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Attention
Attention refers to the act or state of attending or it can also be referred to as
the application of the mind to any object of sense, representation, or thought. It
is a process whereby a person concentrates on some features of the environment
to the relative exclusion of others. It is the cognitive process of selectively
concentrating on one aspect of the environment while ignoring other things.
Attention has also been referred to as the allocation of processing resources
(Anderson, 2004). Attention remains a major area of investigation within
education, psychology and neuroscience.
In psychology, attention refers to the act or state of applying the mind to an
object of sense or thought. Wilhelm Wundt was perhaps the first psychologist to
study attention, distinguishing between broad and restricted fields of awareness.
He was followed by William James, who emphasized active selection of
stimuli, and Ivan Pavlov, who noted the role attention, plays in activating
conditioned reflexes. John B. Watson sought to define attention not as an
"inner" process but rather as a behavioral response to specific stimuli.
Psychologists today consider attention against a background of "orienting
reflexes" or "preattentive processes," whose physical correlates include changes
in the voltage potential of the cerebral cortex and in the electrical activity of the
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skin, increased cerebral blood flow, pupil dilation, and muscular tightening.
Brittanica concise encyclopedia.
Every act of ours - be it academic, play, social, or contemplation about a
philosophical pursuit needs attention. Hence it can be said to be a necessary
skill for us to progress in any field. At any time an array of sights, sounds,
smells and other sensations compete for our attention. We would be too
overwhelmed if we accept all of the information. There are two processes that
help us to narrow sensory inputs into manageable number they are selective
attention and feature extraction.
Selective attention: It is the ability to pick and choose among the various
available inputs. E.g. the cocktail-party phenomenon. In a party we are listening
attentively to what a friend is saying, but at the same time we unconsciously
monitor information that is happening around. This cocktail phenomenon
allows us to concentrate on one thing without tuning out everything else that is
happening. The biology behind this phenomenon is that if an individual is
processing auditory information over visual information the auditory pathway
and the auditory centers in the brain are activated more than the other centers.
What makes one input more important than another is due to:
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1. Biological state of the organism e.g. a person who is hungry pays more
attention to his dinner than other things.
2. Novelty and strangeness of the input e.g. a person who comes dressed in a
weird fashion to a party is noticed much more than a soberly dressed person.
3. Interest. The more interested we are in something the more likely we are to
notice it.
Feature extraction: this involves locating the outstanding characteristics of
incoming information. E.g. If you want to identify the make of a car, you look
for certain features like the shape of the fenders, the proportion of height to
length and so on. For the most part, you ignore such features as colour,
upholstery and tires, which tell you litter about the make of the car. Being able
to extract the significant features of an input helps a person to identify it and
compare it to other inputs. Feature extraction depends to some extent on
experience—on knowing what to look for (Perin, 1986)
Nearly everyone has difficulty in the concentration of attention. People in
business and industry, students in high school and college, and even professors
in universities, complain of the same difficulty. Attention seems in some way to
be at the very core of mental activity, for no matter from what aspect we view
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the mind; its excellence seems to depend upon the power to concentrate
attention
Concentration:
According to dictionary concentration means complete attention or intense
mental effort. It is the act or process of concentrating, especially the fixing of
close undivided attention.
According to yoga concentration is one pointedness of mind, the ability to hold
the awareness of the mind on one point, one place without wavering. In the
state of concentration the mind is not aware of the external environment or of
other peripheral things that surround the object of concentration. A concentrated
mind is a powerful mind and a dissipated mind is a weak mind. In order to
develop mental power we must develop a concentrated mind.
Concentration is spoken of in the katha Upanishad (2:3:11) where it is
explained by Yama, the lord of death to Nachiketa a younger seeker as
follows “The firm control of the senses and the mind is the yoga of
concentration one must be ever watchful for this yoga is difficult to acquire and
easy to lose.”
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Attention and concentration are fundamental to learning and memorizing. If one
doesn't pay attention when seeing a new fact, it's unlikely it even makes it into
one’s memory. If it isn't there in the memory, one doesn't have much chance of
recalling it. There are many factors that influence one’s attention and
concentration.
