No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Restoration of flooded meadows in Estonia – vegetation changes and management indicators
Abstract
QuestionHow does restoration management affect vegetation diversity and composition in flooded meadows, and can plant species serve as indicators of management status?LocationFlooded meadows in Alam-Pedja Nature Reserve, central Estonia (26°14′ E, 58°28′ N).Methods
Plant community composition was described in 2000 and 2010 for restored and unmanaged stands of mesic, wet and tall sedge meadows, encompassing a survey of 280 vegetation plots of 1 m × 1 m. The impact of restoration management (mulching for first 5 yrs, mowing in Jul with hay removal in consecutive years) on vegetation diversity in different meadow types was estimated using general linear models, changes in plant community composition were described by NMDS ordination, multiple permutation tests and Indicator species analysis.ResultsRestoration management resulted in an increase in species richness on mesic meadows in one of the study sites, and caused a decrease in spatial species turnover and significant changes in community composition in all sites. The effects of restoration on species composition were greater in drier, more elevated mesic meadows, and least prominent in tall sedge meadows in floodplain depressions. Indicator species analysis revealed Ranunculus auricomus as a common indicator of management in mesic and wet meadows, and Carex cespitosa and Calamagrostis canescens as indicators of abandonment in wet and tall sedge meadows, respectively.Conclusions
Restoration management was successful on flooded meadows that had been abandoned for 15–20 yrs, where water regime and soil fertility have not been altered by human activities, and where the local species pool is still available. The current community composition under different management regimes made it possible to propose several species as management status indicators, which may further be used in practical decision-making when evaluating the status of meadow communities.
... Abandonment in Europe is pervasive and ranges from isolated individual grasslands to regions where nearly all grasslands are abandoned (Table 1). For example, the area of managed grassland in Slovakia decreased by more than half between 1920 and 2004 (Galvánek and Lepš, 2008) while Estonian floodplain and coastal meadows decreased by approximately 90% and 70%, respectively, in the 20th century as farming ceased (Rannap et al., 2007;Metsoja et al., 2012). Furthermore, less than 1600 ha of a total of 100,000-150,000 ha of fens in Sweden are mown (Sundberg, 2012). ...
... (3) From the 1980s, publications began to report on restoration initiatives in abandoned grasslands, primarily for nature conservation. Despite increasing attempts to reinstate management over the last 10 years, it is evident that in this latest phase many wet grasslands remain derelict (Pykälä, 2004;Burnside et al., 2007;Truus and Puusild, 2009;Metsoja et al., 2012). ...
... For example, Swiss fen meadows have been restored up to 35 years after abandonment where site conditions (i.e. hydrology and nutrients) are favourable (Billeter et al., 2007), and restoration has been successful in Estonian flood-meadows abandoned for 15-20 years where hydrology and soil fertility remain unaltered and a local pool of species is available (Metsoja et al., 2012). Evidently, there are key factors that can facilitate or confound restoration success of abandoned wet grasslands at the site or landscape level, namely: (a) diaspore sources (e.g. a seed bank, the seed rain, a donor site), (b) dispersal vectors (e.g. ...
Wet grasslands of nature conservation importance have been maintained for centuries by agricultural management such as grazing and mowing for hay, but are now threatened by abandonment despite recent restoration initiatives. This paper is the first to synthesise published information to elucidate the main patterns, timescales, and consequences of wet grassland abandonment with an international perspective, and to evaluate restoration success. Results showed that abandonment is a particular concern in Europe, especially in central European and Baltic countries, but is also a factor in the deterioration of North American wet grasslands. In Europe, abandonment peaked in the second half of the 20th century, driven by inter-related political and socio-economic changes. Nearly all ecological studies of wet grassland abandonment (94%) focus upon vegetation and they reveal that community changes have been measured within three years, including species elimination as competitors expand and woody plants encroach. However, some wet grasslands show resilience as dominant herbaceous species can persist for up to 50 years, restricting woody invasion. Herbaceous species dominating abandoned grasslands are typically native, tall, productive and competitive grasses or sedges, while small, stress-tolerant, rare species characteristically decrease. Few studies have measured soil properties (II%) or animals (6%) during abandonment, although it seems that invertebrates may increase (for up to 20 years) and then decline in unmanaged wet grasslands. Evidence suggests that wet grasslands that have been abandoned for <40 years can be rehabilitated within 10 years by reinstating vegetation management, but fully successful restoration to a previous condition is elusive. Long-abandoned grasslands may need more interventionist restoration efforts to create regeneration niches and introduce species. Although managers should assess specific site characteristics and potential constraints before restoring abandoned wet grasslands, it is recommended that restoration initiatives should generally prioritise treeless wet grasslands with low soil nutrients that have been abandoned for <20 years.
