Spirulina as a livestock supplement and animal feed

Abstract

Summary Spirulina (Athrospira sp.) is an edible microalga and a highly nutritious potential feed resource for many agriculturally important animal species. Research findings have associated Spirulina to improvements in animal growth, fertility, aesthetic and nutritional product quality. Spirulina intake has also been linked to an improvement in animal health and welfare. Its influence over animal development stems from its nutritive and protein-rich composition, thus leading to an increased commercial production to meet consumer demand. Consequently, Spirulina is emerging as a cost-effective means of improving animal productivity for a sustainable and viable food security future. However, our present knowledge of animal response to dietary Spirulina supplementation is relatively scanty and largely unknown. Therefore, the primary objective of this paper was to review past and current findings on the utilisation of Spirulina as a feed supplement and its impact on animal productivity and health. Only animals deemed to be of agricultural significance were investigated; hence, only ruminants, poultry, swine and rabbits and their responses to dietary Spirulina supplementation are covered.

Full text

REVIEW ARTICLE
Spirulina as a livestock supplement and animal feed
B. W. B. Holman and A. E. O. Malau-Aduli
Animal Science and Genetics, School of Agricultural Science/Tasmanian Institute of Agriculture, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tas., Australia
Introduction
Demand for animal products is increasing because of
global changes in consumer tastes and expanding
markets, particularly in developing countries where
affluence is spreading (Myers and Kent, 2003; Hop-
kins et al., 2007). However, two key obstacles must
be overcome before this projected demand can be
met: (i) increased competition for land, with urban
sprawl, biofuel production and other agricultural
applications taking up land otherwise used for ani-
mal production (Godfray et al., 2010; Poppi and
McLennan, 2010; Smith et al., 2010), and (ii) cli-
mate change negatively affecting water and animal
feed availability in current production regions
(Gaunt et al., 2010; Poppi and McLennan, 2010).
The identification of new feed resources is there-
fore crucial for sustainable animal production and
future viability. Ideally, the new feed resource
should have high nutritive value and conversion
efficiency, be able to optimise animal product quality
and use land and water efficiently (Poppi and
McLennan, 2010). Consequently, Spirulina is emerg-
ing as a potential candidate to meet these criteria.
Feeding trials with Spirulina have been conducted in
chickens, pigs, ruminants and rabbits. The main
objectives of this paper were to review the nutrient
composition of Spirulina, integrate research findings
from the feeding trials and highlight the effect of
dietary Spirulina supplementation on animal health
and productivity.
Historical background of Spirulina
Spirulina (Arthrospira sp.) is an edible, filamentous,
spiral-shaped cyanobacterium, formally classified as
a blue-green microalga (Becker, 2007; Gouveia
et al., 2008; Gupta et al., 2008). It is naturally found
in the alkaline lakes of Mexico and Africa (Belay
et al., 1996; Shimamatsu, 2004), where it has a long
Keywords
Spirulina, pigs, sheep, milk, poultry, meat
quality, growth
Correspondence
A. E. O. Malau-Aduli, Animal Science and
Genetics, School of Agricultural Science/
Tasmanian Institute of Agriculture, University
of Tasmania, Sandy Bay, Private Bag 54,
Hobart, Tas. 7001, Australia.
Tel: +613 6226 2717; Fax: +613 6226 2642;
E-mail: aduli.malauaduli@utas.edu.au
Received: 3 October 2011;
accepted: 28 June 2012
Summary
Spirulina (Athrospira sp.) is an edible microalga and a highly nutritious
potential feed resource for many agriculturally important animal species.
Research findings have associated Spirulina to improvements in animal
growth, fertility, aesthetic and nutritional product quality. Spirulina
intake has also been linked to an improvement in animal health and
welfare. Its influence over animal development stems from its nutritive
and protein-rich composition, thus leading to an increased commercial
production to meet consumer demand. Consequently, Spirulina is
emerging as a cost-effective means of improving animal productivity for
a sustainable and viable food security future. However, our present
knowledge of animal response to dietary Spirulina supplementation is
relatively scanty and largely unknown. Therefore, the primary objective
of this paper was to review past and current findings on the utilisation
of Spirulina as a feed supplement and its impact on animal productivity
and health. Only animals deemed to be of agricultural significance were
investigated; hence, only ruminants, poultry, swine and rabbits and
their responses to dietary Spirulina supplementation are covered.
DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0396.2012.01328.x
Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition 97 (2013) 615–623 ª2012 Blackwell Verlag GmbH 615

history as a food source for their ancient human
inhabitants. Spirulina was ‘rediscovered’ relatively
recently by Leonard and Compere in the 1960s
(Shimamatsu, 2004) and has since become a mass
produced product (Shimamatsu, 2004; Spolaore
et al., 2006). Presently, Spirulina is commercially
produced worldwide (Table 1) and is used as a nutri-
tional supplement for both humans and animals
(Muhling et al., 2005), with approximately half of
the total Spirulina production being used in livestock
and fish feeds.
Spirulina is produced commercially within a nutri-
ent-rich, liquid medium (Shimamatsu, 2004); hence,
it can be produced with high land-use efficiency. For
instance, Spirulina outyields many other traditional
animal feed types, including wheat, corn, barley and
soybeans, in protein output per land unit (Dismukes
et al., 2008; Kulpys et al., 2009). Furthermore, Spiru-
lina can be actively produced using desalinated waste
water (Volkmann et al., 2008) and animal faecal
wastes to enrich the growth medium. This has been
reported in pig (Chaiklahan et al., 2010) and cattle
(Mitchell and Richmond, 1988) faecal wastes with
clearly consistent results demonstrating that Spirulina
is safe to be fed back to livestock. These processes
are described in detail by Hasdai and Ben Ghedalia
(1981) and Chaiklahan et al. (2010). Nonetheless,
this highlights Spirulina’s capacity to cost-effectively
treat wastes and recycle otherwise lost nutrients
(Saxena et al., 1983).
Currently, Spirulina is relatively expensive to pro-
duce and purchase compared to other animal feeds.
This makes its use impractical in many large-scale
animal production operations. Additionally, Spiruli-
na’s palatability, dried powdery form and smell all
limit its use in animal production (Becker, 2007).
However, Spirulina’s production cost can be lowered
with developments in low-cost growth media and an
improvement in the operational management of
Spirulina’s nutrient-use efficiency and growth rate
(Shimamatsu, 2004; Raoof et al., 2006; Peiretti and
Meineri, 2011). Furthermore, research into Spirulina
delivery methods and its impact on product quality
is increasingly allowing us a greater understanding
of the practicalities of its use.
Nutritional value of Spirulina
Spirulina is nutrient rich (Table 2). It contains all
essential amino acids, vitamins and minerals. It also
is a rich source of carotenoids and fatty acids, espe-
cially c-linolenic acid (GLA) that infers health bene-
fits (Howe et al., 2006). However, Spirulina’s high
protein content distinguishes it as a new animal feed
(Belay et al., 1993; Doreau et al., 2010).
Spirulina’s nutritional value has been the topic of
several reviews (Ciferri, 1983; Belay et al., 1993;
Diraman et al., 2009). Yet its nutritional values are
known to slightly vary depending on the production
system. These differences have also been the topic of
several studies (Vonshak and Richmond, 1988;
Tokusoglu and Unal, 2003; Babadzhanov et al.,
2004; Muhling et al., 2005; Mata et al., 2010).
Chickens
Chickens have been almost the exclusive focus of
research into Spirulina’s usefulness in monogastric
feed rations (Table 3). Ross and Dominy (1990)
found that chicken growth rates declined when
Spirulina replaced dehulled soybean meal in rations
at either 10% or 20% of dry matter. Other studies
that replaced groundnut cake (Saxena et al., 1983)
or fishmeal (Venkataraman et al., 1994) with Spiruli-
na in chicken diets found no variation in growth.
Therefore, from these studies, it is apparent that the
impact of dietary inclusion of Spirulina on chicken
growth and growth rates depends on the feed type it
replaces in the ration. Although it has been shown
that dietary Spirulina levels of 50–100 g/kg of feed
ration will maintain typical growth rates, levels
exceeding 200 g/kg will bring about declined growth
rates (Toyomizu et al., 2001).
