and adding arguments for context and perspective. Finally, we also find that the simulation offers insights on the relevance of resilience and opportunity.
... Indeed, poker is a game of chance that requires deftness and a certain level of skill in order to win money (Brochu et al. 2015). This means that on the contrary to games without skill, like slot machines, an online poker player's behavior can influence the result of a hand (Meyer et al. 2013) and it is the reason why some players can make poker their profession. Poker is also a game where the adversary is not ''the bank'', like in Blackjack for example, but is instead another player who can be of potentially, higher, lower or equal skill level. ...
... Poker is also a game where the adversary is not ''the bank'', like in Blackjack for example, but is instead another player who can be of potentially, higher, lower or equal skill level. Poker has a specific game structure that is influenced by a players skill, mathematical and statistical capacity and emotional regulation (Barrault et al. 2014;Dufour et al. 2012;Laakasuo et al. 2014Laakasuo et al. , 2015Meyer et al. 2013). ...
Tilt is a very common term in online poker players’ vocabulary, it describes a state where the player is no longer able to make rational decisions because they are overwhelmed by strong emotions. This study aims to explore the relation existing between the frequency of Tilt episodes, the player’s perception of these episodes and excessive gambling in online poker. The sample is composed of 291 adult French-speaking online poker players. All participants completed an online self-assessment questionnaire. The results of the classification analysis showed that the sample could be divided into three groups. The first group, named ‘‘players in control’’ included low excessive gambling tendencies with low perceived and measured Tilt frequencies. The two other groups showed high measured tilt levels, with perceived tilt levels that were different from the measured levels. Furthermore, these two groups present a moderate usage risk of developing an excessive gambling tendency in a money-based game of chance. These results show the existence of a relation between the player’s capacity to perceive tilt and the online poker player’s behavior.
... Subsequently, data collection is complex and constitutes an obvious bias. Nonetheless, it should be noted that the socio-demographic characteristics of our sample are consistent with those of groups examined in other studies LaPlante, Kleschinsky, LaBrie, Nelson, & Shaffer, 2009;Meyer, von Meduna, Brosowski, & Hayer, 2013;Zaman, Geurden, De Cock, De Schutter, & Vanden Abeele, 2014). It would be beneficial to complement the factorial analysis by using a different sample, which would confirm the pertinence of the factorial structure of the measuring scale. ...
... Il est dit « actif » car l'issue peut être influencée par la maîtrise du jeu contrairement aux jeux « passifs », dont l'issue repose uniquement sur le hasard. Cette part importante d'adresse est l'une des principales raisons de l'engouement pour le PokerMeyer et al., 2013;Parke et al., 2004;Turner & Fritz, 2001;Will Shead, Hodgins, & Scharf, 2008).Griffiths, Parke, Wood, & Rigbye (2009) ont identifié 4 facteurs qui prédisaient le ...
Etude 1 : La revue de littérature a identifié 16 articles. Plusieurs facteurs prédicteurs du jeu excessif ont été identifiés (le stress, les attributions internes, la dissociation, l’ennui, les émotions négatives, les croyances irrationnelles, l’anxiété et l’impulsivité). Enfin, la validité des outils utilisés pour mesurer le jeu excessif et les croyances irrationnelles dans cette population est remise en question. Etude 2 : Le Tilt serait lié à une perte de contrôle et des émotions négatives (colère, frustration), associées à des expériences dissociatives transitoires. Causé par des évènements tant internes qu’externes, le Tilt affecterait les processus comportementaux, émotionnels et cognitifs.Etude 3 : L’échelle OPTS mesure la fréquence des épisodes de Tilt au poker en ligne. Les items ont été créés à partir de la littérature et de 10 entretiens semi-directifs de joueurs de poker en ligne. L’échelle est composée de 2 facteurs appelés « Tilt émotionnel et comportemental » et « Tilt cognitif ». Etude 4 : Nos résultats indiquent que la fréquence des épisodes de Tilt est un prédicteur significatif de l’utilisation excessive du poker en ligne. La fréquence des épisodes de Tilt est quant à elle prédite par les croyances irrationnelles de type « incapacité à s’abstenir de jouer » et « interprétations favorables à la poursuite du jeu ». Le Tilt et les croyances irrationnelles sont donc fortement associés au jeu excessif au poker en ligne.
... Although the influence of skill on poker outcomes has been debated, studies using experimental poker tasks showed that experienced poker players perform better than inexperienced ones (Liley & Rakow, 2010;Palomäki, Laakasuo, & Salmela, 2013a). However, another study suggests that, even though experience has an influence on the outcome, especially by enabling experienced players to minimize their losses when the card dealing is not favourable, the card dealing is a decisive factor in the player's success (Meyer, Von Meduna, Brosowski, & Hayer, 2013). ...
... In fact, the issue of skill and its entanglement with chance in poker outcomes was predominant in poker (Class 1). Previous studies tried to determine experimentally if there was a role of skill in poker outcomes with most of them showing that skill does play a part but that chance is also a determinant factor (Liley & Rakow, 2010;Linnet et al., 2012;Meyer et al., 2013). In this study, using qualitative data, we focused on player representations of chance and skill in poker. ...
Poker is now one of the most popular types of online gambling, mostly because of its particular structural characteristics. This study aims to investigate the representations of regular poker players of the game's special features, along with their probable links with tilt (i.e. loss of control during the game) and problem gambling. Twenty-three regular poker players recruited online took part in a research interview. All interviews were recorded and fully transcribed. A quantitative lexical analysis was performed using the software Alceste®. Six classes were identified, encompassing 73% of the whole corpus. The main themes were chance vs. skill, sensations and emotions linked to poker, discovery of poker, tilt, differences between live and online gambling, and risks of excessive poker involvement. The experience of tilt appears to be an important feature of poker. Poker players also tended to report more emotional and social aspects of problem gambling than financial consequences. The results underline the structural specificities of poker through the player's representations. The role of emotions and sensations in poker, as they are both sought by the players and involved in the loss of control, may have an influence on the development and maintenance of problem gambling.
... Poker is currently played by millions of players worldwide, most notably on-line (Fiedler & Wilcke, 2012), and it has gained ample media visibility (Bjerg, 2011). Furthermore, there has recently been an increase in the range of empirical research focusing on its various aspects (Abarbanel & Bernhard, 2012;Linnet et al., 2011;Meyer, von Meduna, Brosowski, & Hayer, 2012;O'Leary & Carroll, 2012;Siler, 2010). ...
... Poker is a form of gambling where the outcomes of the bets are influenced by skill and chance. The extent to which poker can be considered a game of skill, rather than a game of chance, is debated (Croson, Fishman, & Pope, 2008;Dedonno & Detterman, 2008;Fiedler & Rock, 2009;Levitt & Miles, 2011;Meyer et al., 2012). Notwithstanding, in poker it is possible to acquire enough skill to be a winning player (financially, in the long run). ...
Poker is a game of skill and chance, where players often experience significant monetary losses. Detrimental out-of-control poker decision-making due to negative emotions is known as tilting. A qualitative assessment of losing and tilting was conducted by analysing stories about significant monetary losses, written by Finnish on-line poker players (N = 60). Thematic and narrative analyses uncovered five themes and a narrative structure underlying the aetiology and phenomenology of tilting. Tilting, in the narratives, was often instigated by dissociative feelings (‘unreality’, disbelief) following a significant monetary loss. Thereafter, moral indignation was experienced, followed by chasing behaviour, in an attempt to restore a ‘fair balance’ between wins and losses. In the aftermath of tilting, self-focused feelings of disappointment, depression and/or anxiety, and sleeping problems were experienced. It was also observed that experienced players, as compared to inexperienced ones, exhibited in their narratives a more mature disposition towards encountering ‘bad luck’, and losing in general. The results are relevant in better understanding psychological processes related to losing in the multifaceted game of poker, thus contributing also to existing knowledge on detrimental gambling behaviour.
... The interplay between skill and chance in poker is a topic of ongoing debate (Bjerg, 2010;Croson et al., 2008;Dedonno & Detterman, 2008;Fiedler & Rock, 2009;Hannum & Cabot, 2009;Levitt & Miles, 2011;Meyer et al., 2013; see also Zhou et al., 2012). It is not yet well-established to which extent poker can be considered a game of skill as opposed to a game of chance. ...
... Thus, it is theoretically possible in poker to have enough skill to never end up losing (in the long run). that in a recent laboratory experiment about poker decision making, experienced players did not outperform inexperienced ones (Meyer et al., 2013). Moreover, due to lack of consistent empirical evidence, it is difficult to estimate the exact ratio of winning players to losing players. ...
Poker, especially on-line poker, is a game of skill and chance that requires constant and rapid decision making under varying levels of risk and uncertainty. Poker playing skill encompasses both technical and emotional elements. In poker, it is possible to acquire enough experience and skill to win money in the long run. Yet every poker player, regardless of his/her skill, occasionally loses. Poor, out-of-control poker decision making due to negative emotions typically elicited by monetary losses is commonly known as tilting and often results in superfluous losses.
The aim of this thesis was to evaluate psychological and physiological emotional processes associated with poker decision making. Studies I III were based on Internet-questionnaire data. Study I (N=60) was qualitative, and Studies II (N=354) and III (N=417) were correlative. The emphasis here was on exploring the underpinnings of the tilting phenomenon and the differences in emotion regulation abilities between experienced and inexperienced poker players. In Study IV (N=29), psychophysiological reactivity (electrodermal activity; EDA) was measured in a laboratory setting while participants played the No Limit Texas Hold'em (NLHE) poker variant on a computer.
Overall, the results suggest that tilting behavior is instigated by loss-induced feelings of injustice/unfairness (moral indignation). These feelings are also associated with chasing behavior, where players attempt irrationally to regain the money that they feel is rightfully theirs. The aftermath of tilting was characterized by reports of sleeping problems and rumination over lost resources (Study I). A higher tendency to experience loss-induced negative feelings was associated with a higher reported severity of tilting (Study III). Experienced players, when compared with inexperienced ones, exhibited a more mature/impassive disposition towards losing and tilting (Studies I III), engaged in less self-rumination and more self-reflection, and made normatively better poker decisions (Study II). However, surprisingly, experienced players also reported more severe tilting (Study III). The EDA elicited while participants played poker on a computer was associated with various poker decisions (actions): Pre-decision EDA levels increased in the order of folding, calling and betting/raising. Furthermore, actions taken with strong and weak poker hands elicited higher EDA compared with actions taken with poker hands of medium/uncertain strength (Study IV).
The results from Studies I III shed light on the associations between poker experience, emotion regulation abilities ( mental skills ) and tilting behavior. The results from Study IV allow for situating the game of poker within the theoretical framework of economic and neuroscientific theories of emotions and decision making by demonstrating that the EDA associated with NLHE decision making conceivably indexes the anticipated utility of the decisions.
... Namun begitu, menurut kajian Brenner dan Brenner (1990), perjudian ialah satu kegiatan yakni pemain menjana keuntungan kewangan tanpa menggunakan kemahiran. Hasil kajian tersebut turut disokong oleh kajian Meyer et al. (2013) yang menjelaskan bahawa perjudian ialah satu permainan berpeluang. ...
