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Modernization, Cultural Change, and the Persistence of Traditional Values
Abstract
Modernization theorists from Karl Marx to Daniel Bell have argued that economic development brings pervasive cultural changes. But others, from Max Weber to Samuel Huntington, have claimed that cultural values are an enduring and autonomous influence on society. We test the thesis that economic development is linked with systematic changes in basic values. Using data from the three waves of the World Values Surveys, which include 65 societies and 75 percent of the world's population, we find evidence of both massive cultural change and the persistence of distinctive cultural traditions. Economic development is associated with shifts away from absolute norms and values toward values that are increasingly rational, tolerant, trusting, and participatory. Cultural change, however, is path dependent. The broad cultural heritage of a society-Protestant, Roman Catholic, Orthodox, Confucian, or Communist-leaves an imprint on values that endures despite modernization. Moreover, the differences between the values held by members of different religions within given societies are much smaller than are cross-national differences. Once established, such cross-cultural differences become part of a national culture transmitted by educational institutions and mass media. We conclude with some proposed revisions of modernization theory.
... Main Cultural Influences 1 Western Europe, North America, Oceania (Huntington, 1996;Inglehart & Baker, 2000;Casanova, 1994) United States, United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Holland, Norway, Italy, Denmark, Spain, Portugal (Huntington, 1996;Inglehart, 2003;Lipset, 1996) Secularism, Individualism, Rationalism, Democracy, Capitalism (Casanova, 1994; 2 Sinic ...
... Sub-Saharan Africa (Inglehart & Baker, 2000;Davidson, 1994;Mazrui, 1986) Nigeria, Kenya, South Africa, Ghana (Inglehart & Baker, 2000;Davidson, 1994) Indigenous Religions, Community-Based, Oral Tradition, Harmony with Nature (Mazrui, 1986;Davidson, 1994) Table 01 Source: Author (2024) This establishing of the regions, prominent countries and primary cultural influences associated with each key civilization provides a foundation for analyzing PP-winners of various nationalities, enabling them to be placed within the corresponding civilization. ...
... Sub-Saharan Africa (Inglehart & Baker, 2000;Davidson, 1994;Mazrui, 1986) Nigeria, Kenya, South Africa, Ghana (Inglehart & Baker, 2000;Davidson, 1994) Indigenous Religions, Community-Based, Oral Tradition, Harmony with Nature (Mazrui, 1986;Davidson, 1994) Table 01 Source: Author (2024) This establishing of the regions, prominent countries and primary cultural influences associated with each key civilization provides a foundation for analyzing PP-winners of various nationalities, enabling them to be placed within the corresponding civilization. ...
Elitism in architecture is evident in various aspects: architects are elevated as authorities on built environment quality, recruitment often draws from elite circles, commissions primarily come from elite patrons, and the profession largely caters to the values and aesthetic preferences of privileged groups. Prestigious architecture awards on a global scale reinforce this elitism, thereby producing so-called ‘starchitects’, who, in turn, benefit from this recognition. Among numerous evaluative frameworks, the Pritzker Prize (PP) stands out as one of the most esteemed. It is hypothesized that this prize favors architects whose nationalities are aligned with the ‘West’, over ‘non-Western’ counterparts. In light of substantial critique directed at this historically-based dichotomy as overly simplistic, the culturally-rooted ‘Clash of Civilizations’ theory, which identifies eight key world civilizations, offers an alternative framework for analysis. Employing a qualitative research methodology with case studies as its primary strategy, this research utilizes data from the Pritzker Prize's official website (pritzkerprize.com) to identify trends and cycles of PP-winning starchitects across various nationalities worldwide. By tabulating these findings and triangulating data with other extant sources, the study applies the aforementioned theory to analyze these nationalities, situating each within its corresponding geographic regions and thus, key civilization. Conducted in November 2024, this research analyzes 47 PP award cycles and identifies that starchitects from 21 different nationalities have received the prize over the years. Among these, architects representing Western civilizations have overwhelmingly secured the prize 36 times, followed by Japanese architects with 9 wins, Latin American architects with 4, and a single win each for architects from Sinic, Hindu, and African civilizations. Consequently, the hypothesis is affirmed, demonstrating that the PP exhibits a preferential bias towards the Western civilization .