Factors Influencing Attention:
Attention is determined by a number of factors. Some of them are related to the
stimulus and others are related to personal factors. The former are referred to as
objective factors and latter as subjective factors.
Objective Factors
1. Intensity of the stimulus- Other things being equal, a strong stimulus
attracts our attention.
2. Size of the object- In the case of visible objects, a reasonably big size has
an advantage over a small size in attracting attention.
3. Novelty- Things that are new, unusual or different attract our attention
more compared to routine and ordinary ones.
4. Repetition- If a stimulus is repeated, it is likely to sustain attention.
5. Change- Change of activity can also attract attention. Things that move,
flash or blink easily attract our attention.
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6. Similarity and Contrast- Similarities and contrasts between ideas or
objects tend to attract attention.
7. Movements- Movements of objects easily secure attention.
8. Organization- Ideas or matter that is properly organized is more effective
in drawing attention.
9. Interest- Ideas or events that we find interesting tend to draw our
attention.
Subjective Factors
Attention is also determined by certain subjective or personal factors. An
individual’s needs, interests, motives, past experience, culture etc influence
attention to a very great extent. For example, a person who has just finished
a big meal may not be as attracted by the smell of food which is placed in
the room as a person who is starving. A person waiting for a letter will hear
the postman’s call immediately in spite of other noises.
TRATAKA
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Trataka is the practice of gazing steadily at one point. The practice of Trataka
can be taken up progressively according to one’s ability and inclination. It is a
fundamental concentration technique in both Yogic and Tantric systems, as well
as in the Upanishadic systems.
Trataka practices fall into two groups: Pratyahara and Dharana. Pratyahara
Trataka involves gazing at an external point. This Trataka aims to control the
dissipation that occurs when we become aware of form. Control over this
aspect, the awareness of form, is the aim of Trataka.
At Dharana level, the form is seen internally. The process is similar, but instead
of using an external image to focus one’s visual perception on, we awaken and
develop our internal visual perception.
NirIkshe nishchala drushAm sUkshmalakshyam samAhithaha|
AshrusampAthaparyantham AchAryamsthrAtakam smrutham||
[Verse 31, chapter 2 HYP]
Looking steadily with an unwavering gaze at a small point until tears are shed is
known as Trataka by the Acharyas.
Physiological and Mental Functions:
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Physiologically, Trataka relieves eye ailments, and its most important
effect is on the Ajna chakra and the brain. Trataka unlocks the inherent energy
of the mind and channelizes it in the dormant areas of Consciousness. Further
results of one-pointed ness of mind are strong will power, improved memory
and concentration. This one-pointed concentration of mind is called ‘Ekagrata’.
Mochanam nethrarogANAm thandrAdInam kapAtakam|
yathnasthrAtakam gopyam yaTHa hAtaka petakam||
[Verse 32, chapter2 HYP]
Trataka eradicates all eye disorders, fatigue and sloth and closes the doorway
creating these problems. It should be carefully kept secret like a Golden Casket.
Trataka benefits not only the eyes, but a whole range of physiological and
mental functions. It is therapeutic in depression, insomnia, allergy, anxiety,
postural problems, poor concentration and memory.
Trataka improves concentration and will power. Strong will power helps in
keeping regularity in practices and learning to say ‘no’ to temptations, not with
frustration or misery, but with a healthy positive attitude. It also helps to
improve memory. It is an excellent preparation for meditation.
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Studies using exclusively trataka to assess their impact on cognitive abilities
were not readily available, as most studies done in this area have used a
package of yogic exercises along with pranayama and trataka. Hence studies
where trataka is used as one of the intervention techniques along with asanas
are reviewed here.