... Many floodplain meadows of large European rivers have been converted to arable fields (Krause et al. 2011), which has introduced severe changes in the hydrological regime drying of soils and artificial hydroperiods - (Doering et al. 2012), soil fertilizing (Donath et al. 2003) and replacement of meadow species by hay or crops (Krause et al. 2011). Other floodplain meadows have been abandoned (Milberg 1995;Touzard et al. 2002;Metsoja et al. 2012), where the natural succession leads towards dominance of tall grasses and sedges and later to shrubs (Klimkowska et al. 2010;T€ or€ ok et al. 2011). ...
... Studies in abandoned grasslands have reported impoverishment of the soil seed bank during overgrowth by shrubs and trees and conclude that the potential role of the seed bank with respect to vegetation restoration may be small (Kalamees & Zobel 1998;Bisteau & Mahy 2005;Bossuyt & Honnay 2008;Rosef 2008;Jacquemyn et al. 2011;Valk o et al. 2011). The observed changes in seed banks may follow directly from changes in above-ground vegetation, of which the diversity and the share of meadow species decrease with the expansion of shrubby and woody vegetation (Mitlacher et al. 2002;Jacquemyn et al. 2011;Metsoja et al. 2012). Several studies, however, have demonstrated that the decrease in diversity may be less drastic (Dutoit & Alard 1995;Milberg 1995;Maccherini & De Dominicis 2003) and, at least in some semi-natural grasslands, overgrown areas can act as important sources of seeds of target species (Kalamees et al. 2012). ...
... The species composition of both seed bank and aboveground vegetation differed along successional stagesanalogous results have been published both for seed banks (Kalamees & Zobel 1998;Bekker et al. 2000;Bisteau & Mahy 2005;Bossuyt & Honnay 2008;Rosef 2008;Jacquemyn et al. 2011;Valk o et al. 2011) and grassland vegetation (Mitlacher et al. 2002;Jacquemyn et al. 2011;Metsoja et al. 2012). However, our results show clearly that differences among successional stages with different periods of abandonment were more pronounced in the seed bank than above-ground vegetation. ...
Questions
What is the overall restoration potential of the persistent soil seed bank of abandoned flooded meadows? To what degree does the share of typical flooded meadow species in the soil seed bank change during secondary succession from traditionally managed hayfields to stages overgrown by woody vegetation?
Location
Flooded meadows in A lam‐ P edja N ature R eserve, central E stonia (26°14′ E , 58°33′ N ).
Methods
The species composition of above‐ground vegetation and the persistent soil seed bank were investigated with Per MANOVA and non‐metric multidimensional scaling in mown, 25‐yr abandoned and 50‐yr abandoned sedge and tall forb meadows subjected to annual flooding. Particular attention was given to typical flooded meadow species in the persistent soil seed bank. General linear models and non‐parametric tests were used to assess successional trends in seed bank richness, density, similarity to target vegetation and percentage of flooded meadow species to assess the restoration potential of the soil seed bank.
Results
The cessation of traditional management has led to considerable changes in both above‐ground and seed bank communities, differences between successional stages being more pronounced in the soil seed bank. The density of the seed bank was higher in abandoned meadows. Diversity in the vegetation and soil seed bank was lowest in the 25‐yr abandoned tall forb meadows. Although the soil seed bank similarity to above‐ground mown meadows (locally defined target vegetation) was relatively low across different successional stages, the proportion of flooded meadow species in the seed bank remained high – even after 50‐yr abandonment, on average 42% of emerged seeds from sedge meadow and 34% from tall forb meadow were typical flooded meadow species.
Conclusions
Abandoned floodplain meadows in central E stonia still contain a relatively large grassland community species pool, including a large and effective soil seed bank. The soil seed bank could thus play an important role in the restoration of abandoned and overgrown meadow communities. Targeted experiments addressing the optimal techniques for activating the soil seed bank in flooded meadow soil are needed.
... The study was conducted in the Alam-Pedja Nature Reserve (NR) in central Estonia (26° 14 0 90 E; 58° 28 0 N; 342 km 2 )) (Fig. 1). Situated 32–47 m a.s.l., the Plant Ecol mean annual temperature is ?4.5 °C and the mean annual precipitation is 629 mm (Metsoja et al. 2012). Alam-Pedja NR was established in 1994 to protect forests and wetlands, of which 260 km 2 were declared a Ramsar Site in 1997. ...
... Other nutrients did not differ among managed and abandoned communities (Table 1). Due to the relatively low land use intensity, abiotic conditions in these Estonian floodplain meadows remain largely unchanged by management (Sammul et al. 2000; Metsoja et al. 2012). Nutrient contents in the soil of flooded meadows are persistently rather high, a consequence of nutrient input via regular inundation (Klaus et al. 2011b). ...
... Analogous changes due to management are evident in both community types, although the differences in growth form composition were more pronounced in tall forb communities (Fig. 4). This coincides with the results of a previous study by Metsoja et al. (2012), who suggested that the weaker management effects in the sedge meadow may reflect a lower intensity of management, since wet summers inhibit mowing in sedge communities. ...