Kekerapan laporan tentang aktiviti perjudian dalam talian yang dipaparkan menerusi media cetak dan elektronik menunjukkan bahawa tindakan segera perlu diambil untuk mengatasi gejala ini di Malaysia. Namun begitu, undang-undang substantif sahaja tidak memadai untuk menangani situasi ini kerana penguatkuasaan yang efektif adalah sama penting untuk mengawal berlakunya pelanggaran undang-undang tersebut. Oleh itu, artikel ini mempunyai objektif untuk menjalankan penyelidikan awal terhadap undang-undang sedia ada dan isu-isu yang berkaitan dengan perjudian dalam talian di Malaysia. Di samping itu, penulisan ini juga bertujuan mencungkil kesedaran tentang isu-isu yang timbul akibat wujudnya kelompangan dalam undang-undang tersebut. Penulisan ini bertujuan mengesyorkan hala tuju bagi penyelidikan-penyelidikan akan datang berkenaan perjudian dalam talian di Malaysia. Artikel ini menggunakan kerangka kajian perundangan tulen yang bersifat kualitatif, iaitu data-data dikumpulkan melalui kajian perpustakaan dan temu bual untuk meneroka isu-isu berhubung dengan perjudian dalam talian di Malaysia. Pendekatan analisis kritikal telah diguna pakai dalam menganalisis data daripada penulisan, jurnal, berita dan rujukan lain yang terdahulu berkaitan dengan perjudian dalam talian. Kajian ini mendapati bahawa undang-undang perjudian dalam talian agak ketinggalan dan hal ini dikenal pasti sebagai suatu kelompangan. Selain itu, hasil kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa pindaan terhadap Akta Rumah Perjudian Terbuka 1953 perlu dilakukan segera untuk membantu agensi penguatkuasaan mengatasi krisis ini.
... Nevertheless, other studies were more mitigated. Indeed, when giving the same cards to expert and nonexpert players in 60 hands of "Texas Hold'em" poker, the only significant difference was that the experts handled bad cards better than the controls (Meyer, von Meduna, Brosowski, & Hayer, 2013), showing the importance of chance. ...
Background and aims
This research aimed to characterize social information processing abilities in a population of regular nondisordered poker players compared to controls.
Methods
Participants completed the Posner cueing paradigm task including social cues (faces) to assess attention allocation towards social stimuli, including the effect of the presentation time (subliminal vs supraliminal) and of the emotion displayed. The study included two groups of participants: 30 regular nondisordered poker players (those who played at least three times a week in Texas Hold'em poker games for at least three months) and 30 control participants (those who did not gamble or gambled less than once a month, whatever the game).
Results
The group of regular nondisordered poker players displayed an enhancement of the inhibition of return during the Posner cueing task. This means that in valid trials, they took longer to respond to the already processed localization in supraliminal conditions compared to controls. However, our results did not evidence any particular engagement or disengagement attention abilities toward specific types of emotion.
Discussion and Conclusions
These results suggest that regular nondisordered poker players displayed social information processing abilities, which may be due to the importance to efficiently process social information that can serve as tells in live poker. The observed enhancement of the inhibition of return may permit poker players to not process a localization that has already processed to save attentional resources. Further research regarding the establishment of the IOR in other forms of gambling and with non-social cues needs to be performed.
... Contrary to bank games, in which participants play against the bank and can expect to win in the short term but not to be beneficiaries in the long term, social games can allow long-term gains, provided that the players use the skill gap between them and their opponents to their advantage (Bjerg, 2010 Hold'em" poker, the only significant difference was that the experts handled bad cards better than the controls (G. Meyer et al., 2013), showing the importance of chance. ...
Ce travail de thèse a pour objet l’exploration des capacités de cognition sociale (CS) dans les deux addictions comportementales (ACs) actuellement reconnues dans les classifications internationales : le jeu d’argent pathologique (JAP) et le jeu vidéo pathologique (JVP).La réalisation de deux revues de littérature systématiques a permis de démontrer la rareté des études faisant le lien entre CS et ACs. Cependant, les études trouvées ont suggéré la présence de difficultés pour les patients atteints de ces ACs sur certaines composantes de la CS. Par ailleurs, les éléments cliniques rapportés par ces patients confirmaient la présence de difficultés interpersonnelles.Ces éléments témoignaient de la nécessité d’explorer le profil de CS des patients avec un diagnostic de JAP ou JVP pour améliorer d’une part la compréhension des processus addictifs, et d’autre part de proposer des soins ciblant les difficultés mises en évidence. Nous avons ainsi mené trois études sur des joueurs de jeux vidéo ou de jeux d’argent, présentant ou non une addiction.La première étude a démontré des particularités dans le traitement attentionnel des informations sociales chez des joueurs de poker en comparaison de sujets contrôles. La seconde étude a mis en évidence un lien entre les difficultés d’identification des émotions faciales et le JAP, ainsi que des particularités sur le plan de la métacognition sociale en lien avec le JVP. Enfin, les résultats préliminaires de la troisième étude incluant des patients en début de prise en charge pour un JAP ont montré l’importance de prendre en compte les données rapportées par les patients dans le cadre de la CS.Ces résultats sont discutés au regard des aspects cliniques et scientifiques, et mis en perspective avec de futures recherches possibles.
... To increase the validity of our results and the likelihood that they will have good generalizability, we decided to include only pure chance gambling, for which there are no additional factors that could objectively affect the result of the game: lotteries, scratch cards, slot machines, roulette, and casino games that are based only on chance. The representativeness of pure choice gambling justifies our choice to use it in the different samples of all French and Polish gamblers (9 out of 10 gamblers say they have played scratch cards, draws, and/or slot machines in the past 12 months [41,42] and because the share of chance in gambling requiring skill is not comparable (poker, sports betting, etc.) [43][44][45]. ...
Research on the relationship between wins and gambling behavior often focuses on winning considerably large amounts of money. It seems, however, that it is not the amount of the win, but the significance that the player assigns to the win, that exerts a decisive influence on gambling behavior. Therefore, in this study we adopted the concept of significant win: a win perceived by gamblers as important to them. The research aimed to discover what kind of wins are experienced as significant and what factors explain experiencing wins as significant. This study, conducted in Poland (N = 3,143) and France (N = 5,692), also had a comparative goal: discovering intercultural differences in experiencing significant wins. A computer-assisted web survey was administered to gamblers who engaged in pure-chance gambling, where the participant does not influence the outcome of the gamble after the initial bet is placed—selected from representative samples in both countries. We used logistic regression models to examine predictors of significant win experience in both countries and the differences between the countries. The results demonstrated that Polish gamblers more frequently considered a win significant when it was accompanied by strong, often negative emotions and was higher in monetary value normalized in terms of average monthly personal income, than French gamblers. French gamblers more frequently associated a significant win with a positive experience. The common predictors of a significant win experience in both countries were: being in debt, experiencing the win of a close person, gambling in a game of pure chance other than lotteries, more systematic pursuit of gambling, self-enhancement motivation, and coping motivation to gamble. Age at initiation into gambling was a significant predictor only in the French sample, whereas a financial motivation was a significant predictor in the Polish one. The results confirmed that the subjective perception of gambling wins is only partially related to the amounts of wins, which has practical implications for planning prevention strategies.
... However, several researchers argue that so called skill games should really be seen as skill and chance games (e.g. Gerhard Meyer et al. 2013). Sports betting also has an intrinsic connection to sports, which arguably gives it an air of toughness, athleticism, and maleness (see also Garry Whannel 1999;Martha Wörsching 1999), and associates it with the emotional engagement of supporter culture. ...
Gambling advertising is often permeated by stereotypical portrayals of gender, including those of male gamblers as tough and successful. Simultaneously, representations of men in other advertising has become increasingly diverse, including emotional and sexualized, heroic and muscular portrayals. This article uses both these bodies of research to discuss Swedish sports betting commercials from 2019-2020. It shows that different commercials draw on diametrically different formulations of the game, emphasizing skill and luck, rationality and emotion respectively, which is conceptualized as different, gendered emotional interpellations. These include production of emotional or stoic masculine viewer positions, as well as the portrayal and evoking of emotions, and point to the psychic and emotional dimension of neo-liberal, consumerist culture, which strives to incorporate and exploit ever more aspects of the personal. The article furthers the theorizing of emotions in consumerist culture, contributes to gambling research by problematizing gendered ideas about skill and luck, and adds to studies of men in contemporary consumerist culture with discussions of emotionality, rationality, homosociality, and masculinized interpellations of different kinds.
... (1) technical, related to the knowledge of the game rules and odds, (2) psychological, such as decoding opponents' behaviour and controlling attention spans, impulsivity and negative emotions provoked by the game, and (3) financial, involving balance between risk-taking and minimizing losses . Empirical studies have shown that chance influences game outcomes more than skill in the short term (Meyer et al., 2013). In the long term, skill then tends to gain a little influence on game outcomes (Bjerg, 2010;Turner & Fritz, 2001), particularly for players who devote a considerable number of hours to the game (Fiedler & Rock, 2009). ...
The objective of this study was to compare erroneous beliefs of online Texas Hold’em poker players with different level of severity of problems, in situations that could cause negative emotions. Verbalizations of three groups of gamblers (low-risk, n=10; at-risk, n=10 and problem, n=10) while playing an online poker tournament in a laboratory setting. Participants were not aware that they played against research assistants and that all cards received were predetermined and the same for all participants. Beliefs related to the illusion of control were found in the three groups of gamblers. At-risk and problem gamblers’ perceptions denote a greater influence given to their ability on the game results, with even a denial of the part played by chance. Poker-specific beliefs, different from those usually held by game-of-chance gamblers, were also found. These results are discussed to provide ideas in how to adapt erroneous perceptions questionnaires for online poker players.
... Texas Holdem poker (selanjutnya disebut THP) merupakan salah satu permaina kartu yang populer, perkembanganya sudah mencapai dunia permainan secara daring dan menjadikannya salah satu sektor yang paling berkembang pesar dan popular [5]. Permainan THP cenderung bersifat sebagai permainan yang mengandalkan kesempatan (game of chance) [1], [2]. Meskipun demikian, keterampilan bermain yang dimiliki oleh para pemain THP profesional pun telah terbukti ikut berperan sebagai penunjang kemenangan [3], [4]. ...
... B. Lotto oder Roulette), besteht in der Fachliteratur mitunter eine Kontroverse bezüglich der Einordung sogenannter Mischspiele, die einen gewissen "Skill-Anteil" aufweisen. Aktuell betrifft dies insbesondere das Pokerspiel in seinen unterschiedlichen Ausprägungen [3], sowie "Fantasy Sports", eine Art Managerspiel, bei dem virtuelle Teams aus tatsächlich existierenden Sportmannschaften zusammengestellt und nach ihrer Leistung im realen Spielbetreib bewertet werden [4]. ...