... A nivel mundial, se observó una disminución a la adherencia a las normas de género tradicionales entre los años 1960 y 2000 (Inglehart & Baker, 2000;Scarborough et al., 2019;Varnum & Grossmann, 2017). Particularmente en Latinoamérica, los cambios sociopolíticos, movimientos demográficos y procesos de industrialización han producido gradualmente transformaciones culturales que también han llevado a cuestionar las normas de género tradicionales (Inglehart & Baker, 2000;Inglehart & Welzel, 2005;Scarborough et al., 2019;Varnum & Grossmann, 2017). ...
... A nivel mundial, se observó una disminución a la adherencia a las normas de género tradicionales entre los años 1960 y 2000 (Inglehart & Baker, 2000;Scarborough et al., 2019;Varnum & Grossmann, 2017). Particularmente en Latinoamérica, los cambios sociopolíticos, movimientos demográficos y procesos de industrialización han producido gradualmente transformaciones culturales que también han llevado a cuestionar las normas de género tradicionales (Inglehart & Baker, 2000;Inglehart & Welzel, 2005;Scarborough et al., 2019;Varnum & Grossmann, 2017). ...
Diversas investigaciones muestran una relación directa entre las normas de género tradicionales y el aumento de conductas de riesgo para la salud. Sin embargo, no existen revisiones que sistematicen hallazgos en población de hombres latinoamericanos. El presente estudio tuvo como objetivo identificar y sistematizar la evidencia disponible respecto de la relación entre normas de género tradicionales, masculinidad, machismo y normas de género no tradicionales con conductas de riesgo para la salud en hombres latinoamericanos. Se llevó a cabo una revisión sistemática, guiada por los criterios PRISMA, en 5 bases de datos (Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, Medline y Scielo). Se seleccionaron artículos científicos de estudios empíricos publicados a partir del año 2000, que abordaran variables relacionadas con las normas de género y su relación con conductas de riesgo para la salud. Luego del proceso de selección, se incluyeron 62 artículos en la revisión. La síntesis de resultados permitió identificar las variables más estudiadas (normas de género tradicionales y conductas sexuales de riesgo) y los vacíos en la literatura (normas de género no tradicionales y conductas alimentarias y de ejercicio no saludables). Se observó evidencia concluyente respecto de la asociación entre los diversos grupos de normas de género tradicionales y un mayor consumo de sustancias y perpetración de conductas violentas. Se discute respecto de la importancia de la conceptualización y operacionalización precisa de las variables asociadas a normas de género y su potencial efecto en conductas específicas de salud.
... Despite the original sampled data being dated, continual updates ensure its relevance (Hofstede Insights, 2023), as cultural traits tend to remain stable over time (Beugelsdijk et al., 2015). Although national cultures maintain distinct trajectories (Inglehart and Baker, 2000), cultural differences between countries remain relatively constant (Beugelsdijk et al., 2015), suggesting that a comparative analysis across countries should not change significantly. ...
Grounded in Hofstede cultural dimensions theory, we examine how informal institutional factors shape cross-country venture capital (VC) flows. Separating VC activity into flows, our method studies how an increment in inflows supports ventures, and an increment in outflows more investing activity. Results suggest that (1) uncertainty avoidance negatively affects investors and ventures (the last with a larger effect), (2) individualistic attitudes equally support both investors and ventures, and (3) a higher level of power distance contributes to a larger private investors sector, an effect that is greater under strong formal institutions (FIs). Effects of masculinity, long-term orientation, and indulgence are inconclusive. Results are robust to various specifications, use of instruments, and endogeneity treatments. The implication is that the optimal characteristics of informal institutions for fostering VC activity differ depending on the level of FIs, as both institutions interact to affect both investors and ventures.
... Norms, or ideologies, are also an important cultural phenomenon. They are often studied together with other elements of culture, as in (Hofstede, 1980;Inglehart & Baker, 2000;Smith, Dugan & Trompenaars, 1996). Beliefs are expressed as agreements or disagreements with worldviews: The respondents are asked if they agree with various statements, most often about what they consider true or false. ...