A negative species richness–productivity relationship is often described in grasslands at smaller scales. We aimed to study the effect of management on this relationship. In particular, we addressed the relative importance of biomass cutting, hay removal and nutrient impoverishment on species richness and growth form structure. We conducted fieldwork in flooded meadows in Alam-Pedja Nature Reserve, central Estonia. We sampled vegetation in managed and abandoned stands of two types of alluvial meadows, sedge and tall forb meadow. Aboveground biomass and litter were harvested, weighed and analysed for major plant nutrients by near infrared reflectance spectroscopy. Three groups of general additive models were developed and compared, addressing the impact of (i) productivity, (ii) nutrients and (iii) management regime on species richness. Management—mowing and hay removal—reduced the amount of litter but not aboveground biomass. Management led to a decrease in nitrogen in the biomass and enhanced species richness, particularly in the tall forb meadow. The strongest determinant of species richness was the amount of litter, exhibiting a hump-shaped relationship with richness. The effect of nitrogen supply was significant, but explained less variation. Management increased the proportion of sedges in the sedge meadow and of small herbs in the tall forb meadow. We conclude that litter removal is the most important management means to support biodiversity. On highly productive sites, reducing nutrients via hay removal is of secondary importance within a timeframe of 10 years.
... Semi-natural grasslands depend on low-intensity management regimes. The cessation of grazing or mowing leads to encroachment processes and the loss of grassland species diversity , Metsoja et al., 2011 and triggers a cascade effect through the ecosystem services supply chain. The most direct consequence of grassland abandonment and fragmentation is a decrease in the supply of certain services, such as pollination, habitat for bird species and a loss of cultural services and aesthetic values associated with traditional farming practices (Öckinger et al., 2006, Sjödin, 2007. ...
... Semi-natural grasslands provide a wide range of goods and services, including plant species diversity, carbon storage and sequestration, biomass production for grazing animals, flood reduction, habitat for migratory and breeding birds, water infiltration, purification and storage, erosion prevention and recreation among others. The cessation of moderate disturbance management re-establishes vegetation succession leading to scrub encroachment and a loss of grassland species diversity Pärtel and Helm, 2007;Sammul et al., 2008;Metsoja et al., 2011). As a result, land owners and managers are faced with a decision between maintaining the ecological benefits from grassland management as opposed to its economic costs. ...
... Sedges (Carex spp.) and rushes (Juncus spp.) are also important and typical herbaceous plant genera in wetlands, where they usually take advantage of seasonal flooding, higher groundwater levels and the nutrient content of water [15][16][17][18]. Sedges can also form monospecific tall-sedge communities in sedge or wet meadows [6,7,16,19]. In wetlands (e.g., the freshwater tidal zone), the reed or tall-sedge belt is usually followed by reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea), a productive and dominative cool-season grass species in the boreal zone [7,20,21]. ...
... In keeping with the focus of this study, these plant species can be separated into distinct groups. In grassland-production ecology studies (also herein), the plant species are often categorised into the following functional groups: grasses (monocotyledonous species of the family Poaceae), sedges and rushes (monocotyledonous species of the families Cyperaceae and Juncaceae), nitrogen-fixing legumes (dicotyledonous species of the family Fabaceae) and other dicotyledonous broad-leaf forbs [11,[16][17][18][19]. diverse bioenergy options, but a review and comparison of diverse wetland types and the suitability of their biomass for bio-based products is still lacking. ...
Conservation and restoration are crucial to maintaining a wide range of functions and services in wetlands, but it is difficult to find a reasonable and resource-efficient management option without sacrificing ecological values. In the present paper, we analyse the variability and dynamics of the chemical composition and energy potential of biomass from reedbeds, floodplain meadows, coastal meadows and reed canary grass cultivation in extracted peatlands. We observed that the chemical characteristics that are crucial for bioenergy production vary by biomass origin and over time. The bioenergy potential depends on biomass production and on the conversion method. The results indicate that the energy potential ranges from 122 to 190 GJ/ha per year in semi-natural floodplain meadows in the boreal zone. About 160 GJ/ha per year can be obtained from natural reedbeds but only about 120 GJ/ha per year from cultivated extracted peatlands. Using methane conversion, we can obtain only about 50%, and using ethanol conversion we can obtain less than 20% of the total energy potential of the herbaceous biomass of floodplain meadows. Although long-term studies on homo- and heterogeneous biomass production are required, we conclude that the local biomass of natural, semi-natural and artificial wetlands could contribute significantly to sustainable development.
... For instance, implementing buffer zones to protect against coastal erosion and promoting the restoration of coastal wetlands can enhance resilience against sea-level rise and extreme weather events (Barbier et al., 2011;Temmerman et al., 2013). Case studies from the Baltic Sea region, such as the successful restoration projects of flooded meadows in Matsalu National Park in Estonia, can provide valuable insights into effective management practices (Metsoja et al., 2012;Orviku et al., 2020). ...