Zusammenfassung
Glücksspiele zeichnen sich unter anderem durch ihren zufallsbasierten Spielausgang aus. Im Fokus des vorliegenden systematischen Reviews steht die Frage, ob Sportwetten als Glücksspiel einzustufen sind oder alternativ ein Geschicklichkeitsspiel darstellen, bei dem bestimmte Kompetenzen der Spielteilnehmenden bei der Vorhersage von Sportereignissen maßgeblich zum Tragen kommen. Im Zuge einer systematischen Literaturrecherche konnten insgesamt 9 Tippstudien gefunden werden, welche die Einschlusskriterien erfüllten, und in denen verschiedene Personengruppen gegeneinander und/oder gegen den Zufall auf den Ausgang realer Spielereignisse wetten. Nahezu alle Studien zeigten, dass gewisse Kenntnisse, Fähigkeiten oder Fertigkeiten beim Sportwetten keine bedeutsame Rolle spielen. Dieser Sachverhalt gilt unabhängig von der Sportart, dem konkreten Sportereignis oder bestimmten Studienparametern. Entsprechend sollten Sportwetten im rechtlichen wie politischen Sinne zur Kategorie der Glücksspiele zählen und die entsprechenden Maßnahmen des Jugend- und Spielerschutzes aus dem Glücksspielbereich greifen. Ein zentrales Ziel besteht dabei in der Vorbeugung der Entstehung von kognitiven Verzerrungen wie Kontrollillusionen bzw. dem Irrglauben, beim Sportwetten durch die eigene Expertise Geld verdienen zu können.
... The skill element enables some players to make poker their profession, and encourages some gamblers to continue and try to improve these skills. To play at their highest level, players need to be able to control themselves, their cognitive abilities and their emotions, and must have good concentration faculties [5,6]. ...
Online poker is a form of gambling where an element of skill may influence the outcome of the game. ‘Tilt’ in poker describes an episode during which the player can no longer control their game by rational decisions. It leads to a loss of control over the game, a loss of emotional regulation, higher cognitive distortion, and a loss of money. This phenomenon, experienced by most players, could be the gateway to excessive gambling. The aim of this study was to assess the links between the frequency of tilt episodes, cognitive distortion, anxiety, depression, sensation seeking and excessive online poker gambling. Our sample is composed of 291 online poker players, with a mean age of 33.8 years (SD = 10.6). Participants completed an online self-assessment questionnaire, measuring the frequency of tilt episodes, cognitive distortion, anxiety, depression and impulsivity. The findings indicated that the frequency of tilt episodes and cognitive distortion were the only significant predictors of excessive online gambling (respectively, r = 0.49 and r = 0.20). Tilt frequency and cognitive distortion were strongly correlated (GRCS, r = 0.60), moderate to low correlations were found for tilt and anxiety (HADS, r = 0.40), and positive and negative urgency (UPPS, r = 0.27). To date, tilt has seldom been studied, and could improve our understanding of online poker gamblers. It could be a new means of identifying at risk gamblers, and thus facilitating preventive measures specifically adapted to this population.
... Generally, poker is viewed as a game of both skill and chance, but the extent to which one or the other dominates is debated (Croson, Fishman, & Pope, 2008;Dedonno & Detterman, 2008;Fiedler & Rock, 2009;Levitt & Miles, 2014;Meyer, von Meduna, & Brosowski, 2013). Anecdotal evidence supports the view of poker as a game where one's skills can constantly be improved (Brunson, 2005;Sklansky & Malmuth, 1999;Tendler, 2011). ...
Poker is a game of skill and chance involving economic decision-making under uncertainty. It is also a complex but well-defined real-world environment with a clear rule-structure. As such, poker has strong potential as a model system for studying high-stakes, high-risk expert performance. Poker has been increasingly used as a tool to study decision-making and learning, as well as emotion self-regulation. In this review, we discuss how these studies have begun to inform us about the interaction between emotions and technical skill, and how expertise develops and depends on these two factors. Expertise in poker critically requires both mastery of the technical aspects of the game, and proficiency in emotion regulation; poker thus offers a good environment for studying these skills in controlled experimental settings of high external validity. We conclude by suggesting ideas for future research on expertise, with new insights provided by poker.
... There is still a question of whether poker should be considered as a game of skill or a game of chance. On the one hand, research shows that a poker should be regarded as a game of chance (Meyer, Meduna, Brosowski, & Hayer, 2012), but on the other, the literature demonstrates the results of research that confirm the role of skills in poker (Levitt & Miles, 2011). These findings are the rationale behind considering a poker game and an investment as alternative activities. ...
Aim/purpose – The paper examines the level of investment activity among the last semester master’s degree students of economics fields, including investment in stocks and in forex (FX) in comparison to a poker game.
Design/methodology/approach – The paper presents the exploration of similarities and differences of stock trading, forex trading and poker playing (a critical analysis of the literature), and questionnaire research among 613 students of the last semester of studies at the University of Economics in Katowice.
Findings – A decreasing level of a participation of individuals in financial markets refers to different financial segments like capital markets and trading on, e.g. the Warsaw Stock Exchange (WSE) or the foreign exchange market (forex, FX). The current market situation does not constitute favourable conditions to increase commitment of individual investors on the WSE. In addition, other form of investment among young people is being observed, e.g. poker. The results of the research stress the role of an effective financial education and its influence on a changing the attitudes towards investments.
Research implications/limitations – The research sample is limited to the students of one university.
Originality/value/contribution – So far, there has not been conducted any research among potential important participants of financial markets which takes into account the listed alternatives: investments on the Warsaw Stock Exchange and in forex, or a poker game.
... Although there are legitimate arguments about whether professional poker is a form of gambling (Meyer, von Meduna, Brosowski, & Hayer, 2013;Potter van Loon, van den Assem, & van Dolder, 2015, von Dolder, 2015, most researchers and legislators argue that gambling can generally be distinguished from other activities based on the extent to which outcomes are determined by skill and chance. In some countries (e.g. the United States), this is based on what is called the 'dominance test' (Mindell, 2018). ...
Skill-based elements are increasing being introduced to electronic gaming machines to appeal to a broad consumer cohort by offering different play experiences. In this paper, we examine what is meant by skill in gambling and to what extent electronic skilled-gambling games differ from existing forms of gambling. Using examples drawn from recent market releases, we examine the ways in which skill-elements are being incorporated into gaming machines. As we will highlight, the industry could look to profit from skillful games in different ways: one model might allow skillful play, but in a context where the long-term RTP always remains negative. Another model might allow individual players to obtain greater returns through competition against other players or genuine opportunities to obtain a positive RTP, but where this will only be achievable for a minority of players. We discuss the potential implications of these differences for player experiences as well as game profitability. We argue that a deeper understanding of how similar structural differences operate in video-gaming might provide useful insights into how popular and successful (from an industry perceptive) these games are likely to be as well as the potential implications for policies, problem gambling, and treatment.
... While poker is popularly understood as a game of chance, academics are building a consensus that poker is ultimately a game of skill, at both low and high stakes (Croson, Fishman, & Pope, 2008;Levitt & Miles, 2014;Potter van Loon, van den Assem, & van Dolder, 2014). Poker and poker-like games have long proven useful for the experimental study of human strategic behavior (Billings, Davidson, Schaeffer, & Szafron, 2002;Kuhn, 1950;Laakasuo, Palom€ aki, & Salmela, 2014;Meyer, Meduna, Brosowski, & Hayer, 2013;Rapoport, Erev, Abraham, & Olson, 1997;Seale & Phelan, 2009), and interest in strategic games generally goes back to the very roots of both cognitive science and artificial intelligence (Chase & Simon, 1973;Turing, 1950). Several recent major advances have made versions of two-player Hold'em the first incomplete information games in which artificial intelligence has shown human-competitive and human-superior performance (Bowling, Burch, Johanson, & Tammelin, 2015;Brown & Sandholm, 2018;Morav c ık et al., 2017;Sandholm, 2015). ...
There is a tendency in decision‐making research to treat uncertainty only as a problem to be overcome. But it is also a feature that can be leveraged, particularly in social interaction. Comparing the behavior of profitable and unprofitable poker players, we reveal a strategic use of information processing that keeps decision makers unpredictable. To win at poker, a player must exploit public signals from others. But using public inputs makes it easier for an observer to reconstruct that player's strategy and predict his or her behavior. How should players trade off between exploiting profitable opportunities and remaining unexploitable themselves? Using a recent multivariate approach to information theoretic data analysis and 1.75 million hands of online two‐player No‐Limit Texas Hold'em, we find that the important difference between winning and losing players is not in the amount of information they process, but how they process it. In particular, winning players are better at integrative information processing—creating new information from the interaction between their cards and their opponents’ signals. We argue that integrative information processing does not just produce better decisions, it makes decision‐making harder for others to reverse engineer, as an expert poker player's cards act like the private key in public‐key cryptography. Poker players encrypt their reasoning with the way they process information. The encryption function of integrative information processing makes it possible for players to exploit others while remaining unexploitable. By recognizing the act of information processing as a strategic behavior in its own right, we offer a detailed account of how experts use endemic uncertainty to conceal their intentions in high‐stakes competitive environments, and we highlight new opportunities between cognitive science, information theory, and game theory.
... While poker is popularly understood as a game of chance, academics are building a consensus that poker is ultimately a game of skill, at both low and high stakes (Croson, Fishman, & Pope, 2008;Levitt & Miles, 2014;Potter van Loon, van den Assem, & van Dolder, 2014). Poker and poker-like games have long proven useful for the experimental study of human strategic behavior (Billings, Davidson, Schaeffer, & Szafron, 2002;Kuhn, 1950;Laakasuo, Palomäki, & Salmela, 2014;Meyer, Meduna, Brosowski, & Hayer, 2013;Rapoport, Erev, Abraham, & Olson, 1997;Seale & Phelan, 2009), and interest in strategic games generally goes back to the very roots of both cognitive science and artificial intelligence (Chase & Simon, 1973;Turing, 1950). Several recent major advances have made versions of two-player Hold'em the first incomplete information games in which artificial intelligence has shown humancompetitive and human-superior performance (Bowling, Burch, Johanson, & Tammelin, 2015;Brown & Sandholm, 2018;Moravčík et al., 2017;Sandholm, 2015). ...
To win at poker, players must exploit public signals from opponents. But using public signals makes the player's own strategy easier to reconstruct and exploit in turn. How should players trade off between exploiting profitable opportunities and remaining unexploitable themselves? We analyze 1.75 million hands of online two-player No-Limit Texas Hold’em and find the important difference between winning and losing players is not the amount of information, but how they process it. Winning players are better at integrative information processing — creating new information from the interaction between their private cards and their opponents' public signals. We argue this does not just improve decisions, but encrypts them, with the player’s cards acting like the private key in public key cryptography. Winning poker players successfully encrypt their reasoning and by doing so are able to exploit others while remaining unexploitable. Uncertainty is often treated only as a problem to be overcome, but we show it can also be leveraged in strategic interactions.
... Experts consistently perform better than amateurs. Experts are better at minimizing loss when they have bad cards (Meyer,von Meduna, Brosowski and Hayer, 2013). It is also possible to teach neural networks to play Texas Hold 'em to a professional level based on evolutionary methods (Nicolai and Hilderman, 2009). ...