Two groups of 45 children each, whose ages ranged from 9 to 13 years, were
assessed on a steadiness test, at the beginning and again at the end of a 10-day
period during which one group received training in yoga, while the other group
did not. The steadiness test required insertion of and holding for 15 seconds a
metal stylus without touching the sides of holes of decreasing sizes in a metal
plate. The contacts were counted as errors during the 10-day period, one group
(the 'Yoga' group) received training in special physical postures (asanas),
voluntary regulation of breaching (Pranayama), maintenance of silence, as well
as visual focusing exercises (trataka) and games to improve the attention span
and memory. The other group (control) carried out their usual routine. After 10
days, the 'yoga' group showed a significant (Wilcoxon's paired signed-ranks
test) decrease in errors, whereas the 'Control' group showed no change (Tellles,
Hanumanthaih, Nagarathna, and Nagendra, 1993).
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This study was aimed to assess attention and concentration ability in children
following intensive practice of integrated approach of yoga and to compare the
effects of three different modules of yoga on attention and concentration
through cancellation tests. Normal healthy-English-medium school children
[n=338, 9-12 years (10.0± 0.83)] were randomly assigned into three groups,
sånöi [= Creativity Development (CR) Sthiti [= IQ Development (IQ); Laya [=
Physical stamina Development (PS). They were taught three different yoga
modules including yoga postures, breathing exercises, kriyas (cleansing
technique), meditation, games and lecture by trained instructors. Cancellation
(Digit, Letter and Character) tests were administrated to children in all three
groups on first and ninth day of the residential program. As data were normally
distributed, the analysis was done using parametric, paired t-test. Comparison of
pre and post values showed that there was significant improvement (p< 0.001)
in digit cancellation test for all the three groups. [IQ group (31.11%); CRG
group (25.69%) and PS group (24.35 %)] as well in character cancellation [IQ
group (43.82%); CR group (34.81%) and PS group (32.45 %)]. Between the
three groups analysis was done through one way ANOVA and multiple
comparison Turkey test, which showed that the group which practiced the yoga
modules for CR showed significantly more improvement compared to PS group
in digit cancellation test. But there was no significant difference between IQ
and CR groups. Males and females of each group (IQ, PS and CR) did not show
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significant difference. Results suggest that (i) all the three integrated yoga
modules improve attention and concentration (ii) the module designed for CR
group was best and (iii) there was no gender effect. (Bhuyan, Nagarathna, and
Nagendra, 2002-03)
AIM:
To study the Effect of Trataka on Attention and Concentration
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Design:
The design adopted for the study was single group pre-test post-test design. All
the participants were assessed before and after one month of Trataka practice.
Hypotheses:
Regular practice of trataka significantly improves concentration
Sample:
Sample consisted of 41 boys from SDM Ratnamanasa Residential Hostel Ujire.
All the participants were in the age group of 14 – 16 years.
Inclusion Criteria:
Only those without any major health problems were included
Assessments:
Number Cancellation Test: Number Cancellation Test is a neuropsychological
test that is largely used to assess the attention of children and adults. The test
includes 25 rows of digits from 1 to 5 that are randomly arranged with 25 digits
in each row. The subject is given one or more digits which he or she has to
cross out.
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Scoring: Score is the number of correct cancellations minus errors of omission
and commission.
Letter Cancellation Test: Letter cancellation test consists of alphabets of the
English language that are placed in rows and columns. The subject has to cancel
6 alphabets starting from the left to the write and has to cancel every
appearance of the 6 alphabets mentioned and is not to cancel the other
alphabets.
Scoring: Score is the number of correct cancellations of the alphabets
mentioned minus the errors of omission and commission.
Digit symbol Substitution Test: It consists of digit-symbol pairs followed by a
list of digits. The subject is required to write down the corresponding symbol
under each digit as fast as possible. The number of correct marks within the
allowed time is measured.
Scoring: One point is given for each mark filled in correctly. The maximum
possible score is 93.
Procedure: Warden of the hostel was contacted, purpose of the study was
explained and permission was obtained. Later the participants were contacted
their willingness to participate in the study was ascertained. Before starting
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practice of trataka the participant’s attention and concentration were assessed
using number cancellation test, letter cancellation test and digit symbol
substitution test.