The aim of this study was to address the gaps in understanding and managing the resilience and connectivity of coastal Green Infrastructure (GI) in Estonia, particularly in response to increasing human-related pressures and natural changes. By using the GUIDOS Toolbox for morphological spatial pattern analysis, the study offers a detailed mapping of the structural patterns of GI across the Estonian coast. The findings highlight significant variations in forest cover, land abandonment, and the spread of impervious surfaces, showing how these changes contribute to the fragmentation of GI. Our analysis revealed that the Northeast region suffers from severe fragmentation due to extensive industrial activities, whereas the Southwest is predominantly impacted by intensive agriculture, leading to reduced habitat connectivity. Despite having extensive protected areas, the Western Coast displayed large levels of fragmentation , primarily driven by unmanaged land abandonment and encroachment expansion. Specifically, the fragmentation index was highest in the industrialized Northeast and lowest in less developed areas, albeit still significant due to localized human activities. These findings highlight the importance of targeted GI planning that integrates ecological, socioeconomic , and spatial dimensions to minimize fragmentation, enhance ecological corridors, and promote sustainable land-use practices. Strategic planning must also account for potential climate change impacts to ensure the resilience and adaptability of GI networks, securing ecosystem services and supporting both ecological and human communities.
... Mulching has been used since the 1990s as a low-cost alternative to grazing or conventional mowing for abandoned grasslands maintenance (Masǩováet al., 2009). The method consists in cutting the above-ground biomass and crushing the clippings into pieces several centimeters long that are left on the site to decompose and release a large proportion of their mineral nutrient content (Gaisler et al., 2004;Dolezǎl et al., 2011;Metsoja et al., 2012). There have been several studies dealing with the effects of mulching on grasslands/meadows (Gaisler et al., 2019; and references therein), but only a few of these were conducted over a long period (Moog et al., 2002;Masǩováet al., 2009;Römermann et al., 2009;Gaisler et al., 2013;Oelmann et al., 2017;Gaisler et al., 2019). ...
We aimed to understand the effect of mulching (i.e., cutting and leaving the crushed biomass to decompose in situ) on above- and below-ground plant functional traits and whether this practice may be a potential tool for enhancing the phytoremediation of lowland hay meadows. To this aim, we evaluated at the community level seven years of mulching application in a PCBs and HMs soil-polluted Site of National Interest (SIN Brescia-Caffaro) through the analysis of the floristic composition and the above- and below-ground plant traits. We found that the abandonment of agricultural activities led to a marked increase in the soil organic carbon and pH, and the over-imposed mulching additionally induced a slight increase in soil nutrients. Mulching favored the establishment of a productive plant community characterized by a more conservative-resource strategy, a higher biomass development, and lower plasticity through an adaptative convergence between above- and below-ground organs. In particular, the analysis of the root depth distribution highlighted the key role of roots living in the upper soil layer (10 cm). Mulching did not show a significant effect on plant species known to be effective in terms of PCB phytoremediation. However, the mulching application appears to be a promising tool for enhancing the root web that functions as the backbone for the proliferation of microbes devoted to organic contaminants’ degradation and selects a two-fold number of plant species known to be metal-tolerant. However, besides these potential positive effects of the mulching application, favoring species with a higher biomass development, in the long term, may lead to a biodiversity reduction and thus to potential consequences also on the diversity of native species important for the phytoremediation.
... Klasycznymi przykładami były badania zmian roślinności użytków zielonych zachodzących na skutek zaprzestania wypasu i koszenia, prowadzone m.in. w Polsce (Swacha et al., 2018), Szwecji (Vandewalle et al., 2014) i Estonii (Metsoja et al., 2012), a także zjawiska sukcesji naturalnej i wspomaganej na porzuconych polach ornych (St-Denis et al., 2018). Kontekst krajobrazowy (struktura granic, mozaika płatów, sąsiedztwo) był natomiast istotnym elementem w badaniach wpływu rolnictwa ekologicznego na roślinność obrzeży pól ornych w Estonii (Aavik i Liira, 2010). ...
