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Universals in the Content and Structure of Values: Theoretical Advances and Empirical Tests in 20 Countries
Abstract
Publisher Summary This chapter addresses the universals in the content and structure of values, concentrating on the theoretical advances and empirical tests in 20 countries, and its four basic issues: substantive contents of human values; identification of comprehensive set of values; extent to which the meaning of particular values was equivalent for different groups of people; and how the relations among different values was structured. Substantial progress has been made toward resolving each of these issues. Ten motivationally distinct value types that were likely to be recognized within and across cultures and used to form value priorities were identified. Set of value types that was relatively comprehensive, encompassing virtually all the types of values to which individuals attribute at least moderate importance as criteria of evaluation was demonstrated. The evidence from 20 countries was assembled, showing that the meaning of the value types and most of the single values that constitute them was reasonably equivalent across most groups. Two basic dimensions that organize value systems into an integrated motivational structure with consistent value conflicts and compatibilities were discovered. By identifying universal aspects of value content and structure, the chapter has laid the foundations for investigating culture-specific aspects in the future.
... In brief, motivation is commonly understood as the general drive or inclination to act to achieve a goal or meet a standard (Baumeister & Vohs, 2007) which is fundamental to life and goal pursuits (Baumeister & Vohs, 2007). Personal values, for example, often reflect broad goals or targets that motivate an individual's actions and act as guiding principles (Rokeach, 1973;Schwartz, 1992) and are thought to provide critical insight into human behavior (Sagiv et al., 2017) because they predict a wide range of actions, attitudes, and preferences. ...
While self-compassion is increasingly being researched, a clear understanding of what self-compassion is, how it works, and for which outcomes remains elusive. This article summarizes and critically evaluates current theoretical and empirical trends in the self-compassion literature. We provide directions for future research to support a more comprehensive understanding of self-compassion.
This paper systematically evaluates issues in three interrelated areas: (1) over-reliance on a particular conceptualization of self-compassion, (2) a narrow focus on the affective mechanisms as per the general resource model of self-regulation, and (3) the prioritization of intrapersonal outcomes over inter-personal outcomes.
Our analysis suggests that current understandings of what self-compassion is and how it impacts outcomes are limited in several ways. Firstly, self-compassion is almost exclusively operationalized using the Self Compassion Scale, inadvertently constraining how we think about this complex construct. Secondly, a heavy emphasis remains on unmeasured changes in “general resources” as explanatory, while more specific pathways beyond affectivity or resource management are rarely considered. Lastly, intrapersonal outcomes are prioritized over interpersonal or social outcomes, which restricts our understanding of the broader benefits of self-compassion.
To address the limitations, we suggest embracing and assessing multiple conceptualizations of self-compassion, empirically testing a wider range of plausible mediators, and investigating a broader range of outcomes, including those in both interpersonal and social spheres. Ongoing consideration of such issues will facilitate our empirical and theoretical understanding of self-compassion, enabling us to adapt more efficient interventions to benefit a wider group of individuals and our society at large.
p style="text-align: justify;"> Objective. The paper is devoted to the study of the value-intentional mechanisms and strategies of socio-psychological adaptation of young men to the conditions of the military educational environment.
Background. The system of values and orientation of the individual is considered as a central element of the process of socio-psychological adaptation. The significance of value-motivational factors in determining certain types of human social behavior (creativity, aggressive and pro-environmental actions, political activity, etc.) has been shown in several studies. At the same time, specific value-intentional determinants, and mechanisms of socio-psychological adaptation to various conditions of the professional and educational environment remain practically unexplored. The task of the present study was to identify informative value-intentional mechanisms of adaptation to the conditions of the military educational environment.
Study design. The process of socio-psychological adaptation of young men to the conditions of a military institute was used as an experimental model. The respondents' value system was assessed in the longitudinal study for three times: upon admission (Stage 1), one month later (Stage 2), and one year after admission (Stage 3) to the institute. The effectiveness of the process of socio-psychological adaptation was determined at the 2nd and 3rd stages of the study.