People who appear to believe in the hot hand expect winning streaks to continue whereas those suffering from the gamblers’ fallacy unreasonably expect losing streaks to reverse. 565,915 sports bets made by 776 online gamblers in 2010 were used for analysis. People who won were more likely to win again whereas those who lost were more likely to lose again. However, selection of safer odds after winning and riskier ones after losing indicates that online sports gamblers expected their luck to reverse: they suffered from the gamblers’ fallacy. By following in the gamblers’ fallacy, they created their own hot hands. Some gamblers consistently outperformed their peers. They also consistently made higher profits or lower losses. They show real expertise. The key of real expertise is the ability to control loss.
... Ladouceur et al. (1999) also found that skill and knowledge are no help in winning money in horse betting. Through the use of computer simulation and a quasi-experimental design, Meyer et al. (2013) concluded, ''poker should be regarded as a game of chance'' (p. 535). ...
Traditional, season-long fantasy sport participation has grown considerably since the late 1990s, and in an attempt to capitalize on this growing demand, daily fantasy sports (DFS) providers have created a new game where money changes hands instantly. This change has led some legal commentators and state agencies to believe the game is a form of Internet gambling similar to online poker, blackjack, and sports wagering, and thus, it requires increased regulation or even prohibition. Little is known, however, about the gambling behavior associated with DFS participation. Thus, the purpose of the current study was to examine problem gambling severity in conjunction with DFS participant motives, perceptions, and consumption behavior. Over 500 DFS participants were surveyed, and the results suggest DFS participants behave similarly with participants in other forms of gambling activities. In addition, the findings suggest additional consumer protections may be needed to prevent further problem behavior such as chasing.
... Taking this variety of experiences into consideration, factors need to be identified to explain why some poker players report positive experiences by playing, while others develop gambling problems. In fact, despite an accumulation of empirical studies in recent years concerning diverse aspects of poker (Griffiths et al. 2010;Meyer et al. 2013;Palomäki et al. 2013;Wolkomir 2012), little is yet known about the psychological predictors of both absence of gambling problems and development of problems among poker players. One psychological construct that seems promising in discriminating positive from negative experiences or non-problem from problem gamblers is the concept of passion (Vallerand et al. 2003). ...
The concept of passion is relevant to understanding gambling behaviours and gambling problems. Longitudinal studies are useful to better understand the absence and development of gambling problems; however, only one study has specifically considered poker players. Using a longitudinal design, this study aims to determine the influence, 1 year later, of two forms of passion-harmonious and obsessive-on gambling problems in poker players. A total of 116 poker players was recruited from across Quebec, Canada. The outcome variable of interest was participants' category on the Canadian Pathological Gambling Index, and the predictive variable was the Gambling Passion Scale. Multiple logistic regression analyses were conducted to identify independent risk factors of at-risk poker players 1 year later. Obsessive passion at baseline doubled the risk of gambling problems 1 year later (p < 0.01); for harmonious passion, there was no association. Number of gambling activities, drug problems, and impulsivity were also associated with at-risk gambling. This study highlights the links between obsessive passion and at-risk behaviours among poker players. It is therefore important to prevent the development of obsessive passion among poker players.
... ringer i World Series of Poker 2010, ofte omtalt som «VM i poker». Spillerne som før turneringen var ranket som eksperter tjente i snitt 30 prosent av innsatsen per turnering, mens spillerne som ikke var ranket som eksperter tapte i gjennomsnitt 15 prosent av innsatsen sin per turnering. Ikke alle er enige i at poker primaert er et ferdighetsspill.Meyer mfl. (2013) arrangerte en pokerkonkurranse der de manipulerte kortene. De fant at hvor gode kort man fikk var mer avgjørende enn hvor erfaren pokerspiller man var, noe som taler for at tilfeldigheter (i hvert fall på kort sikt) er mer avgjørende enn ferdigheter. Forskningen på området gir altså ikke et entydig svar. ...
Tom Sahlen: Informationsforvaltning - i offentlig och privat sektor Dokument & Arkiv nr 6, Näringslivets Arkivråd, Stockholm 2016.ISSN: 1 404-7640ISBN: 978-91-973863-5-7
... However, the idea that DFS is governed primarily by skill as opposed to chance is how the activity has avoided being termed gambling. Games termed gambling, such as poker, blackjack, and the lottery, are seen as dictated primarily by chance than the effort or ability of the participant (Meyer et al. 2013;Myrseth et al. 2010). And while state legislators are weighing these conversations from a public policy perspective, little empirical evidence exists explaining how participants grapple with the notion of skill and chance. ...
In 2015, daily fantasy football entered the fantasy sports market as an offshoot of the traditional, season-long form of the game. With quicker payouts and less commitment, the new activity has drawn comparisons to other forms of illegal gambling, and the determination of whether it is a primarily a game of skill or chance has become the center of the comparison. For the most part, legal commentators and society, in general, views traditional, season-long fantasy football as an innocuous, social activity governed equally by both skill and chance. Little evidence exists, however, about participant perception of skill and chance components in daily fantasy football. The current study surveyed 535 daily and traditional-only fantasy football participants in order to understand differences and similarities in the causality orientations of participation (skill or chance). In addition, enjoyment and anxiety were tested for mediating effects on causality orientations and consumption behavior. The results suggest the differences between the activities are not extreme. However, differences were found in which causality orientations influenced enjoyment and which emotion mediated the relationship between perceived skill and consumption.
... The illusion of control has become an important phenomenon in experimental studies (Stefan & David, 2013, meta-analysis), however, its relevance to explain gambling behavior and disordered gambling is limited by the fact that some forms of gambling involve a genuine component of skill (e.g. poker : Meyer et al. 2013). Traditionally, two different categories have been used to classify the broad range of gambling activities: chance based games versus skill based games (Myrseth et al., 2010) or strategic versus non-strategic games (Grant et al., 2012). ...
Introduction:
Cognitive distortions are related to gambling frequency and gambling severity. Having a culturally sensitive measure to assess cognitive distortions will facilitate the early detection of people who might be at risk of developing problematic gambling behaviors. The Gamblers' Beliefs Questionnaire was translated into Spanish (GBQ-S) but no previous study explored the structure of the GBQ-S in a non-US sample with different levels of gambling involvement.
Aim:
The present study examined the factor structure of the GBQ-S in a community sample of gamblers from Argentina. It also analyzed the association between cognitive distortions and type of gambling activity and frequency of gambling behaviors and the predictive utility of the GBQ-S on gambling severity.
Participants:
508 youth and adults completed the GBQ-S.
Results:
The CFA showed an overall acceptable fit to the data confirming the proposed two-factor model. Scores of the two GBQ sub-scales were positively and significantly correlated with scores on gambling severity. Cognitive distortions have a significant effect on gambling severity after controlling for frequency of engagement in gambling activities. Luck and perseverance, but not illusion of control, was positively related to gambling severity.
Discussion:
scores measured by the GBQ-S exhibit adequate psychometric properties for the accurate assessment of cognitive distortions across adults and youth from the general community of Argentina.
... While poker is popularly understood as a game of chance, academics are building a consensus that poker is ultimately a game of skill, at both low and high stakes (Croson, Fishman, & Pope, 2008;Levitt & Miles, 2014;Potter van Loon, van den Assem, & van Dolder, 2014). Poker and poker-like games have long proven useful for the experimental study of human strategic behavior (Billings, Davidson, Schaeffer, & Szafron, 2002;Kuhn, 1950;Laakasuo, Palomäki, & Salmela, 2014;Meyer, Meduna, Brosowski, & Hayer, 2013;Rapoport, Erev, Abraham, & Olson, 1997;Seale & Phelan, 2009), and interest in strategic games generally goes back to the very roots of both cognitive science and artificial intelligence (Chase & Simon, 1973;Turing, 1950). Several recent major advances have made versions of two-player Hold'em the first incomplete information games in which artificial intelligence has shown humancompetitive and human-superior performance (Bowling, Burch, Johanson, & Tammelin, 2015;Brown & Sandholm, 2018;Moravčík et al., 2017;Sandholm, 2015). ...
Strategic agents in incomplete-information environments have a conflicted relationship with uncertainty: it can keep them unpredictable to their opponents, but it must also be overcome to predict the actions of those opponents. We use a multivariate generalization of information theory to characterize the information processing behavior of strategic reasoning experts. We compare expert and novice poker players --- "sharks" and "fish" --- over 1.75 million hands of online two-player No-Limit Texas Hold'em (NLHE). Comparing the effects of privately known and publicly signaled information on wagering behavior, we find that the behavior of sharks coheres with information that emerges only from the interaction of public and private sources --- "synergistic" information that does not exist in either source alone. This implies that the effect of public information on shark behavior is better encrypted: it cannot be reconstructed without access to the hidden state of private cards. Integrative information processing affects not only one's own strategic behavior, but the ability of others to predict it. By characterizing the informational structure of complex strategic interactions, we offer a detailed account of how experts extract, process, and conceal valuable information in high-uncertainty, high-stakes competitive environments.
... Pokerin suosion kasvu on ilmennyt erityisesti internetissä pelatun pokerin eli nettipokerin pelaajien määrän suuressa kasvussa. Nykyään miljoonat ihmiset pelaavat pokeria ja nettipokeria maailmanlaajuisesti, ja tähän liittyy yli kahden miljardin euron vuosittainen liikevaihto (Fiedler, 2012;Meyer, von Meduna, Brosowski & Hayer, 2013). Lisäksi monissa maissa televisioidaan säännöllisesti kymmeniä pokeriaiheisia ohjelmia (Bjerg, 2011), ja esimerkiksi elokuvateollisuudessa pokeripelitilanteiden kuvaaminen osana elokuvan jännitys elementtiä on lisääntynyt (Egerer & Rantala, 2014). ...
Pokeri on suosittu uhkapeli, joka poikkeaa muista uhkapeleistä erityisesti taitoaspektinsa johdosta: toisin kuin suurimmassa osassa muista uhkapeleistä, pokerissa tarpeeksi taitavan pelaajan on mahdollista jäädä voitolle pitkällä aikavälillä. Pokeritaitoa voidaan mitata luotettavasti, ja sen kehittyminen ennustaa kykyä tehdä rationaalisia – rahallisesti tuotollisia – päätöksiä pokeripelissä. Pokeritaidon osa-alueet voidaan jakaa teknisiin eli peli strategisiin taitoihin ja niin sanottuihin emotionaalisiin, tunteiden säätelyyn liittyviin taitoihin. Pokeritaitojen kehittymisen kannalta on olennaista, että pelaajalla on kattava ymmärrys keskeisistä pokeripe-liin liittyvistä matemaattisista käsitteistä. Hyvä ymmärrys pokeripelin mekaniikasta ja sen taitopeliluonteesta on keskeinen osa myös pokeriin liittyvää tunteiden säätelyä. Näistä pokerin erityispiirteistä johtuen aktiivisten pokerinpelaajien psykopatologisia pelihimon piirteitä on haastavaa arvioida perinteisillä kliinisillä instrumen-teilla. Tässä katsaus artikkelissa käsittelemme pokerin pelaamiseen ja pokeritaitojen kehittämiseen liittyviä psykologisia mekanismeja. Lisäksi väitämme, että nykyiset käytössä olevat peliriippuvuuden mittarit eivät yksiselitteisesti sovellu pokerinpelaajien arviointiin, ja esitämme kehitys ehdotuksia kyseisiin mittareihin.