The aim of this work was to review the latest literature in terms of the use of phytosociological relevés (vegetation plots) in research on the natural environment. The systematic review included 321 articles published in 2010‑2021 in the most renowned journals (indexed in the Web of Science Core Collection with a score ≥100 according to the 2021 list of journals of the Poland’s Ministry of Education and Science). The research questions were: in which fields of science and practice, for what purposes and on what spatial scales the phytosociological relevés are currently used. After initial review, the articles were divided into 10 thematic groups: 1) classification of plant communities, 2) methodological studies, 3) relationship between vegetation and other elements of the environment, 4) occurrence of invasive plant species, 5) indicative role of vegetation, 6) plant communities as habitats for animals, 7) human footprint on vegetation, 8) long-term vegetation changes, 9) combining phytosociological methods with remote sensing methods, 10) social studies. The results showed that phytosociological relevés, as the method to investigate vegetation developed in the first decades of the 20th century, are still widely used in many regions of the world. The most numerous thematic group comprised articles that show how habitat conditions impact the distribution and diversity of plant species and their communities, while the least numerous – studies combining natural and social research. The vast majority of research was dedicated to environmental problems, although social and economic aspects were also present. These were both theoretical and methodological works, as well as detailed studies, which resulted in the formation of recommendations and practical guidelines for nature protection or spatial planning. Recently, relevés have been rarely used solely to distinguish and characterise plant communities, as originally intended by those who invented this method. However, thanks to modern statistical and computer tools, more and more attempts are being made to create automatic classifications with the use of artificial intelligence, e.g. neural networks. The geographic scope was usually restricted to one country (local and regional – 241 articles) or to two or more bordering countries (47). Continental (19) and global (7) studies are less common and studies within Europe prevail. It is because the discussed method was developed and is best known in Europe (Franco-Swiss Phytosociological School), and its dissemination throughout the world is only an evidence of its universality and efficiency. The recent larger-scale studies became possible mainly due to the development of transnational vegetation databases, e.g. the widely utilised European Vegetation Database – EVA.
... A felhagyásoknak számos oka volt, de alapvetően a mezőgazdaság intenzifikációjával, valamint a végbement társadalmi-gazdasági és politikai változásokkal álltak kapcsolatban (Joyce, 2014). Felismerve a felhagyás káros következményeit az élővilágra, az 1980-as évektől kezdődtek el azok kifejezetten természetvédelmi célú élőhelyrekonstrukciós beavatkozások, melyek e féltermészetes élőhelyek (Szentes et al., 2009a, b) köztük a nedves gyepek -biodiverzitásának megőrzését szolgálták (Burnside et al., 2007;Valkó et al., 2011Valkó et al., , 2012Metsoja et al., 2012;Penksza et al., 2010;Kiss és Penksza, 2018;Kiss et al., 2011;Besnyői et al., 2012;Halász et al., 2016). ...
ÖSSZEFOGLALÁS Hazánkban a nedves gyepek a hagyományos tájhasználat nyomán jöttek létre, és aktív gazdálkodási beavatkozásokkal tartották fenn őket. Kiterjedésük napjainkban drasztikusan csökken, elsősorban felhagyásuk következtében. Ezzel párhuzamosan természetvédelmi szempontból egyre értékesebbekké válnak a fennmaradó, biodiverzitásukat még őrző területek. A Balaton környéke kifejezetten frekventált, turizmussal erősen érintett régió, ennek ellenére a fenékpusztai (Keszthely) Balaton parton olyan értékes élőhelyek maradtak fent, amelyek a mai napig menedéket nyújtanak számos védett és veszélyeztetett növényfaj számára. 2002-ben részletes botanikai felmérés történt a területen, és a megkezdett természetvédelmi kezeléseket is dokumentálták. Ezt követően a felmérések és a kezelések intenzitása és rendszeressége is jelentősen csökkent. Célunk az elmúlt két évtizedben bekövetkezett változások felmérése volt. 2020-ban gyűjtött adatainkat összehasonlítottuk a korábban közölt eredményekkel, megvizsgáltuk az élőhelyek változásait és a védett növényfajok elterjedését az aktív természetvédelmi kezelések tükrében. Eredményeink azt mutatják, hogy azokon a területeken, ahol történt és a mai napig is történik valamilyen formában kezelés, ott a védett növényfajok fennmaradtak, vagy akár új fajok is megjelentek, szemben a kezeletlen területeken tapasztalt folyamatokkal, ahol az élőhelyek degradálódtak és legalább hét védett faj tűnt el. Kulcsszavak: élőhelyek leromlása, természetvédelmi kezelés, védett fajok
SUMMARY The extension of semi-natural grasslands is declining rapidly as the consequence of their abandonment, previously they were established and maintained through traditional land use and active management. In that sense the conservation value of the areas which preserved their high biodiversity is increasing. A good example of these areas is the shore of Lake Balaton at Fenékpuszta. The Lake Balaton nowadays is a frequented area highly affected by tourism, yet there have been valuable habitats able to survive and provide refuge for many vulnerable and protected species. Thanks to the work of conservationists working in the area at the turn of the millennium (2002), we have detailed and reliable information about structure of the vegetation in area from two decades ago. We compared these data with the results of our recent (2020) surveys, so we were able to recognize the changes in habitats and the distribution of protected plant species. Our results show that in areas affected by active treatment protected plant species can survive or even new species can appear, which is in clear contrast with conditions experienced in unmanaged areas, where at least seven protected species disappeared.
... This process was particularly pronounced in areas with considerable tourism potentials [9,10]. After recognizing the negative effects of abandonment on wildlife in the 1980s, the restoration of grasslands began primarily for nature conservation purposes [11,12]. ...