Participants. 120 young men took part in all stages of the study. The respondents were in the same social conditions of the educational military-professional environment during the entire period of the study: their regime of educational activities and leisure, as well as the nature of professional and interpersonal relationships were similar.
Measurements. The S. Schwartz survey was used for the studying of the value system of the individual (“Schwartz Value Survey” (SVS) and “Portrait Value Questionnaire” (PVQ). The multi-level personality survey “Adaptiveness” (A.G. Maklakov, S.V. Chermyanin), methods “Neuro-psychic Adaptation” (I.N. Gurvich) and “Self-assessment of the Psycho-emotional State” SUPOS-8 (O. Mikshek, modified by V.A. Kulganov) were used for assessing of the adaptation efficiency. Statistical data processing was carried out using the SPSS 22.0 program: a statistical analysis of differences was carried out according to the Wilcoxon's T -test and Mann-Whitney U -test; correlation, factorial, regression types of analysis were applied.
Results. It has been established that young men with high and low efficiency of adaptation to the conditions of the military educational environment implement, respectively, group-centric, and egocentric value-intentional strategies of socio-psychological adaptation. Each of these strategies is represented by different value-intentional mechanisms.
Conclusions. The egocentric value-intentional strategy of socio-psychological adaptation among respondents with its low efficiency is implemented by the following mechanisms: an increase in the importance of egocentric motives to the detriment of group-centric ones; restructuring of the value hierarchy at both levels of value representation with increased intentions for sensual pleasures, independence and social dominance; the formation of the value opposition "security-independence" with the equal magnitude of competing motives in it; the emergence of a mismatch between the value-normative and motivational-behavioral levels of value representation. The main mechanisms of the group-centric value-intentional strategy of socio-psychological adaptation among respondents with its high efficiency are: maintaining the stability of the hierarchy of the value system with dominance at all stages of adaptation of attitudes towards safe-friendly and conformal relationships in a social group; restoration by the end of the adaptation process of consistency between the value-normative and motivational-behavioral levels of value representation; the formation of a dynamically stable value opposition "achievement-kindness" with the equal magnitude of the motives involved in it.</p
In the nuclear family, parents, alongside grandparents and siblings, represent the most important socialization agents for their children and influence the formation of social norms, roles and values in a latent process of living together. In this chapter, socialization and parenting processes in business families are examined on the basis of empirical examples – in particular the transmission of values between parents and children as well as the significance of parental behaviour for the development of different motivations of the younger generation to take over and continue the family business.
This volume contains 30 chapters that provide an up-to-date account of key topics and areas of research in political psychology. In general, the chapters apply what is known about human psychology to the study of politics. Chapters draw on theory and research on biopsychology, neuroscience, personality, psychopathology, evolutionary psychology, social psychology, developmental psychology, cognitive psychology, and intergroup relations. Some chapters address the political psychology of political elites—their personality, motives, beliefs, and leadership styles, and their judgments, decisions, and actions in domestic policy, foreign policy, international conflict, and conflict resolution. Other chapters deal with the dynamics of mass political behavior: voting, collective action, the influence of political communications, political socialization and civic education, group-based political behavior, social justice, and the political incorporation of immigrants. Research discussed in the volume is fueled by a mix of age-old questions and recent world events.
This volume contains 30 chapters that provide an up-to-date account of key topics and areas of research in political psychology. In general, the chapters apply what is known about human psychology to the study of politics. Chapters draw on theory and research on biopsychology, neuroscience, personality, psychopathology, evolutionary psychology, social psychology, developmental psychology, cognitive psychology, and intergroup relations. Some chapters address the political psychology of political elites—their personality, motives, beliefs, and leadership styles, and their judgments, decisions, and actions in domestic policy, foreign policy, international conflict, and conflict resolution. Other chapters deal with the dynamics of mass political behavior: voting, collective action, the influence of political communications, political socialization and civic education, group-based political behavior, social justice, and the political incorporation of immigrants. Research discussed in the volume is fueled by a mix of age-old questions and recent world events.