Table 1 Some of the commercial producers of Spirulina and their glo-
bal locations*
Name of company Location
Earthrise Farms Calipatria, California (USA)
Cyanotech Corporation Kailua Kona, Hawaii (USA)
Myanma Microalgae
Biotechnology Project
Yangon (Myanmar)
Hainan DIC Microalgae Hainan (China)
Nao Pao Resins Chemical Tainan, Taiwan (China)
Solarium Biotechnology La Huayca (Chile)
Far East Biotechnology Pig-Tung County, Taiwan (China)
DIC LIFETEC (Japan)
Neotech Food Banpong, Rajburi (Thailand)
Siam Algae Bangsaothong (Thailand)
Ballarpur Industries Nanjangud, Mysore District (India)
TAAU Australia Darwin, Northern Territory
(Australia)
Sosa Texcoco Lake Texcoco (Mexico)
Hills-Koor Algae Production Elat (Israel)
*Adapted from Habib et al. (2008), Ciferri and Tiboni (1985) and
Sanchez et al. (2003)
Spirulina supplementation in livestock B. W. B. Holman and A. E. O. Malau-Aduli
616 Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition. ª2012 Blackwell Verlag GmbH

Dietary Spirulina has been associated with greater
cost-efficiency in chicken production. Venkataraman
et al. (1994) found that vitamin–mineral premixes
normally added to chicken feed rations can be omit-
ted when Spirulina is included, owing to its nutrient-
rich composition. Furthermore, chickens receiving
dietary Spirulina have been found to be of better
health than their unsupplemented counterparts
(Venkataraman et al., 1994). This is attributable to
increased functionality of macrophage and overall
mononuclear phagocyte system indicative of
enhanced disease resistance with increased dietary
Spirulina levels in chickens (Qureshi et al., 1996; Al-
Batshan et al., 2001). Qureshi et al. (1996) found
improved chicken health with low dietary Spirulina
levels of 10 g/kg in the ration, indicating greater pro-
duction cost-efficiency.
Spirulina has been shown to be an effective means
of altering chicken product quality to meet con-
sumer preferences. For instance, the total cholesterol
content of eggs can be lowered by including Spiruli-
na into layer hen rations (Sujatha and Narahari,
2011). This is mainly attributable to Spirulina’s high
antioxidant and omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty
acid (PUFA) content that enriches the nutritional
value of eggs at the expense of cholesterol content
(Rajesha et al., 2011; Sujatha and Narahari, 2011).
Egg yolk colour has also been found to intensify lin-
early with increased dietary Spirulina levels (Ross
and Dominy, 1990; Sujatha and Narahari, 2011). In
White Leghorn layer hens, dietary Spirulina levels of
3–9% of the total ration were found to result in egg
yolk colours best representative of consumer prefer-
ences (Saxena et al., 1983). Similar findings have
been found in trials with Japanese quails (Ross et al.,
1994). Spirulina’s effect on yolk colour results from
its high level content of zeaxanthin, xanthophylls
and other carotenoid pigments, particularly b-caro-
tene, which accumulate within the yolk (Anderson
et al., 1991; Takashi, 2003). These same compounds
have been found to also accumulate within the mus-
cle tissue of chickens. Both Toyomizu et al. (2001)
and Venkataraman et al. (1994) have reported this
outcome with muscle tissue increasing in yellowness
and redness with increasing levels of dietary Spiruli-
na. Dietary Spirulina levels at 1% of the total ration
in the week prior to slaughter have been found to
result in broiler muscle tissue pigmentation at levels
best representing consumer preferences (Dismukes
et al., 2008).
Pigs
Research into pig growth responses to dietary Spiruli-
na supplementation is inconsistent as depicted in
Table 4. Hugh et al. (1985) found that crossbred
weanling pigs receiving dietary Spirulina supplemen-
tation had growth rates of up to 9% higher than
their unsupplemented peers. However, Grinstead
et al. (1998) found no growth difference between
Spirulina-supplemented and unsupplemented pigs.
This contrasting finding is attributable to differences
in experimental procedures.