Semi-natural grasslands were previously established through traditional land use and maintained by active management, but their extension nowadays is declining rapidly, particularly in areas that also have tourism potential. In parallel, the conservation value of the remaining areas is increasing. The shore of Lake Balaton is a particularly good example, as Lake Balaton is an area highly affected by tourism, yet there have been valuable habitats able to survive and provide refuge for many vulnerable, protected species. Fortunately, we have reliable information about the vegetation of the area from two decades ago. Comparing these data with our recent surveys we investigated the changes in habitats and the distribution of protected plant species in connection with the active conservation treatments such as grazing or cutting. Our results show that in areas where treatments are still ongoing, protected plant species are more likely to survive, or even other species can appear, which is in clear contrast with conditions experienced in abandoned areas, where at least seven protected species have disappeared. According to our results, minor, but appropriately chosen and well-executed management interventions, can help in the long-term maintenance of species-rich habitats and improving the conservation status of threatened species.
... To avoid undesirable changes in botanical composition of grasslands that are not currently in agricultural use, mulching has been used since the 1990s in the Czech Republic as a low-cost alternative to grazing or conventional mowing (Fiala, 2007;Gaisler, Pavlů, Pavlů, & Mikulka, 2010;Gaisler et al., 2013). The method involves cutting the aboveground biomass without removal; the clippings being crushed into pieces of several cm lengths and then spread on the grassland surface (Doležal et al., 2011;Metsoja et al., 2012). There are likely to be different responses to mulching management between semi-natural and improved grasslands because of differences in nutrient status, botanical composition and management history. ...
... Semi-natural grasslands provide a wide range of goods and services, including plant species diversity, carbon storage and sequestration, biomass production for grazing animals, flood reduction, habitat for migratory and breeding birds, water infiltration, purification and storage, erosion prevention and recreation amongst others. The cessation of moderate disturbance management re-establishes vegetation succession leading to scrub encroachment and a loss of grassland species diversity (Burnside et al., 2007;Pärtel and Helm, 2007;Sammul et al., 2008;Metsoja et al., 2011). ...
Semi-natural grasslands harbour high biodiversity and play a key role in the supply of ecosystem services (ES). However, abandonment, changes in traditional management practices and agricultural intensification constitute a major threat to these grasslands worldwide and these practices have led to declines in species diversity. In this paper the multi-functionality of semi natural-grasslands is assessed from the ES perspective, within a range of common semi-natural grassland types throughout Estonia. The analysis follows a stepwise approach based on the ES cascade model. Firstly, analyses of the relationships between plant species distribution patterns and environmental factors are described. Secondly, the effect of grassland abandonment on plant species diversity, as well as on the presence of rare and protected plant species is tested. In order to overcome the lack of data on ES at the national scale, plant species diversity and soil organic carbon are tested as surrogate indicators for five ESS: pollination, herbs for traditional medicinal use, nutrient cycling, nutrient retention and biomass production. In the final step, the spatial distribution of ES is assessed, based on an ES hotspots map obtained by detecting areas where high levels of plant species diversity and soil organic carbon overlap. The results show that the majority of ES hotspots are present in wooded meadows and pastures. However, there is an important threat to these hotspots because 45% are not eligible for agri-environmental support.
... The majority of populations of Gladiolus imbricatus L. occur in meadows. They were observed particularly in humid lowland meadows , montane hay-meadows [54][55][56][57][58][59][60][61][62], tall herb meadows [63][64][65][66], as well as flooded meadows [67,68]. Moreover, populations of Gladiolus imbricatus were found in peat bogs [69][70]. ...
The sword lily Gladiolus imbricatus L. is a clonal plant covering Central and Eastern Europe, the Mediterranean, Caucasia and West Siberia. The aforementioned species is included in numerous national Red Books or Lists due to the progressive decrease of stands. The present paper reviews the factors threatening the occurrence and condition of Gladiolus imbricatus populations in natural localities. The largest threat is connected with transformation of meadows and expansion of urban areas.
... There are promising examples reported from central Europe in various grassland habitats (Ruprecht, 2006;Albert et al., 2014;Prach et al., 2015). The most frequently applied technical reclamation methods include sowing of regional seed mixtures and plant material transfer , successfully used in large-scale grassland restoration projects in some countries in the region (Hungary: Lengyel et al., 2012;Czech Republic: Prach et al., 2015), while in the northernmost countries of the region no experience exists so far, or only the first attempts have been made in this direction (Gazenbeek, 2008;Metsoja et al., 2012Metsoja et al., , 2014Rūsiņa, 2017). ...
This is a chapter on the Eastern European grasslands in book Grasslands of the World: Diversity, Management and Conservation.
... Due to the deterioration of those natural sites in the EU, many activities are being undertaken on their restitution, mostly in Great Britain, Germany, Holland, the Czech Republic, and Estonia [5][6][7][8][9][10][11]. The threat for Polish flora, although less significant than in Western European countries, is progressing rapidly [12][13][14]. ...