Cultural taboos and beliefs can negatively influence the adoption of insurance. This study examines cultural variances from a demographic perspective among employees of various insurance organizations in Haryana, India. Wallach's OCI Model (1983), which identifies three organizational culture types—Innovative, Supportive, and Bureaucratic—was utilized to assess the prevalent culture in these organizations. A sample of 235 on-roll employees was drawn from the top four insurance organizations in the state, determined using Morgan’s sample size calculation technique. Data analysis, conducted through SPSS 16 software, employed statistical methods including Levene’s test, T-test, and ANOVA. The findings reveal significant variations in employee perspectives across cultural types based on demographics such as nature of employment, gender, designation, and educational qualifications. These differences highlight the influence of demographic factors on employees’ perceptions of suitable cultural types, which, in turn, affect their work attitudes and performance. The study underscores visible cultural disparities within Haryana's insurance sector and their impact on organizational outcomes. To address these disparities, authorities should focus on fostering a more democratic, supportive, and trustworthy organizational culture. Such efforts can improve employee attitudes and performance while attracting skilled youth to join and contribute to the growth of Haryana’s insurance industry.
... So, while the scenario in advanced societies exhibits two opposite trends, namely the decline of religious attendance and, simultaneously, a persistence of religious belief and an increase in spirituality, the scenario for developing societies demonstrates a movement from survival values to self-expression values, but without much evidence of secularisation (Inglehart and Baker 2000). As a corollary, modern Latin American secularism would not be self-understanding simply as atheistic nor agnostic in its traditional senses, but rather as a 'believing without belonging' (Berger 1980), a kaleidoscope of beliefs (Burton 2022) or a baroque potpourri of perceptions. ...
Religion has traditionally provided individuals with a sense of identity and meaning. However, globalisation has disrupted its centrality, giving rise to alternative frameworks. Increasingly, people identify as ‘spiritual but not religious’, seeking alternative sources of belonging. This research sought to identify the journey of the phenomenon of irreligious conversion. Through semi-structured biographical interviews with young Chilean adults, two major typologies were identified based on the emotional life stories told by the participants: the flexible-tranquil narratives and the painful-conflictive narratives. The former are characterised as those transitions which did not involve major difficulties for the secular convert so that their transformative process was carried out peacefully and without much questioning by their significant others. Those with strong prior religiosity demonstrated the application of ‘reconciliation strategies’ to avoid potential conflict. The latter were shown to have a turbulent disaffiliation path, experiencing violent situations in their families and complexities with their own identity. This was especially true for those who came from highly religious groups, as the family style was predominantly permeated by their previous denomination. Ultimately, irreligious socialisation is identified as the culminating event that problematises religious thinking and open the way to alternative frameworks of meaning. The findings advance sociological understanding of disaffiliation in Latin American contexts, contributing to the literature on deconversion by offering a nuanced typology and urging future research of secular and neo-spiritual identities.
This research investigates changes in peoples’ values and specifically of environmental attitudes during the COVID-19 pandemic. Building on a longitudinal quantitative design with three survey waves (n = 144, 34, 34) conducted in Lüneburg, Germany, we examined how experiencing the crisis related to the coronavirus may change major values and affect environmental awareness as well as attitudes toward climate change. In addition to a quantitative survey, qualitative interviews were conducted to gain in-depth insights. Over a 5-month period from May to October 2020, a slight shift in individual values was detected, with participants moving away from conservation values (tradition, security) and toward emancipative and postmaterial values (autonomy, self-expression), as well as an increase in a feeling of connectedness to others. Limitations of this study include a high participant dropout over the research period which increases the risk of bias. Yet, this research during times of crisis can aid our understanding of shifts in individual values.
This paper looks at the effect of culture of origin on immigrants’ preferences for redistribution. This study is motivated by rising policy charged discussion about cultural determinants of individual preferences and prior research by Luttmer and Singhal “Culture, Context, and the Taste for Redistribution” published in the American Economic Journal (2011). The previous study claims that immigrants keep their preferences for redistribution after immigration, and these preferences are culturally driven even when the comprehensive range of economic factors are controlled. However, the highly topical political debate forces us to ask the same question again and to re-check the robustness of association between preferences of immigrants and average preferences in their countries of origin. This paper extends both the temporal and geographical scope of the study and introduces non-economic parameters typical for immigrants into explanatory models. The main message of the paper is that immigrants experience the effect of culture of origin on their preferences, but the updated and extended data show that the size of the effect is generally half that found in previous studies. This research has both political and methodological relevance.