Table 2 A summary of Spirulina’s chemical and nutritional
composition*
Amount Unit
Proximates
Moisture 4–9 % DM
Fat (Mojonnier extraction) 4–16 % DM
Protein (N ·6.25) 60–70 % DM
Ash 3–11 % DM
Carbohydrates (total) 14–19 % DM
Energy 1504.0 kJ/100 g
Crude fibre 3–7 % DM
Lipid
Minerals
Calcium 1200 mg/kg
Magnesium 3300 mg/kg
Phosphate 13000 mg/kg
Potassium 26000 mg/kg
Sodium 22000 mg/kg
Fatty acids
Palmitic (16:0) 25.8–44.9 % of total fatty acids
Palmitoleic (16:1 omega-6) 2.3–3.8 % of total fatty acids
Stearic (18:0) 1.7–2.2 % of total fatty acids
Oleic (18:1 omega-6) 10.1–16.6 % of total fatty acids
Linoleic (18:2 omega-6) 11.1–12.0 % of total fatty acids
Gamma-linolenic (18:3 omega-6) 17.1–40.1 % of total fatty acids
Vitamins/carotenoids
b-Carotene 140000 lg/100 g
Total carotenoids 1700 mg/kg
Provitamin A 2330000 IU kg
)1
Thiamine (B1) 34–50 mg/kg
B2 30–46 mg/kg
Niacin (B3) 130–150 mg/kg
B6 5–8 mg/kg
B12 1.5–2.0 mg/kg
Foliate 0.50 mg/kg
Amino acids
Lysine 2.60–4.63 % DM
Phenylalanine 2.60–4.10 % DM
Tyrosine 2.60–3.42 % DM
Leucine 5.90–8.37 % DM
Methionine 1.30–2.75 % DM
Glutamic acid 7.04–7.30 % DM
Aspartic acid 5.20–6.00 % DM
*Adapted from Habib et al. (2008), Buddhadasa and Adorno (2004),
Sanchez et al. (2003), Pascaud (1993), Babadzhanov et al. (2004), King
(2012) and Mata et al. (2010).
B. W. B. Holman and A. E. O. Malau-Aduli Spirulina supplementation in livestock
Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition. ª2012 Blackwell Verlag GmbH 617

Different pig genotypes were used by Hugh et al.
(1985) and Grinstead et al. (1998). The influence of
heterosis in the crossbreds potentially affected the
observed growth (Gillespie and Flanders, 2010).
Another explanation was that dietary protein digest-
ibility decreased with increasing levels of Spirulina in
pigs (Fevrier and Seve, 1975) partly due to Spiruli-
na’s complex cell wall structure being able to with-
stand the pig’s digestive enzymes. Furthermore,
differences in the basal diets of the pigs would affect
any growth response, as much as the form in which
the dietary Spirulina was provided. For instance, a
difference in the growth was shown between pigs
fed pelletised and non-pelletised Spirulina (Grinstead
et al., 1998, 2000). Pig health has also been sug-
gested as a causal factor of the different outcomes in
growth trials with Spirulina (Grinstead et al., 1998,
2000). Also, Spirulina’s usefulness in pig feeds will
depend on the feed type it is replacing. For instance,
Spirulina has been demonstrated to be a viable
Table 3 Studies on the effects of Spirulina on growth and health of chickens
Parameter Summary of results Reference(s)
Growth Growth rates declined in 3-week-old chicks fed Spirulina levels of 10% and 20% of diet Ross and Dominy (1990)
Body weights of chicks fed Spirulina levels of 11.1% and 16.6% of diet were not different
from the control group, receiving groundnut cake
Saxena et al. (1983)
Broilers fed Spirulina levels of 140 and 170 g/kg of diet and vitamin and mineral
premixes omitted had no difference in dressing percentage compared to those
receiving fishmeal or groundnut cake
Venkataraman et al. (1994)
Broilers fed Spirulina levels of 0, 40 or 80 g/kg of diet for 16 days did not significantly
differ in body weights
Toyomizu et al. (2001)
Broilers fed Spirulina levels of 40 g/kg of diet had greater muscle redness and
yellowness than the control group
Toyomizu et al. (2001)
White Leghorn and broilers fed Spirulina levels of 0, 0.001, 0.1, 1 and 10 g/kg of diet
had comparable body weights after 7 weeks
Qureshi et al. (1996)
Health Chicks fed Spirulina levels of 10 g/kg of diet had increased NK cell activity compared to
the control group, showing an enhanced disease resistance potential