All the participants were assessed on all the three tests before starting the
practice of trataka. Again they were tested after 30 days of regular practice of
trataka. Everyday the practice was for a period of one hour. Everyday the
practice of trataka was started with the following prayer. The whole schedule
everyday would be as follows:
Starting Prayer:
Om Sahanavavatu…… Sahanaubhunakthu……..
Sahaviryamkaravavahai…….Tejasvinavadeethamasthu……Maavidvishavahai
Om……. Shanthi…… Shanthi….. Shanthihi……
May he protect us both (i.e., the teacher and the student). May he nourish us
both. May we both work together with great energy. May our study be
enlightening and fruitful May we not hate each other. Om Peace, Peace, Peace.
•Gently take your hands behind the back, catch the right wrist with left palm,
make a loose fist with the right hand and feel the pulse of right hand using
your fingers of left hand.
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•As you exhale, gently bend forwards to touch the ground and surrender to
the Almighty.
•Come back as you inhale.
EYE EXERCISES
1. Up And Down or Vertical Movements
•Open your eyes with a few blinks.
•Gently move your eyeballs up-down, up-down, up-down, continue another
seven rounds (counting mentally). Move your eyeballs smoothly and
continuously. Try to avoid jerky movements and keep your head steady.
Practice at your own pace.
2. Right and left or horizontal movement of eyeballs.
•Gently open your eyes with a few blinks.
•Gently move your eyeballs right-left, right-left, right-left, continue seven
more rounds. Move your eyeballs smoothly and continuously. Try to avoid
jerky movements and keep your head steady; Practice at your own pace.
•After completing ten rounds, gently stop the practice and close your eyes.
•Rub your palms against each other, form a cup of your palms and cover your
eyes.
•Practice simple palming. Do not touch the eyelids with your palms directly.
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Relax your eye muscles completely. Relax for a while.
•Feel the warmth and darkness in your eyes. Make sure that your eyes are
totally in dark.
•After sufficient relaxation, gently drop your hands down.
•Feel the cool sensation around the eyeballs. Relax for a few
Seconds. Do not open your eyes immediately.
3. Diagonal movement of eyeballs (two directions).
•Open your eyes with a few blinks.
•Gently move your eyeballs to extreme right-up, extreme left down; right-
up, left-down; right-up, left-down; continue another seven rounds. As you
move the eyeball smoothly and continuously to extreme right-up and
extreme left-down positions, try to avoid jerky movements and keep your
head steady. Practice at your own pace.
•After completing ten rounds, gently stop the practice and close your eyes.
•Rub your palms against each other, form a cup of your palms and cover
your eyes.
•Give press and release palming. As you inhale deeply, press the palms
around the eyes. As you exhale completely, release the pressure, continue
four more rounds, and count mentally. Do not press the eyeballs with your
palms directly. Relax your eye muscles completely.
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•After completing five rounds, gently drop your hands down
•Feel the cool sensation around the eyeballs. Relax for a few seconds. Do not
open your eyes immediately
Diagonal movement in the opposite direction
•Open your eyes with a few blinks
•Gently move your eyeballs left-up, right-down; left-up, right-down; left-
up, right-down; continue another seven rounds as you move the eyeballs
smoothly and continuously to extreme left up and extreme right-down.
Try to avoid jerky movements and keep your head steady. Practice at
your own pace.
•After completing ten rounds gently stop the practice and close your eyes.
•Rub your palms against each other, form a cup of your palms and cover
your eyes.
•Give press and release palming.
•After completing five rounds, gently drop your hands down.
•Feel the cool sensation around the eyeballs. Relax for a few seconds. Do
not open your eyes immediately.
4. Rotational movement of the eyeballs (clockwise and
anti-clockwise)
Clockwise movement
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•Now, let us proceed to rotational movement of the eyeballs.
•Open your eyes with a few blinks.
•Gently move your eyeballs to the left, up, right, down; left-up - right-down;
left-up - right-down; continue another seven rounds count mentally. Move
your eyeballs smoothly and continuously according to your own pace,
clockwise. Try to avoid jerky, sudden movements and keep the head steady.