Climate change social movements led by young people in many countries underscore the importance of understanding students’ willingness to act pro-environmentally. Various studies indicate inequalities in this regard. Wealthier people and women tend to exhibit greater pro-environmental attitudes and behavior. Moreover, literature on political socialization literature emphasizes the significant influence of families in shaping sociopolitical attitudes. This influence is particularly notable in aspects of social position and academic orientation. Hence, the study of willingness to act pro-environmentally must consider the potential gaps shaped by gender and socioeconomic status. In this chapter, students’ willingness to make personal efforts to protect the environment is assessed in relation to three main factors: students’ gender, parental education, and family scholarly culture (as indicated by the availability of more than 100 books at home). Additionally, immigration background was taken into account. International Civic and Citizenship Education Study (ICCS) 2016 data were used and fitted to a series of ordinal logit models, assessing students’ willingness to act pro-environmentally in relation to these three factors. Results showed significant gaps: girls, students from more educated families, and students from more scholarly cultured families tend to display a higher willingness to act pro-environmentally.
В условията на интернационализация и глобализация на икономическите процеси, съвременната фирма разпръсква етапите от веригата на прибавената изгода, в които участва, в зависимост от конкурентните предимства на отделните задгранични пазари. Съвременната компания търси нови пазари за своите продукти; нови източници на суровини, материали и компоненти; нови и по-ефективни задгранични локации за производство. Нерядко тези задгранични инициативи търпят неуспех. Една от главните причини за неуспех в международния бизнес е неспособността на фирмата и на нейното ръководство да се съобрази с изискванията на международното бизнес обкръжение. Неуспехът често се приписва на некомпетентността на фирменото управление да оцени културните предизвикателства пред международния бизнес. Резултатите за фирмата са високи неефективни разходи, пропуснати възможности, намалена производителност, влошени взаимоотношения със задграничните партньори.
Категорията национална култура се използва в различни области и форми на международния бизнес – управление на човешките ресурси, международен маркетинг, управление на международни компании, смесени предприятия, международни сливания и придобивания, международни проекти. Познаването на теориите за културния фактор, на това как чуждестранните партньори мислят и разбират света има съществена роля за съвместното създаване на значения в процеса на общуване и следователно, за ефективно междукултурно общуване и международен бизнес.
Публикациите, посветени на деловото общуване в международния бизнес, традиционно се фокусират върху проявите на и последиците от междукултурните различия, върху особеностите на бизнес комуникациите в различни държави и региони в света. Настоящото помагало систематизира теоретични постановки, които позволяват практиката на междукултурно общуване да бъде осмислена в дълбочина и съответно, по-добре разбрана. Проследява се не толкова какво е деловото поведение на представители на различни национални култури в условията на междукултурни срещи, колкото защо това поведение е такова от позициите на културния фактор. Същевременно, доколкото културата е само един от многобройните фактори, обуславящи една реална междукултурна среща за целите на международния бизнес, предписването на окончателни практически решения не е цел на помагалото. Предназначението на книгата е да послужи като инструмент за обогатяване на знанието за междукултурно общуване и повишаване на ефективността при участието в делово общуване в междукултурна среда. Защитава се схващането, че систематичното дефиниране и опознаване на различията и сходствата в националните култури е основа за обяснение и предвиждане на поведението на бизнес партньорите в различна културна среда, за постигане на междукултурна компетентност и ефективност в интернационално обкръжение за целите на международния бизнес.
Дали националната култура е значим елемент на международното бизнес обкръжение, или е фактор, чието влияние отслабва в условията на глобализация на икономическите процеси? Дебатът “културна дивергенция или културна конвергенция” в теорията и практиката на международния бизнес продължава вече няколко десетилетия. Дали обаче това е правилният въпрос? В съвременната динамична и многообразна международна стопанска действителност е разумно подходът “или, или” да бъде избягван. Важният въпрос е “кога”, а не “дали” националната култура е съществен фактор от международното бизнес обкръжение.