Qureshi et al. (1996)
Chicken phagocytic activity had an incremental linear increase with increasing dietary
Spirulina levels of 0.5%, 1% and 2% of diet
Al-Batshan et al. (2001)
Product quality White Leghorn hens’ egg total cholesterol levels were reduced when diets contained
150 g flaxseeds + 200 mg vitamin E + 3 g Spirulina per kg diet
Sujatha and Narahari (2011)
White Leghorn layers, aged 32 weeks, fed 20% whole flaxseeds and 5% Spirulina (w/w)
produced eggs with higher levels of linoleic acid with less cholesterol
Rajesha et al. (2011)
Egg yolk colour score was higher in layers fed flaxseed diets with 5% Spirulina (w/w)
compared to those on a flaxseed diet (20% w/w)
Rajesha et al. (2011)
Optimal egg yolk pigmentation was obtained by feeding Spirulina levels of 1% of diet,
when diet is otherwise free of xanthophylls
Anderson et al. (1991)
Egg yolk carotenoids pigment and omega-3 fatty acid levels increase when White
Leghorn hens fed 150 g flaxseeds + 200 mg vitamin E + 3 g Spirulina per kg diet
Sujatha and Narahari (2011)
Table 4 Studies on the effects of Spirulina on growth and health of pigs
Parameter Summary of results Reference(s)
Growth Crossbred weanling pigs fed Spirulina levels of 1.5% and 3% of diet had higher growth rates
compared to the control group
Hugh et al. (1985)
Weanling pigs fed Spirulina pelleted diets had decreased average daily gain (ADG), while
those receiving Spirulina in meal diets had improved ADG
Grinstead et al. (2000, 1998)
ADG in pigs fed Spirulina levels of 2% of diet was greater than in the control group, during
days 14–28 post-weaning
Grinstead et al. (2000, 1998)
Pigs fed Spirulina levels of 14% of diet had similar growth as those fed skim milk powder Grinstead et al. (1998)
Increasing Spirulina levels in pig diets (0.5%, 1% and 2% diet) showed only a numerical
increase in ADG
Grinstead et al. (1998)
Fertility Boars fed BioR (extracted from Spirulina) at 1.5 ml/day had increased ejaculate volume and
spermatozoa mobility compared to a control group
Granaci (2007a)
Spirulina supplementation in livestock B. W. B. Holman and A. E. O. Malau-Aduli
618 Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition. ª2012 Blackwell Verlag GmbH

replacement for dried skim milk powder in pig feed
rations (Grinstead et al., 1998).
Pig rations containing Spirulina have been linked
to improved boar fertility. Granaci (2007a) found
that boars receiving a Spirulina extract had greater
overall sperm quality than their unsupplemented
counterparts in terms of increased sperm volume by
11% and motility and post-storage viability by 5%.
Ruminants
The ability of ruminants to digest unprocessed algal
material (Gouveia et al., 2008) makes them espe-
cially suited to dietary Spirulina utilisation. This is
further complemented by an efficient digestion of
Spirulina’s carbohydrate fraction by ruminants when
used in levels up to 20% of total feed intake, com-
pared to other algal feed types like Chlorella or Scene-
desmus obliquus (Gouveia et al., 2008). Spirulina has
been shown to increase microbial crude protein pro-
duction and to reduce its retention time within the
rumen (Quigley and Poppi, 2009). Furthermore,
approximately 20% of dietary Spirulina bypasses
rumen degradation and is therefore available for
direct absorption within the abomasum (Quigley and
Poppi, 2009; Panjaitan et al., 2010; Zhang et al.,
2010).
When Spirulina is delivered to ruminants as a
water suspension, it has been found to be preferen-
tially consumed compared to pure water (Panjaitan
et al., 2010). Moreover, Spirulina’s high sodium con-
tent increases water consumption and urine excre-
tion (Panjaitan et al., 2010) in ruminants, although
this is generally typical of algal feed types (Marin
et al., 2009).