... Ceci ne veut toutefois pas dire que les joueurs de poker ne consomment pas des SPA,Mihaylova, Kairouz et Nadeau (2012) rapportant, par exemple, que 53,2 % des étudiants universitaires qui jouent au poker (non-Internet) ont consommé du cannabis dans la dernière année. Peut-être arrivent-ils à mieux contrôler leur consommation, notamment en évitant de consommer avant ou pendant qu'ils jouent au poker ?De fait, même si des auteurs commeBerthet (2010) ainsi queMeyer, Von Meduna, Brosowski et Hayer, (2013) ont montré que le poker est surtout un jeu de hasard et que la part d'habileté nécessaire y est marginale, plusieurs joueurs de poker perçoivent que la consommation de SPA diminuerait leur capacité à analyser le jeu adéquatement et provoquerait l'adoption d'un comportement de jeu trop agressif et impulsif ...
La consommation de substances psychoactives (SPA) et la participation à des jeux de hasard et d’argent (JHA) font partie des conduites à risque à l’adolescence. Certaines études montrent que le fait de jouer à des JHA et celui d’éprouver des problèmes de JHA sont associés aux problèmes de consommation de SPA chez les jeunes, mais elles documentent peu quelles activités (nature et quantité) et types de JHA (Internet ou non-Internet) sont plus spécifiquement reliés aux problèmes de consommation de SPA à l’adolescence. Les travaux de la présente étude visent à explorer les liens entre les activités de JHA, le nombre de JHA et les types de JHA d’une part, et les SPA consommées ainsi que la gravité de la consommation de SPA, d’autre part. Pour ce faire, une étude a été réalisée entre 2007 et 2009 auprès de 1 870 élèves de la 3 e à la 5 e année du secondaire, âgés de 14 à 18 ans. Un questionnaire sur les habitudes de JHA (DSM-IV-MR-J) et un autre sur la consommation de SPA (DEP-ADO) leur ont été administrés. Les résultats montrent notamment que les jeunes polyconsommateurs (alcool et cannabis) s’adonnent aux JHA dans une proportion plus élevée que les consommateurs d’alcool seulement. Aussi, le fait de jouer avec des appareils de loterie vidéo (ALV) semble être associé à une gravité plus importante de la consommation de SPA que les autres activités de JHA. Par ailleurs, une gravité plus élevée de la consommation de SPA est manifestée chez ceux qui s’adonnent à un plus grand nombre d’activités de JHA différentes. Les jeunes jouant avec les ALV et ceux faisant des paris sportifs s’adonnent à un nombre moyen de JHA différents plus important. Enfin, les joueurs Internet de l’échantillon présentent des problèmes de consommation de SPA plus graves que les joueurs non-Internet. Les implications cliniques de ces résultats sont discutées.
... Bien entendu, lorsqu'il y a déséquilibre sur le plan de l'habileté des adversaires, les moins habiles deviennent plus susceptibles d'essuyer des pertes (Turner & Fritz, 2001). Les résultats d'autres études montrent que la valeur des cartes détermine la plupart du temps les résultats obtenus au poker, atténuant l'influence de l'habileté des joueurs sur les résultats du jeu (Berthet, 2010;Meyer, von Meduna, Brosowski & Hayer, 2012;Sévigny, Ladouceur, Dufour & Lalande, 2008). L'interprétation de Fiedler et Rock (2009) et de Berthet (2010 résume bien les résultats de l'ensemble de ces études, soit que le poker n'est pas uniquement un jeu de hasard, ni totalement un jeu d'habileté, mais qu'il se déplace sur un continuum entre ces deux extrémités. ...
Although the practice of online poker is associated with high rates of gambling problems, little is yet known about what distinguishes online poker players with different levels of gambling problems. Three groups of Texas Hold’em online poker players (low-risk (n = 7), at-risk (n = 7) and problematic (n = 3)), were compared in terms of their motivations to play, their emotions experienced during play and their perceptions about chance and skill. Thematic analysis from focus groups conducted reveals that the motivations to play and emotions reported in the groups are similar. The at-risk and problematic groups distinguish themselves from the low-risk group in their overestimation of their personal skill. The beliefs gathered through this study will contribute to the development or adaptation of erroneous beliefs’ questionnaires used with online poker players. © 2015, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health. All rights reserved.
... At first, we were surprised by this grouping because we expected that games with an element of skill would form a class in themselves, and in any case that they would group with a lottery game. Indeed, current literature focuses on the distinction between skillful and non-skillful games and insists on the importance of studying the skill component of the game to explain differences in gamblers (Stevens and Young 2010;Turner and Fritz 2001;Meyer et al. 2013;Kelly et al. 2007;Dreef et al. 2004;Grant et al. 2012). With a second look, we deduced that the delay in obtaining the result may be the most important feature in differentiating profiles of gamblers. ...
The objective of this study was to identify profiles of gamblers to explain the choice of preferred gambling activity among both problem and non-problem gamblers. 628 non-problem and problem gamblers were assessed with a structured interview including "healthy" (sociodemographic characteristics, gambling habits and personality profile assessed with the Temperament and Character Inventory-125) and "pathological" [diagnosis of pathological gambling, gambling-related cognitions (GRCs) and psychiatric comorbidity] variables. We performed a two-step cluster analysis based solely on "healthy" variables to identify gamblers' profiles which typically reflect the choice of preferred gambling activity. The obtained classes were then described using both "healthy" and "pathological" variables, by comparing each class to the rest of the sample. Clusters were generated. Class 1 (Electronic Gaming Machines gamblers) showed high cooperativeness, a lower level of GRC about strategy and more depressive disorders. Class 2 (games with deferred results gamblers) were high novelty seekers and showed a higher level of GRC about strategy and more addictive disorders. Class 3 (roulette gamblers) were more often high rollers and showed a higher level of GRC about strategy and more manic or hypomanic episodes and more obsessive-compulsive disorders. Class 4 (instant lottery gamblers) showed a lower tendency to suicide attempts. Class 5 (scratch cards gamblers) were high harm avoiders and showed a lower overall level of GRC and more panic attacks and eating disorders. The preference for one particular gambling activity may concern different profiles of gamblers. This study highlights the importance of considering the pair gambler-game rather than one or the other separately, and may provide support for future research on gambling and preventive actions directed toward a particular game.
... Self or third party report of skill level has also been used to assess skill. Meyer et al. (2012) utilized self-reports of playing frequency, perceived personal success, and selfreported poker playing profits to create a composite score by which participants were categorized as either average players or probable experts. Another study asked for selfreported experience and used this as an indication of participant familiarity and ability in poker (Slepian et al. 2013). ...
Existing research has demonstrated that poker is a game predominated by skill. Little is known about the specific characteristics of good poker players however, likely due in part to the lack of a readily available measure of poker skill. In the absence of an available and easily administered poker skill measure, laboratory studies of poker player attributes have used questionable methodologies to assess skill including peer- and self-report. The aim of the current research was to create a valid, reliable, and easily administered measure of poker playing skill. A sample of 100 University of Lethbridge undergraduate students and Lethbridge community members completed the newly created Poker Skills Measure (PSM) and an objective measure of poker playing performance (playing virtual poker). External validity of the measure was demonstrated via significant associations-expected and detected-between the PSM and the objective playing measure. Specifically, significant positive associations were found between PSM scores and hands won, pre- and post flop aggression, and a significant negative relationship was detected between PSM scores and number of hands played. Within the current sample, acceptable internal consistency (Cronbach's α = .82) and very good test re-test reliability (r = .78) was achieved with the 35 item PSM. Future directions are discussed.
This study aimed to examine the relationship between problem gambling and subjective well-being in the general population. Previous research on the subject has shown that problem gambling has varied harmful consequences, while controlled gambling could lead to recreation, sharing with others, and achieving higher levels of well-being. A representative, probabilistic, and multistage sample of 1032 cases was used for the study (54.65% women; mean age of 44.06 years, SD = 16.84). The instruments used were the Spanish validation of the National Opinion Research Center DSM Screen for Gambling Problems (NODS) and the Personal Wellbeing Index (PWI). It is estimated that 74.98% of the population have gambled the past year and 14.28% were people who experience gambling problems at some point in their lives. Recent estimates indicate prevalence rates of gambling disorder among current adult gamblers ranging between 0.12 and 5.8% worldwide, but these figures are higher when problem gambling is also taken into consideration. Moreover, people who experience gambling problems report lower levels of life satisfaction than people who do not experience gambling problems. Participants that did not gamble during the last year and the group that did gamble, but did not qualify as problematic gambler, showed the same levels of Satisfaction With Life (SWL). At the same time, based on a multigroup analysis carried out through modeling with structural equations (SEM), it was observed that gambling had a strong direct and negative effect on SWL of the group of people who experience gambling problems (λ = -0.382; p < 0.01), while for the group of people who do not experience gambling problems, it presents a weak direct and positive effect (λ = 0.019; p < 0.001), explaining 14.6% and 0.0% of the variance of SWL (significance due only to sample size, since the strength of the association is null), respectively. Results are discussed considering the effects of gambling on life satisfaction.
The aim of this cumulative dissertation is to explore the potential of re-using different datasets (secondary data analyses) by methods of automated, quantitative data analysis and statistical modeling (data-mining) for behavioral and health science in an application-oriented manner. In ten thematically varying empirical studies, different instruments of automated quantitative data analysis were used, with differing emphases being placed on either data preparation, enrichment, harmonization or data exploration and statistical modeling, depending on the available data. Part A of the manuscript documents in the style of a learning process the thechnical and methodological basics and challenges to be mastered in an application-oriented implementation of automated univariate and multivariate data analyses along different application examples and with a focus on the detection and statistical modeling of disordered gambling behavior. Parallel multiple mediation models, which differentiate between heavy gambling consumption within and outside the form of gambling on a product-specific basis, proved to be a helpful analytical tool for the differentiated quantitative evaluation of the complex bio-psycho-social phenomenon at the interface of environment, person and consumed gambling products. Part B deepens the theoretical and empirical arguments for the future application of the epidemiological concept of "Heavy Use Over Time" as a causal mechanism for gambling and behavioral addiction research along different application examples. Part C sketches an outlook on selected challenges in digitalized, market-liberal societies as well as possible future solutions through quantitative psychological research and interdisciplinary secondary data analyses in an open, transparent, digital society.
We investigate how the mistakes of professional chess players affect the quality of their further moves in the same game. Using a database of games played by top chess players, Stockfish chess engine evaluations, and an ordered probit regression analysis, we found clear evidence that small inaccuracies lead to less accurate play in future, while more severe mistakes have a weaker effect on the quality of play in the same direction.