Отговорът на този въпрос се търси от позициите на характера на организационните променливи. Статичните (“твърди”) компоненти на управленския инструментариум (като организационната структура и технологичната инфраструктура) стават все по-сходни в глобален мащаб, при което значението на фактора национална култура може да намалява. “Меките” компоненти (тези, които са тясно свързани с поведението на хората в организационен контекст) обаче остават зависими от културата, при което тя се определя като значим фактор от международното бизнес обкръжение.
Т.е. макар организациите да стават все по-сходни в глобален мащаб, поведението на хората в тях запазва своята културна специфика. Ето защо целесъобразно е възприемането на синергичен подход при боравене с фактора национална култура, при който фокусът е върху по-доброто разбиране за това кога естествено възникващите и съзнателно създаваните универсални модели са по-ефективни и кога е удачно придържането към културно специфични модели.
Това, което може да се твърди е, че междукултурната проблематика не е лесна, и съответно отговорите на въпросите, свързани с нея, също обикновено не са лесни. Успешният лидер в международния бизнес трябва не само да разбира, но и да преодолява и оползотворява междукултурните различия. Разумно е да се приеме, че познаването и управлението на различията и сходствата в националните култури са от съществено значение за постигането на ефективност в интернационална среда за целите на международния бизнес.
Същевременно, многоизмерността на понятието култура, нейният ситуационен и динамичен характер в контекста на международния бизнес обосновават разумен преход от междукултурни сравнения към развитие на цялостна междукултурна компетентност – от сравнително междукултурно общуване към изграждане на трансакционна култура за целите на международния бизнес.
A national sample of adult Americans was asked to report "the national or world events or changes over the past 50 years" that seemed to them especially important, and then to explain the reasons for their choices. The resulting data are used both quantitatively and qualitatively to explore hypotheses related to generational effects, life course, and collective memory. Broadly speaking, different cohorts recall different events or changes, and these memories come especially from adolescence and early adulthood. The reasons for mentioning various events and changes also differ across cohorts in ways that indicate that generational effects are the result of the intersection of personal and national history.
We assess the effects of foreign and domestic capital on economic growth using the latest data and better models of economic growth than those previously used. We explicitly consider the role of human capital in the process of economic development. We find no evidence that foreign direct investment harms the economic prospects of developing countries. The flow of foreign capital from 1980 to 1991 spurred growth in gross domestic product per capita, while the level of foreign stock, or 'foreign penetration,' had no discernible effect. Indeed, new foreign investment was more productive dollar for dollar than was capital from domestic sources. Previous suggestions that foreign investment flows are less beneficial than domestic ones were based on a misinterpretation. Moreover, foreign direct investment stimulates investment from domestic sources. Consequently, developing countries have no reason to eschew foreign capital, as dependency theorists urge.
Despite recent economic gains in much of the Third World, sociologists have paid little attention to the possible national benefits of economic growth. Instead, they have focused on the possible harm caused by the Third World's dependence on foreign investment and trade. Our analysis questions that focus. Based on data for 62 less-developed countries spanning two decades, we find that the effects of dependence largely vanish when (1) the effects of economic growth are carefully specified, and (2) the "semi-difference" models currently in vogue in cross-national research are replaced by more appropriate difference or difference-of-logs (growth-rate) models. In light of the common claim that economic growth in the Third World benefits only the rich, we employ measures of national welfare that the rich cannot readily monopolize. The effects of economic growth on national welfare are large and robust, whereas the effects of dependence are hard to find. These findings contradict earlier studies, which had concluded that the effects of dependence dwarf the effects of economic growth.
Many observers have asserted with little evidence that. Americans' social opinions have become polarized. Using General Social Survey and National Election Survey social attitude items that have been repeated regularly over 20 years, the authors ask (1) Have Americans' opinions become more dispersed (higher variance)? (2) Have distributions become flatter or more bimodal (declining kurtosis)? (3) Have opinions become more ideologically constrained within and across opinion domains? (4) Have paired social groups become more different in their opinions? The authors find little evidence of polarization over the past two decades, with attitudes toward abortion and opinion differences between Republican and Democratic party identifiers the exceptional cases.