This volume contains 30 chapters that provide an up-to-date account of key topics and areas of research in political psychology. In general, the chapters apply what is known about human psychology to the study of politics. Chapters draw on theory and research on biopsychology, neuroscience, personality, psychopathology, evolutionary psychology, social psychology, developmental psychology, cognitive psychology, and intergroup relations. Some chapters address the political psychology of political elites—their personality, motives, beliefs, and leadership styles, and their judgments, decisions, and actions in domestic policy, foreign policy, international conflict, and conflict resolution. Other chapters deal with the dynamics of mass political behavior: voting, collective action, the influence of political communications, political socialization and civic education, group-based political behavior, social justice, and the political incorporation of immigrants. Research discussed in the volume is fueled by a mix of age-old questions and recent world events.
When a firm actively engages in CSR practices, does the leader always make ethical decisions? Drawing on social cognitive theory and the ethical decision-making literature, we develop a model to explain how a leader makes unethical decisions in an active CSR-practicing environment. Specifically, we argue that a firm's CSR practices do not necessarily translate into the leader's ethical decisions, and on the contrary, it may lead to the opposite. The relationship between a firm's CSR practices and its leader's unethical decisions is mediated by the leader's moral cognitive process (moral licensing and moral imagination) toward the firm's CSR practices, and this relationship is further moderated by the leader's altruistic values. Results from multi-method studies largely support our predictions.
The chapter seeks to explore the roots of gender inequality through the personal experiences of working women in senior positions which are extracted from their stories about their families, societies, and organizations. To conduct the research, Hofstede's cultural dimensions were employed as a tool to determine the national culture which has direct influence on organizational culture which dominates the workplace and influences immensely every sphere of women's activities in the workplace. In this research, consideration is given to cultural aspects through data gathered from educated Iranian, Malay, and Turkish female employees illustrating their organizational life.
Examined the extent to which the 36 items of the Rokeach Value Survey (RVS) provide comprehensive and representative coverage of the value domain in 2 experiments. In Exp I, intensive semistructured interviews, based on the RVS, were conducted with 73 adults drawn from an electoral roll. Test–retest reliabilities were examined over 4 wks with 208 university students. In Exp II, factor structure was explored with 483 adults from the general population and with 688 university students. All Ss completed inventories of goal values, mode values, and social values. Data provide qualified support for the comprehensiveness of the instrument. The major weaknesses in sampling involved the facets of physical well-being and individual rights. Other areas not represented were thriftiness and carefreeness. The need for multi-item indices for value constructs is discussed, as are the advantages of a rating procedure over a ranking procedure from both psychometric and empirically valid perspective. An alternative instrument based on the work of Rokeach is proposed. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This chapter is an attempt to summarize some major substantive fruits for the social sciences of the systematic theory construction built on the foundations and continuing developments made by Louis Guttman, with whom I have been privileged to study and work for over a decade. The present chapter surveys results attained to date which, stimulated and guided by the facet-analytic approach, have led to substantive theory construction and the recognition of some laws of human behavior. The class of theories to be discussed is that based on regional hypotheses, where the space to be analyzed portrays a set of variables and their intercorrelations. A brief summary of these and other theories is given in Guttman (1980) as well, of course, as being dealt with in various ways in all of the other contributions to this volume.
Studies of values have been rare in Africa, and have been confined mainly to work values. Furthermore, most such research have used value constructs which emerged from Western research, rather than establishing which factors best describe the local data. A form of measuring instrument is proposed in which each item defines a value construct at a level that can be understood by any respondent; the importance of each value is rated on a simple scale, and the resultant data analysed at the individual and group levels. A prototype 81 item Life and Work Values inventory is described, and data from 400 male and female Black student teachers are presented. The results are shown to correspond broadly with expectations based on other research. Minor sex differences are evident, but factors concerning a comfortable life, conformity to convention, competence and activity, freedom for the self, and achievement and recognition emerge for the total sample. It is argued that the method warrants further development, and strategies for research at the individual, societal, and cross-cultural levels are discussed.