Sustainability is a multifaceted field that
educates students and professionals in fields
as diverse as business, technology, ecology,
and sociology. We are living in an era of
transformation with upholding the ethos and
values of Indian education and management
system, through interaction with the science,
knowledge and technology of education
leading to creation of global Indian managers
who could perform at all given circumstances. The study of sustainability
necessitates the integration of not just the hard sciences, but also the social,
political, economic, philosophical, and other relevant disciplines. We have to
cultivate effective mentoring, psychometric analysis, yoga practices,
availability of excellent digital knowledge database, and focused attention on
our country development. We ensure to highlight potential to each individual
Indian and prepare them to cope up with the high level of performance in the
contemporary stressful corporate world with spirituality and Indian ethos,
values and traditions. We inculcate in the people the habit of lateral and
innovative thinking, reading habit, research orientation, decision making
capability along with nurturing and developing physical and mental strength
to sustain and excel under any given situation through mutual learning and
sharing Knowledge.
This chapter examines legal, regulatory, and social issues surrounding the phenomenon of the daily fantasy sports (DFS) industry in the USA. Traditional fantasy sports contests largely involved groups of family or friends creating their own respective “fantasy” teams of real professional athletes, whose actual games results over the course of an entire season determined the success of one’s fantasy team. Fantasy sports contests were not considered gambling on sports, and federal legislation exempts “fantasy sports” from prohibitions against online gambling. As the name implied, DFS is a different product, offering users who pay the DFS operating company to select their team roster on a daily basis, competitions can occur over a day or a week depending on the contest, and among thousands of users, few of whom are consistent winners in the contests. The DFS commercials and advertisements are again blaring the airwaves. Major DFS operators are expanding their product lines and are now fully immersed in online, mobile, and casino sports gambling in states where legal. The DFS and sports gaming market is booming; the technology, analytics, user sophistication, financial stakes, and the distinction between DFS and gambling are increasingly blurred. This chapter considers the legal, regulatory, and social issues arising from the expanding DFS and sport gaming business.
Our study examines whether implementing a novel approach for incentivizing employees to engage in behavior desired by the company is associated with changes in employee behavior. We use proprietary data from a company using an online learning platform where employees could voluntarily participate in daily training. Employees who complete daily training modules and correctly answer quiz questions earn points that can be used to bid on gift cards through an online auction site. The company subsequently activated an option of allowing employees to also use their points to play an online slot machine with the possibility of winning the same gift cards available through the online auction site. Using psychology theory we predict that the arousal and excitement experienced from playing an online slot machine will lead to a positive association between the extent to which employees play the slot machine and the increase in: (1) the number of daily training modules they complete; and (2) the effort they exert to perform well on the related quizzes after the slot machine was introduced. Although the results support both of our predictions, we also find a significant decrease in the number of daily training modules completed by employees who chose not to play the slot machine as well as declines in both interest in playing the slot machine and training activity over time for employees who played. Overall, the effectiveness of implementing an online slot machine game on improving employee behavior seems short-term and limited to a sub-set employees who play, and may even generate negative effects for other employees who do not play. We identify implications for theory and practice.
Objetivo:
Examinar en estudiantes universitarios diferencias en impulsividad rasgo, distorsiones cognitivas y severidad en el involucramiento con los juegos de apuestas en función de los juegos de apuestas de preferencia (estratégicos y no estratégicos); y variaciones en impulsividad en función de los diferentes niveles de severidad en el involucramiento con los juegos de apuestas (sin riesgo, bajo riesgo, alto riesgo).
Método:
Participaron 295 estudiantes que completaron instrumentos para medir: 1-ocurrencia y preferencia de juegos de apuestas (cuestionario ad-hoc), 2-severidad en el involucramiento con los juegos de apuestas (versión en español del South Oaks Gambling Screen, 3-impulsividad rasgo (versión en español de UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale), 4-distorsiones cognitivas (versión en español del Gamblers’ Beliefs Questionnaire).
Resultados:
Se encontraron diferencias estadísticamente significativas en impulsividad, distorsiones cognitivas y severidad en el involucramiento con los juegos de apuestas en función de la preferencia por determinados tipos de apuestas, y en impulsividad en función del nivel de severidad en el involucramiento con los juegos de apuestas.
Conclusión:
Los hallazgos describen características psicológicas asociadas a una mayor vulnerabilidad a exhibir modalidades problemáticas de involucramiento con los juegos de apuestas; y sugieren que quienes exhiben preferencias por juegos de apuestas categorizados como estratégicos, o por apuestas estratégicas y no estratégicas combinadas, son quienes parecen estar en mayor riesgo de presentar problemas con el juego de apuestas.
Several studies have focused on some of the skill elements needed to become a successful poker player, but few have described the poker players' learning processes. No studies have used a learning theory to analyse poker players' variety of learning methods or analysed whether the competitive and deceptive nature of the poker game have an impact on the players' learning outcome. This article examines 15 poker players' learning processes and how the players enter different learning communities of practice, arguing that different communities have different norms. In a friendly community of practice, the players were generous in helping each other and revealed secrets so that the group could grow together. In the competitive community of practice, the players were more cautious, and misleading information was common. Online poker, as well as new technology, has made several new artefacts (learning tools) available for poker players, and their main contribution is to reveal information that was previously unavailable. Because poker is a game of information, it greatly affects the players' learning potential.
Der Beitrag vertritt die Auffassung, dass statische und substantialistische Konzeptualisierungen einem Verständnis des Phänomens Glücksspiel soziologisch nicht angemessen sind. Gezeigt wird, dass sich durch die Berücksichtigung der pragmatistischen Einsicht, wonach die Wirklichkeit keine unabhängig von den Handelnden gegebene und ein für alle Mal stabile Existenz hat, sondern variabel und veränderlich ist, weil sie von Handelnden in ihrem Handeln kontinuierlich hervorgebracht wird, ein ungleich instruktiverer Blick auf das Glücksspiel gewinnen lässt.
espanolEl juego esta cada dia mas presente en la sociedad con prevalencias muy importantes, sobre todo, en jovenes y adolescentes. Como consecuencia, este estudio tiene como objetivo estudiar la relacion entre el juego patologico, el juego a nivel aficionado el juego profesional (ajedrez y poquer) en el control de impulsos y en el consumo de alcohol. Para ello, se ha utilizado una muestra compuesta por jugadores aficionados y profesionales de ajedrez y poquer, un grupo de jugadores patologicos y un grupo control. Los instrumentos han medido conducta de riesgo de ingesta de alcohol, control de impulsos y los criterios diagnosticos de juego patologico. Los principales resultados han mostrado que existen diferencias significativas en el control de impulsos entre el grupo control, los jugadores aficionados, los profesionales y los jugadores patologicos. Ademas, con respecto a los criterios diagnosticos del trastorno de juego, los jugadores patologicos han mostrado diferencias significativas en los criterios de perdida de control y deposito de la confianza en otros. Por ultimo, se ha encontrado que los jugadores aficionados y profesionales de poquer presentan, de forma significativa, algunos de los criterios diagnosticos del trastorno de juego: relaciones en riesgo, conducta de caza, abstinencia y mentiras. catalaEl joc esta cada dia mes present en la societat amb prevalences molt importants, sobretot, en joves i adolescents. Com a consequencia, aquest estuditrobat que els jugadors aficionats i professionals de poquer presenten de forma significativa alguns dels criteris diagnostics del trastorn de joc: relacions en risc, conducta de caca, abstinencia i mentides. te l�objectiu d�estudiar la relacio entre el joc patologic, el joc a nivell d�aficionats i el joc professional (escacs i poquer) en el control d�impulsos i en el consum d�alcohol. Per a aixo, hem utilitzat una mostra de jugadors aficionats i professionals d�escacs i poquer, un grup de jugadors patologics i un grup de control. Els instruments han mesurat la conducta de risc d�ingesta d�alcohol, control d�impulsos i els criteris diagnostics del joc patologic. Els principals resultats han mostrat que hi ha diferencies significatives en el control d�impulsos entre el grup de control, els jugadors aficionats, els professionals i els jugadors patologics. A mes, respecte als criteris diagnostics del trastorn de joc, els jugadors patologics han mostrat diferencies significatives en els criteris de perdua de control i diposit de la confianca en altres. Per ultim, hem trobat que els jugadors aficionats i professionals de poquer presenten de forma significativa alguns dels criteris diagnostics del trastorn de joc: relacions en risc, conducta de caca, abstinencia i mentides.
Disordered Internet gambling is a psychological disorder that represents an important public health issue due to the increase in highly available and conveniently accessible Internet gambling sites. Chasing losses is one of the few observable markers of at-risk and problem gambling that may be used to detect early signs of disordered Internet gambling. This study examined loss chasing behaviour in a sample of Internet casino and poker players and the socio-demographic variables, irrational beliefs, and gambling behaviours associated with chasing losses. An online survey was completed by 10,838 Internet gamblers (58% male) from 96 countries. The results showed that Internet casino players had a greater tendency to report chasing losses than poker players and gamblers who reported chasing losses were more likely to hold irrational beliefs about gambling and spend more time and money gambling than those who reported that they were unaffected by previous losses. Gamblers who played for excitement and to win money were more likely to report chasing losses. This study is one of the largest ever studies of Internet gamblers and the results are highly significant as they provide insight into the characteristics and behaviours of gamblers using this mode of access.
This paper uses computer simulations to examine the effect of highly skilled gamblers on the success of moderately skilled gamblers. It shows that skilled players negatively impact the outcome for less skilled players. A player's winnings are not only affected by the house rake or vigorish but also by the skill of other players. It is concluded that less skilled players are often better off playing a game of chance than a game of skill.
It is our contention that professionals in the field of gambling studies can gain a great deal of insight into problem gambling by closely examining the games gamblers play. The purpose of this article is to examine some differences between games that involve some skill and those that involve only chance in order to help treatment and prevention workers understand the dynamics of these games. For example, understanding the nature of the game and its effects on the individual gambler can help a therapist understand a client's motives and beliefs, which may facilitate a more individualized, client-centered approach to the treatment.
THE GAME OF POKER has been of interest to researchers in economics1 and artificial intelligence. 2 Its attributes have been compared to striking a bargain in the market and to the clash of war.3 Throughout the study of poker, the question whether performance is due to skill or just to luck has been a topic of much debate.4 In 1986, a professional poker player took on the IRS and won a ruling based on his argument that poker is a skill.5 This past January, a jury in the United Kingdom decided that poker is a game of luck, not skill.6 While it is clear that there has been much speculation about this question, the authors are unaware of any study that has addressed this issue. The aim of our study was to determine conclusively if poker is a game of skill. To do this, some participants were taught strategies based on expert opinion while others were taught no strategies.
In most countries, the regulation of gaming is based on whether the predominance for the outcome of the game lies in skill or chance. As poker has become extremely popular in recent years, a heated discussion has evolved about the amount of skill involved in poker. Recent contributions to this question fail to convince, mostly because they do not imitate reality sufficiently. In one of the major works in this field Cabot & Hannum simulated poker games for various player profiles and interpreted the differences in the results as skill. But they only distinguish between skilled and unskilled players without defining these profiles or covering nuances in skill differences. In probably their most influential paper Dreef et al. made the important point that skill in poker is always relative - relative to the skill of other players and to the magnitude of the chance elements. Using these two works as a base point for this paper we derive the critical repetition frequency (CRF) of games. The CRF is defined as the threshold between a game that is predominantly influenced by chance or skill and is valid for all games. In the second part, we compute the CRF for poker with data from an empirical survey of 51,761 poker players and conclude that poker is a game of skill - but only for this sample. However, we also use the CRF to point out the shortcomings of the predominance test and question the current gaming-regulation based on the classification of a skill or a chance game.