The assessment of plant species’ introduction efficiencies for wet meadows was the aim of our study. The studies were carried out as part of a project focusing on flooded meadow restoration in the Middle Vistula Valley. Twenty-six plant species of flooded meadow were in the seedling material used for renovation. The seedbed preparation covered the cutting of vegetation, ploughing, and rototilling, removing the topsoil. The diaspores after seeding were rolled and, on half of the plots, mulched with straw. The number of species, their occurrence frequency, and population abundance as well as the soil coverage by plants in the first year and the third year after diaspora seeding were determined. The seedbed preparation has restricted the occurrence and growth of Solidago sp., and increased soil coverage by meadow species. The share of introduced species in the sward ranged from 5% to 27% of coverage. The removal of the sod was significantly more efficient than other methods of seedbed preparation for plant species introduction to the renovated meadows, especially the species characteristic of the Cnidion dubii meadows. Mulching with straw generally has not improved the renovation results. Generally, Sanguisorba officinalis, Achillea millefolium, and Hypericum perforatum were the species of most frequent occurrence.
... Studies describing effects of large scale restoration of floodplain grasslands have been published from various regions of Europe (Vécrin et al. 2002;Donath et al. 2007;Metsoja et al. 2012), but studies usually cover relatively short time series of several years after the restoration (Kiehl et al. 2010). But floodplain grasslands are very dynamic ecosystems with high resilience to extreme weather events (Koutecký and Prach 2005). ...
Large scale restoration using local high-diversity seed mixture combined with turf transfer was applied on ex-arable land in the Morava River floodplain in the western Slovakia in the years 1999–2012. The post-restoration vegetation development was recorded during 12 years after the restoration using floristic records per restored polygons with cover estimation in simple 3-degree scale. Temporal changes in species composition were evaluated by gradient analysis and number of characteristic grassland and ruderal species on restored sites was analysed by general linear models. Species composition changed gradually towards the species composition typical for species-rich floodplain grasslands, but the trajectory was not straightforward and several irregularities were observed. They were probably induced by extreme weather events (drought, floods). The decrease in ruderal species and increase in the number of typical floodplain grassland species were observed, when floodplain grassland species permanently outcompeted ruderal species since 8th year after the restoration. However the development in large scale was slower, than expected from previous small-scale experiments, it is evident, that combination of local seed mixture sowing with a turf transfer is a feasible method for the restoration of species-rich floodplain grasslands from arable land.
... Besides their high ecological value, such landscapes are also considered to be important for the national identity (Antrop, 1997 Traditional land-use within Europe typically involves utilization of the full scope of available resources (flooded meadows, forests, bogs, agricultural land etc.) (Hurtt et al., 2006) based on the principle of multiple uses (Wilson and Wilson, 1997), whereby resource use is optimised whilst diversifying resource availability, minimizing risk of loss or decreases in the availability of the resources. Within Europe the relative stability and development of these practices has enhanced the structural diversity of vegetation (Joyce and Burnside, 2004;Metsoja et al., 2012;Primdahl et al., 2013;Gerstner et al., 2014). The high nature conservation value of these ecosystems is a by-product of traditional land use (Vos and Meekes, 1999), however, these services together with the land-bound cultural and historical values (Mitchell and Buggey, 2001) are essential components of protected areas (Rescia et al., 2010;Ridding et al., 2015), as are the population required to maintain them (Bridgewater, 2002;Antrop, 2006). ...
Rural population ageing and decline is a serious problem throughout Europe resulting in a deterioration of the socioeconomic situation in rural areas. This leads to land abandonment, and consequently the loss of valuable cultural landscapes. Protected areas are no exception and inhabitants also face restrictions arising from the protection status. The aim of this study is to identify the existence, extent and nature of the socioeconomic impacts derived from the protection status on the local population. Population and socioeconomic indicators were compared with the results of in-depth interviews with local stakeholders within 2 Estonian national parks and contextualised with recent social change. It was concluded that protected areas have a considerable socioeconomic impact and in order to preserve cultural landscapes, achieve conservation objectives and contribute to balanced regional development, measures must be taken.
... Clonal structure might be improved by management practices, such as mowing, topsoil removal and extensive cattle grazing. They are usually applied to restore wet meadows, fens and bogs or maintain these habitats at early succession stages, and favour pioneer plant species such as C. palustre (Middleton et al., 2006;Metsoja et al., 2012), and thus deserve attention. For instance, favouring the occurrence of bare soil areas might increase potentially suitable conditions for seedling recruitment of C. palustre (Sarneel and Soons, 2012). ...