•After completing ten rounds gently stop practice and close your eyes.
•Rub your palms' against each other, form a cup of your palms and cover
your eyes.
•Here give constant pressure palming. Press constantly around the eyeballs
with your palms. Inhale deeply and exhale completely. Do not press on the
eyeballs. Relax your eye muscles completely.
•After completing five rounds of deep slow breathing, gently drop your
hands down.
Feel the cool sensation around the eyeballs. Relax for a few seconds. Do not
open your eyes immediately.
Anti-clockwise movement
•Now, proceed to anti-clockwise rotation of the eyeballs.
•Open your eyes with a few blinks.
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•Gently move your eyeballs in anti-clockwise direction - right, up - left-
down; right-up, left-down; right-up - left-down; continue to move your
eyeball smoothly and continuously at your own pace in anti-clockwise. Try
to avoid jerky sudden movements and keep your head steady.
•After completing ten rounds gently stop practice and close your eyes.
•Rub your palms against each other, form a cup of your palms and cover your
eyes.
•Give constant pressure palming.
•If you feel like changing your position, you may do so. Take rest for some
time before you start Jyoti Trataka.
JYOTI TRATAKA (in three stages)
Step I: Effortless Gazing or Focusing at flame
•Let us start Stage-I of Jyoti Trataka i.e., "Effortless gazing or Focusing”.
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•Gently open your eyes with a few blinks and look at the floor.
Do not look at the flame directly.
•Slowly shift your vision to the base of the candle stand, the move to top of
the stand, then to the candle and then slowly look at flame of the candle.
Now, start gazing at the whole flame without any effort. Do not blink your
eyes. There may be a few irritating sensations, but use your will power a _
gaze in a relaxed way. If tears appear, allow them to flow freely. This is a
sign of good practice. Let the tears wash 0the impurities from the eyes.
Learn to ignore the irritation and watering from the eyes.
•Gaze at the flame for about 30 seconds.
•Slowly close your eyes, rub your palms against each other for a few
seconds, form a cup of your palms and covet your eyeballs.
•Give press and release palming,
•After completing five rounds, gently drop your hands down.
•Feel the cool sensation around the eyeballs. Relax for a few seconds. Do not
open your eyes immediately.
Step II: Intensive focusing at the tip of the wick of the flame
•Pass on to Stage-Il of Jyoti Trataka i.e., "Intensive focusing" (Dharana).
•Gently open your eyes with a few blinks and look at the floor.
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Do not look at the flame directly.
•Slowly shift your vision to the base of the candle stand and then move to
top of the stand, then to the candle and then slowly look at the flame of the
candle. Now, start gazing at the whole flame without any effort.
•Slowly gaze at the tip of the wick of candle, the small black cord. Focus
your attention at one point. This is a practice of focusing and concentration.
Keep on gazing, use your will power.
•Let the tears come out and try not to blink your eyes. By practice the gaze
becomes steady, making the mind one pointed.
•Gaze at the flame for about 30 seconds.
•Slowly close your eyes rub your palms against each other for a few seconds
then form a cup of your palms and cover your eyeballs.
•Give constant pressure palming. Press constantly around the eyeballs with
your palms and inhale deeply and exhale completely; continue four more
rounds; count mentally. Do not touch the eyeballs with your palms directly.
Relax your eye muscles completely.
•After completing five rounds, gently drop your hands down.
•Feel the cool sensation around the eyeballs. Relax for a few seconds. Do
not open your eyes immediately.
Note for Stage-I & II
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•Continuously gaze at the flame, no blinking or winking, smooth and
effortless gazing.
•Use your will power and ignore watering or irritation in the eyes.
Step III: De-focusing
•Let us proceed to Stage-III of Jyoti Trataka i.e., "Defocusing”.
•Gently open your eyes with a few blinks and look at the floor.
Do not look at the flame directly.