In cross-cultural psychology a major goal is to identify dimensions of culture. For this purpose, the cross-cultural analysis (referred to as ecological analysis by Hofstede, 1980) is often used. Two methodological difficulties associated with this method are discussed, and their solution is proposed. A method intended to identify universal dimensions of individual difference, the pancultural analysis, is likely to produce results similar to those obtained in a cross-cultural analysis and hence is unable to achieve its purpose of identifying individual dimensions. A new procedure, based on a within-culture standardization procedure, is introduced for this purpose. A case study of the differences in the results produced by the cross-cultural and the new analyses is then used as a springboard for a further discussion of Shweder's(1973) between-within issue. The theoretical meaning of cultural and individual dimensions is also discussed.
Compared the validity and reliability of 2 value measurement techniques. 296 Ss (161 females and 135 males) in introductory psychology filled out the 2 measurement techniques and an attitude survey. The Rokeach Value Survey instructed Ss to separately rank 2 sets of 18 values in order of importance. A rating version of the Value Survey instructed Ss to rate the same 36 values from 1 to 99. 236 Sreturned 6 weeks later and again filled out both measurement techniques. Results of the multimethod factor analysis indicate very good convergent validity among the 4 measures of a given value (2 techniques × 2 sessions) and very good discriminant validity between measures of different values. Probably due to the ipsative nature of the ranking procedure, the test-retest reliabilities were higher for the ranked measurements than for the rated measurements. The construct validity of both measurement techniques, as determined by multiple regression and analysis of variance, were similar. Despite criticisms of ranking procedures, both the ranked and the rated versions were of equal reliability and validity.
Presents an empirically derived, ecological, cross-cultural behavioral model. The ecological approach assumes that the behavior of individuals is a function of their interpreted culture, which is an adaptation to its environmental setting. The ecological-cultural-behavioral model presents 6 major components: ecology, traditional culture, traditional behavior, acculturative influences, contact culture, and acculturated behavior. Ecology includes aspects of the physical environment and associated exploitive and settlement patterns; traditional culture includes the social structure and socialization practices; traditional behavior includes the perceptual-social and affective differentiation of behavior; and acculturative influences include the urbanization, education, and employment aspects which interact with traditional culture to develop acculturated behavior. Descriptions of the 19 interactions among the components are presented. (67 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Discusses some of the most relevant substantive and mathematical features of the connection between factor analysis and smallest space analysis. Both have a common motivation when analyzing the correlations among variables. Both seek a Euclidean space of smaller dimensionality in which each variable is to be represented as a point, and the size of the correlation coefficient r
ij between 2 variables i and j is to vary inversely with the distance d
ij between the 2 points. The analyses differ in at least the following 6 features: shepard diagram, dimensionality, correction for communality, similarity coefficients, regions vs factors, and facets and factor scores. (7 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
La question centrale de cet article traite du lien entre les actions et le système de valeurs. Pour ce faire, il faut différencier plusieurs types de valeurs et plusieurs domaines de l'existence. On met l'accent sur deux grandes classes de valeurs: ce qui est considéré comme important pour le bien-être personnel (les moyens en vue d'une fin) et ce qui relève de principes directeurs (qui valent pour eux-mêmes). Pour ce qui est des domaines de l'existence, on a retenu des réalités étudiées dans bien d'autres recherches: le travail, la famille, la religion, l‘économie, le social. Les valeurs liées aux domaines peuvent être égotistes (“devenir riche”) ou altruistes (“être volontaire”, “dispenser de l'amour”, “être un excellent ami”). Un autre classement de ces valeurs renvoie à l'opposition permissivité’ autoritarisme. On distingue aussi les comportements internes et externes. On s'est aperçu que toutes les facettes jouaient un rôle légitime (lawful role) dans la structure des corrélations de l'ensemble des variables (valeurs et actions). Dans tous les secteurs de la vie, les actes corrèlent plus fortement avec les valeurs renvoyant aux moyens en vue du bien-être personnel qu'avec les valeurs définies comme principes directeurs.