In many countries, betting in sports is highly regulated. In Germany, however, there are current debates whether regulation should be loosened. A crucial part of the argument is that sport bets could be qualified as ‘games of skill’ that are considered to be less dangerous by German Law than ‘games of chance’, and are thus assumed to need less regulation. We explore this hypothesis in three incentivized online studies on soccer betting (N=214) and provide evidence against two crucial parts of this argument. First, we show that there are no overall effects of skill on accuracy in soccer bets and monetary earnings do not increase with skill. Hence, soccer betting cannot be considered a game of skill. Second, we show that soccer betting induces strong overconfidence and illusion of control, particularly for people who assume they have high skill, and that these biases lead to increased betting. Cognitive biases that might cause financial harm for bettors or even lead to problematic or pathological gambling behavior are even stronger for soccer bets compared to bets on the outcome of lotteries. Concerning the main aims of legal regulation for gambling in German law, our results strongly speak for regulation of soccer bets.
Differences in players' skill are important determinants of relative player success in most real games such as poker, chess, basketball, business, and politics. Yet conventional game theory has concentrated primarily on games with no skill differences among players. This paper uses a simplified version of stud poker to better understand the concept of differential player skill in games. Players with very different strategies for playing this game are modeled algorithmically and pitted against one another in simulation tournaments.
We find that experienced poker players typically change their style of play after winning or losing a big pot-most notably, playing less cautiously after a big loss, evidently hoping for lucky cards that will erase their loss. This finding is consistent with Kahneman and Tversky's (Kahneman, D., A. Tversky. 1979. Prospect theory: An analysis of decision under risk. Econometrica 47(2) 263-292) break-even hypothesis and suggests that when investors incur a large loss, it might be time to take a vacation or be monitored closely.
Poker has gained tremendous popularity in recent years, increasing the risk for some individuals to develop pathological gambling. Here, we investigated cognitive biases in a computerized two-player poker task against a fictive opponent, among 12 pathological gambling poker players (PGP), 10 experienced poker players (ExP), and 11 inexperienced poker players (InP). Players were compared on probability estimation and decision-making with the hypothesis that ExP would have significantly lower cognitive biases than PGP and InP, and that the groups could be differentiated based on their cognitive bias styles. The results showed that ExP had a significantly lower average error margin in probability estimation than PGP and InP, and that PGP played hands with lower winning probability than ExP. Binomial logistic regression showed perfect differentiation (100%) between ExP and PGP, and 90.5% classification accuracy between ExP and InP. Multinomial logistic regression showed an overall classification accuracy of 23 out of 33 (69.7%) between the three groups. The classification accuracy of ExP was higher than that of PGP and InP due to the similarities in probability estimation and decision-making between PGP and InP. These impairments in probability estimation and decision-making of PGP may have implications for assessment and treatment of cognitive biases in pathological gambling poker players.
K. Tryggvesson: Internet poker – Prevalence and problems in Sweden 2006
This paper examines the prevalence of internet poker gambling and gambling-related problems in Sweden in 2006. The sample consists of 16,500 random digit dialling quantitative telephone interviews that were completed with Swedes aged 16–80 during the last 11 months of 2006. Respondents were asked questions about their gambling activity with regard to type of gambling, level of gambling activity and gambling-related problems. The relationship between type of gambling activity and gambling-related problems was examined by means of Chi-square and logistic regression analyses. The paper shows that internet poker gamblers were more likely to report gambling-related problems than other gamblers. This effect was related to several factors; internet poker attracts a vulnerable population, internet computer-based games increase the risk due to the high level of availability and for reasons associated with the technology itself, and finally, the game itself, poker, increases the risk for problematic gambling behaviour.
Since approximately 2003, the popularity of poker has quickly risen to unprecedented heights. This study examined poker play among university students who gamble on a regular basis. A total of 513 undergraduate students (females = 344, males = 170; mean age = 22.1) who gamble in some form at least two times per month completed an online questionnaire; 62.2 per cent (n = 319) of the respondents reported playing poker for money in the past year. A logistic regression analysis showed that poker players were more likely to be male, younger, have higher scores on an index of alcohol abuse, spend more time gambling and gamble more frequently compared to non-poker players. A second logistic regression showed that online/casino poker players were more likely to be male, have higher scores on an index of problem gambling, spend more time and money gambling, and gamble more often compared to social/non-poker players. These results are discussed in terms of the potential of poker's newfound popularity to lead to an increase in addictive behaviours, particularly among adolescents and young males.
This study examines the web design and engineering, advertising and marketing, and pedagogical features present at a random sample of 71 international poker sites obtained from the Casino City directory in the summer of 2009. We coded for 22 variables related to access, appeal, player protection, customer services, on-site security, use of images, text, and language, interactive and immersive materials, promotional products and programs, sponsorships, celebrities, tutelage resources, responsible gambling programs, and thematic content. We explore several questions: How are Internet poker sites designed and stylized to create trust and familiarity and attract and retain consumers? How prevalent are the new forms of social media such as “viral marketing,” “network marketing,” and “word of mouse” advertising in reaching and constituting poker players as consumers? What mechanisms do internet gambling websites deploy to socialize customers to purchase their products and enter into a culture of poker? What are the master advertising messages at websites and what are their implications for responsible gambling and problem gambling?
Second, at one of the four levels of play, all players have folded their hands except one, who is then the winner. In such cases, the player who wins the pot does not have to reveal his cards (i.e., no showdown). Because of the growth of poker’s popularity and its economic importance, the issue of whether poker is governed by skill or chance has become recurring and turned into a social debate, as evidenced by Celeste Biever’s recent paper in The New Scientist. As a card game, poker would be governed by chance if the outcome of most games were determined by the value of the cards—the distribution of the cards being random. In other words, the player who wins the pot would also be the one who holds the best hand in most cases. Poker would be governed by skill if the outcome of most games were determined by something other than the value of the cards, such as the betting technique, reading of opponents, or psychology, all of which are grouped under the generic term “skill.” The poker industry strongly promotes the idea that poker involves skill more than chance. The purpose of our study was to provide new empirical evidence to this debate. This work was done in response to a recent study by Cigital, Inc., a consulting firm, that reported two major findings over 103 millions hands: that games did not end in a showdown 75.7% of the time and only 50.3% of those in the 24.3% of showdowns were won by the best hand. Both results suggest the outcome of games is determined by something other than the value of the cards. Thus, Cigital concluded that poker is governed by skill. In our study, we show that this interpretation is not relevant when data are further analyzed. Moreover, our research applied inferential statistics, which allowed a clear test of the theoretical hypothesis that poker is governed by chance, while the Cigital research provided only descriptive statistics. Our findings provide clear statistical evidence cor roborating this hypothesis.
This study was aimed at delineating decision-making and thought processing among poker players who vary in skill-level. Forty-five participants, 15 in each group, comprised expert, intermediate, and novice poker players. They completed the Computer Poker Simulation Task (CPST) comprised of 60 hands of No-Limit Texas Hold ‘Em. During the CPST, they were asked to ‘think out loud’ throughout the hand. The 60 hands were broken down into two time conditions (e.g., 15 seconds and no time restriction). Findings indicated that expert and intermediate players outperformed novice players in decision-making (DM) performance. This difference was largest at later stages of the hand. Expert players reported processing more thoughts than intermediate players and novice players. Additionally, experts and intermediates reported attending to situational-relevant cues while novices focused on basic poker considerations and irrelevant cues. Contrary to research in other areas, the novice players displayed the greatest increase in DM performance during the limited time condition. The uniqueness and constraints of poker are used to explain and elaborate on the study’s findings.
The article explores problem gambling in poker. The distinctions between chance and skill and between bank games and social games are applied to demonstrate how poker is structurally different from most other gambling games. Bank games are organised around a central actor such as the house, the casino or the bookmaker. In social games, players compete against each other on equal statistical footing. Poker is a skill-based social game where players with superior skills may be expected to win even in the long run. Fourteen poker playing problem gamblers were recruited through a treatment program and 15 professional and recreational poker players were recruited through snowball sampling (N = 29). Through qualitative interviews, the paper shows that the particular structural composition of poker has implications for the ways problem gambling arises in poker players. It is argued that poker challenges existing theoretical conceptions about problem gambling relating to money, rationality and control.
Poker, a zero-sum game of incomplete information, has recently experienced a surge of popularity among both amateur and professional players. Several players who have done well in multiple tournaments have achieved celebrity status as poker "superstars." However, because of poker's outward simplicity, it has been questioned whether the success achieved by these superstars is due to skill or luck. This analysis uses data from high-stakes poker tournaments to test for skill discrepancies among elite players. We find significant evidence suggesting that certain players are able to consistently outperform their experienced counterparts.
In determining the legality of online poker – a multibillion dollar industry – courts have relied heavily on the issue of whether or not poker is a game of skill. Using newly available data, we analyze that question by examining the performance in the 2010 World Series of Poker of a group of poker players identified as being highly skilled prior to the start of the events. Those players identified a priori as being highly skilled achieved an average return on investment of over 30 percent, compared to a -15 percent for all other players. This large gap in returns is strong evidence in support of the idea that poker is a game of skill.Institutional subscribers to the NBER working paper series, and residents of developing countries may download this paper without additional charge at www.nber.org.
This paper is based on three years of participant observation in California's legal commercial card parlors and one year observation at an open meeting of Gamblers Anonymous (G.A.). The grounded concept, tilt, is advanced to describe the process of losing control in the gambling situation. Although some problem gamblers and most compulsive gamblers (members of G.A.) did not use this term, they, nonetheless, described the same process. Tilt is defined and broken down into its various components. Paths to, or ways of going on tilt and the means used to avoid tilt are spelt out. Hochschild's concept, emotion work, is used to describe how successful professionals stay off tilt. The major contention of the paper is that all gamblers experience tilt, and their reactions to tilt and to tilt-inducing situations partly determine whether or not gambling becomes a major problem. The implications of tilt are also discussed.
An aspect of casino games that in general leads to discussions among both participants and spectators, is the relative extent to which a player can positively influence his results by making appropriate strategic choices. This question is closely related to the issue of how to distinguish between games of skill and games of chance. This is an issue that is interesting from a juridical point of view too, since in many countries the legitimacy of exploiting a specific game depends on the category to which it belongs. This paper summarizes recent developments concerning the measurement of skill in games. It points out the elements in the definitions that need closer attention, it illustrates the analysis with examples and it discusses further possibilities.