•Slowly shift your vision to the base of the candle stand then move to the
top of the stand, then to the candle and then slowly look at the flame of the
candle. First fix your attention at the flame, and then gradually widen your
vision. Slowly de-focus your attention from the flame and have a de-
focused gaze on the flame. With expansive awareness, collect all the details
of the flame such as colour of the flame, shape of the flame, and aura
around the flame. Then observe the aura expanding more and more and see
the small light particles around the flame. Recognize the subtle change of
achieved by de-focusing.
•After one minute of de-focusing, gaze or focus on the flame.
Slowly close your eyes and retain the image in your mind:
Visualize the flame between your eyebrows and collect all the details with
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your eyes closed. When the image disappears go for palming.
Step IV: Silence
Feel the silence and relax for a while. After sufficient relaxation, gently drop
your hands down. Sit quiet for some time and feel the deep comforting effect of
the practice.
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The present study was conducted to assess the impact of trataka training on
attention and concentration. Attention and concentration were assessed using
number cancellation, letter cancellation and digit symbol substitution tests. The
results were analyzed using correlated t test.
Table 1
Correlated t for number cancellation test
Mean SD t df Significance
Pre-test 42.20 10.77 12.68 40 0.001
Post-test 60.34 14.60
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Pre-test Post -test
Number Cancellation Score
Mean Score
Figure 1
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Mean Score on Number Cancellation Test
Table 2
Correlated t for letter cancellation test
Mean SD t df Significance
Pre-test 16.51 4.92 15.67 40 0.001
Post-test 31.00 8.01
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Pre-test Post-test
Letter cancellation score
Mean Score
Figure 2
Mean Score on Letter Cancellation Test
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Table 3:
Correlated t for digit symbol substitution test
Mean SD t df Significance
Pre-test 49.05 11.12 12.92 40 0.001
Post-test 68.98 11.49
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Pre-test Post-test
Digit symbol substitution score
Mean Score
Figure 3
Mean Score on Digit symbol substitution Test
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Correlated t was calculated to test the effect of trataka on attention. Level of
attention was assessed using number cancellation , letter cancellation and digit
symbol substitution test. On all the three tests of attention and concentration
obtained t is significant showing that the pre-intervention and post-intervention
scores differ significantly. On all the three tests post-intervention mean is
significantly higher than the pre-intervention mean showing that regular
practice of trataka has significantly improved attention and concentration of the
participants. This finding is in accordance with the classic texts on yoga like the
hathayoga pradeepika by Swami Mukthibodhananda which mentions that
regular practice of trataka helps in improving concentration and memory. It is
also in accordance with the findings of Telles et al. (1993) who found practice
of a regular package of yoga in which trataka was also a part to have resulted in
significant improvement in static motor performance, the performance of which
requires not only steadiness but also attention.
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Trataka is a fundamental concentration technique in both Yogic and Tantric
systems, as well as in the Upanishadic systems. Trataka practices fall into two
groups: Pratyahara and Dharana. Pratyahara Trataka involves gazing at an
external point. This Trataka aims to control the dissipation that occurs when we
become aware of form. At Dharana level, the form is seen internally. The
process is similar, but instead of using an external image to focus one’s visual
perception on, we awaken and develop our internal visual perception. Attention
and concentration are fundamental to learning and memorizing. If one doesn't
pay attention when seeing a new fact, it's unlikely it even makes it into one’s
memory. If it isn't there in the memory, one doesn't have much chance of
recalling it. The present study was conducted to study the effect of trataka on
attention and concentration. For this purpose forty one boys in the age group of
14 to 16 years were selected from Rathnamanasa hostel, Ujire. The study
adopted a single group pre-test post-test design. All the participants were
assessed on number cancellation test, letter cancellation test and digit symbol
substitution test to test their level of attention and concentration. The
participants were trained in trataka for a period of 30 days. Pre-test and post-test
results were compared using correlated t test.
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Conclusion:
Regular practice of trataka helps in improving the attention and concentration.
Implication of the findings:
Since regular practice of trataka helps in improving attention and concentration
it can be included as part of regular academics in schools and colleges.
Limitations of the study:
Lack of control group.
Suggestions for further research:
Effect of trataka on other cognitive abilities can be studied
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