Cattle
Spirulina trials using dairy cows have produced posi-
tive results with direct impact on productivity
(Table 5). Kulpys et al. (2009) found that cows
receiving dietary Spirulina had a 21% increase in
their milk production. Furthermore, Simkus et al.
(2007, 2008) showed an increase in milk fat
(between 17.6% and 25.0%), milk protein (up by
9.7%) and lactose (up by 11.7%) in cows receiving
Spirulina compared to those receiving no Spirulina.
The saturated fatty acid content of milk decreased
and monounsaturated fatty acidss and PUFAs
increased when cows received Spirulina (Christaki
et al., 2012). These results could be attributable to
Spirulina’s influence on microbial protein synthesis,
avoidance of rumen degradation and its nutrient-
rich composition. Moreover, these findings highlight
Spirulina’s use in enhancing milk’s health appeal.
Dietary Spirulina has also been associated with sig-
nificant decreases in milk somatic cell count (Simkus
et al., 2007), thus improving milk’s food safety
Table 5 Studies on the effects of Spirulina on growth and health of ruminants
Species Parameter Summary of results Reference(s)
Cattle Growth Dairy cows fed 200 g Spirulina daily were 8.5–11% fatter than the control group,
evaluated using body condition score
Kulpys et al. (2009)
Productivity Dairy cows fed 200 g Spirulina daily produced more milk than the control group Kulpys et al. (2009)
Cows fed Spirulina levels of 2 g/day (w/w) produced more milk than the control
group
Simkus et al. (2007)
Spirulina levels of 0.15% of diet resulted in decreased rumen degradability of
dietary crude protein
Zhang et al. (2010)
Product quality Milk from cows fed Spirulina levels of 2 g/day had greater average milk fat,
protein and lactose than controls
Simkus et al. (2007, 2008)
Milk saturated fatty acid levels decreased, while mono- and polyunsaturated fatty
acids increased when crossbred Holsteins were fed Spirulina at 40 g/day
Christaki et al. (2012)
Spirulina fed at 2 g/day to dairy cows reduces the somatic cell counts Simkus et al. (2007)
Sheep Growth 6-month-old lambs fed Spirulina levels of 10% (w/w) had greater liveweights than
those given 20% (w/w) and the control group
Holman et al. (2012)
Lambs body condition scores incrementally higher in lambs fed Spirulina levels of
10% and 20% (w/w) compared to controls
Holman et al. (2012)
Lambs fed cow milk enriched with 10 g/day Spirulina had higher liveweights and
growth rates during 15–30 days old than the control group
Bezerra et al. (2010)
Pregnant ewes fed pellets containing 2 g Spirulina ad libitum produced newborn
lambs with higher weights and average daily gains than those from control
treatment ewes
Shimkiene et al. (2010)
B. W. B. Holman and A. E. O. Malau-Aduli Spirulina supplementation in livestock
Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition. ª2012 Blackwell Verlag GmbH 619

value. Additionally, dairy cows receiving Spirulina
have been found to have improved body condition
(8.5–11%) when compared to others receiving no
Spirulina (Kulpys et al., 2009).
As with pigs, bull sperm quality has been shown
to be improved with Spirulina. Sperm motility, con-
centration and post-storage viability were all posi-
tively affected when bulls received a bio-extract
removed from Spirulina (Granaci, 2007b). However,
the effect of ‘raw’ dietary Spirulina on bull sperm
quality needs to be further studied.
Sheep
Research into sheep production responses to dietary
Spirulina is in its infancy (Table 5). Nonetheless, Bez-
erra et al. (2010) found that lambs receiving Spiruli-
na have higher liveweights and average daily gains
(ADG) than other lambs receiving no Spirulina. Find-
ings from Holman et al. (2012) also show an
increase in lamb liveweight with dietary Spirulina
along with an increase in body condition and other
body conformation traits. However, variation in
ADG did not reach statistical significance. This diver-
gence between the two studies was mainly because
of age differences of the lambs and Spirulina suspen-
sions in water used to deliver the Spirulina.