The popularity of poker (and in particular online poker) has increasingly grown worldwide in recent years. This increase in
the popularity of poker has led to the increased incidence of the ‘professional poker player’. However, very little empirical
research has been carried out into this relatively new group of gamblers. The aim was to determine how professional poker
players are able to make a living from playing poker and what differentiates them from recreational poker players. This research
comprised a grounded theory study involving the analysis of data from three professional poker players, one semi-professional
poker player and five recreational poker players. Using a process of open coding, focused coding and theoretical sampling,
in addition to constant comparison of the data, a number of themes and categories emerged. The central theme as to what distinguishes
professional poker players from recreational players was that professional poker players were much more disciplined in their
gambling behaviour. They treated their poker playing as work, and as such were more likely to be logical and controlled in
their behaviour, took less risks, and were less likely to chase losses. Recreational players were more likely to engage in
chasing behaviour, showed signs of lack of control, took more risks, and engaged in gambling while under the influence of
alcohol or drugs. Also of importance was the number of games and time spent playing online. Recreational players only played
one or two games at a time, whereas professional poker players were much more likely to engage in multi-table poker online,
and played longer sessions, thus increasing the potential amount of winnings. Playing poker for a living is very possible
for a minority of players but it takes a combination of talent, dedication, patience, discipline and disposition to succeed.
KeywordsPoker–Gambling–Professional poker–Skill
On-line poker is a game of chance and skill. The construct of poker playing skill has both a technical (game strategy-related) and an emotional (emotion regulation-related) aspect. A correlational on-line study (N = 354) was conducted to assess differences in technical skills and emotional characteristics related to poker playing style between experienced and inexperienced poker players. Results suggest that, with respect to emotional characteristics, experienced poker players engage in less self-rumination and more self-reflection, as compared to inexperienced players. Experienced poker players are also able to make better decisions, by mathematical standards, in a poker decision-making environment, as assessed by two fictitious on-line poker decision-making scenarios. Furthermore, this study provides supportive evidence that experienced poker players conceptualize the construct of "luck" differently from inexperienced players. A new poker playing experience scale (PES) for accurately measuring poker playing experience is presented in this paper.
The phenomenon of `chasing' has been identified as one of the central characteristics of the behavior of pathological gamblers [American Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., DSM IV). Washington, DC: APA]. It consists of more frequent involvement, increased persistence and elevated monetary risk in an effort to recoup money that has been lost. The present research makes a distinction between within- and between-session chasing, and attempts to examine the determinants of within-session chasing in a reasonably valid laboratory analogue. Male college students who gambled (N=248) were given US10 (nonplayers); (2) gamble and win even more money by quitting at a more optimal time (nonchasers); or (3) gamble longer than they should, resulting in the loss of all available money (chasers). Zuckerman's impulsivity factor (from the ZKPQ) discriminated chasers from nonchasers. Breen and Zuckerman's Gambling Beliefs and Attitudes Survey (GABS) discriminated players from nonplayers. A sensation-seeking explanation of within-session chasing was not supported. The results are discussed in terms of the impact of impulsivity on within-session chasing. It is suggested that the GABS may serve as a general measure of `affinity' to gambling, and could be useful in examining the process of between-session chasing, that is, returning on another day to `get even'.
This paper investigates the forecasting performance and confidence of experts and non-experts. 251 participants with four different levels of knowledge of soccer (ranging between expertise and almost ignorance) took part in a survey and predicted the outcome of the first round of World Cup 2002. The participating experts (i.e., sport journalists, soccer fans, and soccer coaches) and the non-experts were found to be equally accurate and better than chance. A simple prediction rule that followed world rankings outperformed most participants. Experts overestimated their performance and tended to be overconfident, while the opposite tendency was observed for the participants with limited knowledge. Providing non-experts with information did not improve their performance, but increased their confidence.
Poker is a competitive, social game of skill and luck, which presents players with numerous challenging strategic and interpersonal decisions. The adaptation of poker into a game played over the internet provides the unprecedented opportunity to quantitatively analyze extremely large numbers of hands and players. This paper analyzes roughly twenty-seven million hands played online in small-stakes, medium-stakes and high-stakes games. Using PokerTracker software, statistics are generated to (a) gauge the types of strategies utilized by players (i.e. the 'strategic demography') at each level and (b) examine the various payoffs associated with different strategies at varying levels of play. The results show that competitive edges attenuate as one moves up levels, and tight-aggressive strategies--which tend to be the most remunerative--become more prevalent. Further, payoffs for different combinations of cards, varies between levels, showing how strategic payoffs are derived from competitive interactions. Smaller-stakes players also have more difficulty appropriately weighting incentive structures with frequent small gains and occasional large losses. Consequently, the relationship between winning a large proportion of hands and profitability is negative, and is strongest in small-stakes games. These variations reveal a meta-game of rationality and psychology which underlies the card game. Adopting risk-neutrality to maximize expected value, aggression and appropriate mental accounting, are cognitive burdens on players, and underpin the rationality work--reconfiguring of personal preferences and goals--players engage into be competitive, and maximize their winning and profit chances.
With most Western countries expanding the availability of gambling facilities in recent decades, considerable research interest has developed in those people who develop problematic levels of gambling. In the recent decade, a large body of research has been conducted into the determinants of gambling behavior in an attempt to understand this complex social and psychological problem. Research has varied in its nature from investigating underlying biological, psychological, or social factors that are hypothesized to contribute to gambling behavior. Evidence now exists that biological, psychological, and social factors are all relevant to the development of problematic levels of gambling. However, the theoretical explanation for gambling has lagged behind the advances in empirical work in recent years. The purpose of the current paper is to provide a review of the major research findings in the area of gambling and propose a biopsychosocial model that integrates diverse areas of research. The model described is empirically derived, and it is hoped it will stimulate future research work that investigates not only individual factors and their relationship to gambling, but also the interactions between different variables.
To date there has been very little empirical research into Internet gambling and none relating to the recent rise in popularity of online poker. Given that recent reports have claimed that students may be a vulnerable group, the aim of the current study was to establish basic information regarding Internet poker playing behavior among the student population, including various motivators for participation and predictors of problematic play. The study examined a self-selected sample of student online poker players using an online survey (n=422). Results showed that online poker playing was undertaken at least twice per week by a third of the participants. Almost one in five of the sample (18%) was defined as a problem gambler using the DSM-IV criteria. Findings demonstrated that problem gambling in this population was best predicted by negative mood states after playing, gender swapping whilst playing, and playing to escape from problems.
Strategy and skill in games are two closely related concepts. A strategy describes how to play the game. The relative skill level of a game indicates to what extent the strategic choices of the players influence the game result and to what extent this result is determined by random factors. Relative skill is important when the exploitation of games is concerned. Gaming acts, in The Netherlands but also in other countries, distinguish between games of skill and games of chance. This thesis consists of two parts. Part I deals with relative skill and the role of random factors in games. Part II is devoted to the computation of optimal strategies in two interesting classes of games: poker and take-and-guess games.
Alex Rodriguez, a monkey, and the game of scrabble: The hazard of using illogic to define the legality of games of mixed skill and chance
- A N Cabot
- G J Light
- K F Rutledge
- AN Cabot
Cabot, A. N., Light, G. J., & Rutledge, K. F. (2009). Alex Rodriguez, a monkey, and the game of scrabble:
The hazard of using illogic to define the legality of games of mixed skill and chance. Drake Law
Review, 57, 383-412.
Using WinPoker 6.0 to study gambling behavior
- J W Jackson
- JW Jackson
Jackson, J. W. (2007). Using WinPoker 6.0 to study gambling behavior. Analysis of Gambling Behavior, 1,
59-75.
Der Markt fu¨r Onlinepoker: Spielerherkunft und Spielerverhalten [The online poker market: Players'nationality and players'gambling habits
- I Fiedler
- A.-C Wilcke
Fiedler, I., & Wilcke, A.-C. (2011). Der Markt fu¨r Onlinepoker: Spielerherkunft und Spielerverhalten [The
online poker market: Players'nationality and players'gambling habits]. Norderstedt: BoD Verlag.
Verabschiedet sich Poker aus dem Glu ¨cksspielrecht? [Does poker say goodbye to the gambling law?]
- W Hambach
- M Hettich
- T Kruis
Hambach, W., Hettich, M., & Kruis, T. (2009). Verabschiedet sich Poker aus dem Glu ¨cksspielrecht? [Does poker say goodbye to the gambling law?]. Medien und Recht International, 6(2), 41–50
Poker superstars: Skill or luck? Similarities between golf— thought to be a game of skill—and poker
- R Croson
- P Fishman
- D G Pope
Croson, R., Fishman, P., & Pope, D. G. (2008). Poker superstars: Skill or luck? Similarities between golf— thought to be a game of skill—and poker. Chance, 21(4), 25–28
Toward legalization of poker: The skill vs. chance debate
- R C Hannum
- A N Cabot
- RC Hannum
Hannum, R. C., & Cabot, A. N. (2009). Toward legalization of poker: The skill vs. chance debate. UNLV
Gaming Research & Review Journal, 13(1), 1-20.
Quantitative Methoden Band1: Einfü in die Statistik fü Psychologen und Sozialwissenschaftler [Quantitative methods Volume1: Introduction in statistics for psychologists and social researchers A reformulated cognitive-behavioural of problem gambling: A biopsychosocial per-spective
- B Rasch
- W Hofmann
- M Friese
- E Naumann
Rasch, B., Hofmann, W., Friese, M., & Naumann, E. (2010). Quantitative Methoden Band1: Einfü in die Statistik fü Psychologen und Sozialwissenschaftler [Quantitative methods Volume1: Introduction in statistics for psychologists and social researchers]. Berlin: Springer. Sharpe, L. (2002). A reformulated cognitive-behavioural of problem gambling: A biopsychosocial per-spective. Clinical Psychology Review, 22, 1–25.
Internet poker-Prevalence and problems in Sweden
- K Tryggvesson
Tryggvesson, K. (2009). Internet poker-Prevalence and problems in Sweden 2006. Nordic Studies on
Alcohol and Drugs, 26, 503-519.
Poker-Glücksspiel mit Geschicklichkeitsanteil und Suchtpotential [Poker-Gambling with skill elements and addictive potential
- G Meyer
- T Hayer
Meyer, G., & Hayer, T. (2008). Poker-Glücksspiel mit Geschicklichkeitsanteil und Suchtpotential
[Poker-Gambling with skill elements and addictive potential]. Zeitschrift fu¨r Wett-und Glu¨cks-spielrecht, 3, 153-160.
Quantitative Methoden Band1: Einfu¨hrung in die Statistik fu¨r Psychologen und Sozialwissenschaftler [Quantitative methods Volume1: Introduction in statistics for psychologists and social researchers
- B Rasch
- W Hofmann
- M Friese
- E Naumann
Rasch, B., Hofmann, W., Friese, M., & Naumann, E. (2010). Quantitative Methoden Band1: Einfu¨hrung in
die Statistik fu¨r Psychologen und Sozialwissenschaftler [Quantitative methods Volume1: Introduction
in statistics for psychologists and social researchers]. Berlin: Springer.
Poker: Public policy, law, mathematics, and the future of an American tradition. Thomas M
- A Cabot
- R Hannum
Cabot, A., & Hannum, R. (2005). Poker: Public policy, law, mathematics, and the future of an American
tradition. Thomas M. Cooley Law Review, 22, 443-513.
Verabschiedet sich Poker aus dem Glücksspielrecht?
- W Hambach
- M Hettich
- T Kruis
Hambach, W., Hettich, M., & Kruis, T. (2009). Verabschiedet sich Poker aus dem Glücksspielrecht? [Does
poker say goodbye to the gambling law?].