Shimkiene et al. (2010) have shown that pregnant
ewes receiving Spirulina deliver heavier lambs (up
4.07%) with greater ADG compared to pregnant
ewes receiving no Spirulina.
Rabbits
Spirulina has been trialled in the feed rations of com-
mercially farmed meat rabbits (Table 6). Its inclusion
in rabbit diets has been shown not to influence rab-
bit growth (Peiretti and Meineri, 2008) or carcass
yields (Peiretti and Meineri, 2011). These findings
may quell concerns that feed rations containing
Spirulina would be less digestible than conventional
rabbit diets. However, rabbits receiving dietary Spiru-
lina have an increased total feed consumption com-
pared to those receiving no Spirulina (Peiretti and
Meineri, 2008). Dietary Spirulina levels of 1% of
total dry matter were found to improve crude pro-
tein digestibility in rabbits fed both low- and high-
fat diets compared to those receiving no Spirulina
(Peiretti and Meineri, 2009). Hence, including Spiru-
lina into rabbit diets may be useful when basal diets
are high in fat to provide sufficient energy to ‘fuel’
optimal growth rates (Peiretti and Meineri, 2009).
Rabbit meat quality has been shown to improve
when rabbits received dietary Spirulina. For instance,
Meineri et al. (2009) and Peiretti and Meineri
(2011) both identified dietary Spirulina as a causal
factor for increasing GLA and n-6/n-3 PUFA ratios
within rabbit muscle lipid contents. This supports
continued consumer-preferable meat colour and
appearance by improving rabbit meat’s oxidative sta-
bility (Dalle Zotte and Szendro, 2011). Furthermore,
GLA has health benefits for humans (Howe et al.,
2006), and its increased level in rabbit meat would
appeal to health-conscious consumers. Rabbit health
has also been found to improve with dietary Spirulina,
as rabbits receiving Spirulina had greater oxyhae-
moglobin levels than those receiving no Spirulina
(Meineri et al., 2009).
Conclusion
Spirulina is a promising new feed resource to support
future animal production needs. Trials using dietary
Spirulina in feed rations of many agriculturally sig-
nificant animal species have already shown improve-
ments in productivity, health and product quality.
Table 6 Studies on the effects of Spirulina on growth and health of rabbits
Parameter Summary of results Reference(s)
Growth Final weight and weight gain did not differ between rabbits fed Spirulina levels of 0%, 5%,
10% or 15% of diet
Peiretti and Meineri (2008, 2011)
Feed intake of rabbits fed Spirulina levels of 5% and 10% of diet was greater than the
control and 15% groups
Peiretti and Meineri (2011)
Rabbits receiving Spirulina levels of 1% of diet had increased crude protein digestibility in
both low- and high-fat diets
Peiretti and Meineri (2009)
Spirulina levels of 10% of diet resulted in high feed intake compared to control group Peiretti and Meineri (2008)
Health New Zealand White rabbits fed a high-fat diet and supplemented Spirulina levels of
10 g/kg of diet had reduced reactive oxygen species and oxidative stress
Meineri et al. (2009)
Product quality C-Linoleic acid content in the perirenal fat and meat tissue in rabbits increased with
Spirulina levels of 5%, 10% and 15% of diet
Peiretti and Meineri (2011)
Spirulina supplementation in livestock B. W. B. Holman and A. E. O. Malau-Aduli
620 Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition. ª2012 Blackwell Verlag GmbH

However, many results contradict other findings and
together present an inconsistent trend of Spirulina’s
usefulness as an animal feed. Therefore, further
research with Spirulina in beef cattle, sheep, goats,
llama, alpaca and deer is needed to clarify its poten-
tial. Furthermore, investigations into Spirulina’s
active ingredients and associated biological pathways
would aid in broadening our knowledge, scope and
applicable ramifications in sustainable animal pro-
duction into the foreseeable future.
Acknowledgements
The senior author of this paper was funded by
research grants and PhD scholarships from the Uni-
versity of Tasmania (UTAS), the Australian Wool
Education Trust (AWET) and the Commonwealth
Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation
(CSIRO) Food Futures National Flagship. We are
grateful to these organisations.
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