Small populations often show a low degree of genetic diversity. In distylous clonal plants, genetic diversity may also be influenced by other factors, such as floral morph aggregation, clonality and spatial genetic structure. Nevertheless, the relationships between population size, genetic diversity and spatial genetic structure are poorly understood. We tested for the effects of population size on genetic diversity and fine-scale spatial genetic structure (FSGS) in the clonal, distylous aquatic herb Menyanthes trifoliata. To investigate genetic diversity and structure, we used microsatellite markers and genotyped a total of 510 ramets from nine populations in southern Belgium. The populations showed a relatively high degree of genetic diversity (Hec= 0.80; A[12] = 4.45), even if both expected heterozygosity and allelic richness significantly decreased with decreasing population size (genet numbers). Populations were significantly genetically differentiated (FST= 0.14), indicating reduced gene flow among populations. Morph ratio for genets did not deviate from 1:1. The phalanx type of clonal growth dominated in the studied populations. Ramet FSGS (which was strongly affected by clonality) was significant in all populations. Sp statistic significantly decreased with increasing population size, indicating higher FSGS in smaller populations. Consequently, small populations may suffer from a higher rate of geitonogamous pollination (between ramets of the same genet). Since M. trifoliata is a strongly self-incompatible herb, no inbred seeds can be produced from self- (and geitonogamous) pollination. In this case, reproductive success of small and more spatially structured populations of M. trifoliata may be reduced due to clogging of stigmas within compatible pollen. We conclude that understanding genetic diversity and fine-scale clonal structure is crucial for conservation of self-incompatible plant species with extensive clonal propagation.
... Surprisingly, soil properties remained in the range of abandonment, indicating a risk of rapid re-development towards tall reeds if grazing intensity is reduced. In a similar approach, Metsoja et al. (2012) analyzed the effect of resumed mowing on meadows of different flooding duration after more than 20 yr of abandonment. Restoration management resulted in an increase in species richness, compositional changes and higher evenness in all studied communities. ...
... Clonal structure might be improved by management practices, such as mowing, topsoil removal and extensive cattle grazing. They are usually applied to restore wet meadows, fens and bogs or maintain these habitats at early succession stages, and favour pioneer plant species such as C. palustre (Middleton et al., 2006;Metsoja et al., 2012), and thus deserve attention. For instance, favouring the occurrence of bare soil areas might increase potentially suitable conditions for seedling recruitment of C. palustre (Sarneel and Soons, 2012). ...
Background and Aims Clonal growth is a common feature in flowering plants. As clone size increases, the selfing rate in self-compatible species
is likely to increase due to more frequent geitono-pollination events (i.e. pollination among flowers within the same genet).
This study investigated the breeding system of the marsh cinquefoil (Comarum palustre) and assessed spatial distribution of clones, clone size and architecture, and their effects on realized outcrossing rates.
In addition, pollen dispersal was investigated in two patchy populations.
... The many applications of the IndVal measure in conservation biology were soon recognized by the scientific community (McGeoch and Chown, 1998). However, IndVal measures have only been used occasionally in the evaluation of restoration success (e.g., ants in lignite mine – Ottonetti et al., 2006; spiders in heatlands – Cristofoli et al., 2010; plant short-term indicators in grasslands – Déri et al., 2010; ants in grasslands – Fagan et al., 2010; herbaceous plants in flooded meadows – Metsoja et al., 2012 ), and to our knowledge , never retrospectively to find early indicators of success in long-term monitoring programs. Peatlands have been the object of ecological restoration science since the discipline emerged three decades ago (Rochefort et al., 1995). ...
Semi-natural grasslands on steep slopes often show high plant species diversity. These grasslands were traditionally maintained through mowing and/or grazing. The traditional management practices help to maintain species diversity, whereas land abandonment reduces diversity by increasing competition from dominant species and reducing seedling recruitment. The reintroduction of management can reverse species diversity declines, but suitable grassland restoration programs are scarce in Japan. To study the effect of short-term abandonment on seedling ecology, we monitored the vegetation of a Susogari grassland that had been abandoned for 3 years; the grassland occupies a steep slope (ca. 50°) on a hillside above paddy fields, and was traditionally mown. We monitored the vegetation before abandonment, in the 3rd year of abandonment, and in the 1st and 2nd years after restoration of mowing management. Emergence and survival of seedlings was monitored for 18 months after reintroduction of management. We monitored 1,183 seedlings of grassland species and non-target annuals in ten 1-m ² plots. After mowing was reintroduced, most grassland species reappeared or increased in the first and second years. Few seedlings of perennial plants and no seedlings of annuals flowered. An exotic species, Solidago altissima , had a lower survival rate (10%) than grassland species (>30%), and all but two grassland species survived over the 18-month period. Although vegetation composition was not fully recovered, our findings suggest that a steep slope acts as a strong filter that inhibits the establishment of non-target species while enhancing persistence of target grassland species.
The studies were carried out as the part of flooded meadows’ restoration on the Warsaw cross-section of Natura 2000 site Middle Vistula Valley. They concerned determination the possibility of restoration and improvement of species composition plant communities of meadows in river valleys by limitation growth of the invasive alien species and introducing diasporas of plant species from natural meadows. Seeding material for restoration was taken from well preserved natural Cnidion dubii meadows lying in Lower Pilica Valley in the neighborhood of Warsaw. Seeding material contained 26 native species including representative species for Cnidion dubii meadows: Cnidium dubium, Allium angulosum, Sanguisorba officinalis and Galium boreale. Three levels of seedbed preparation intensity were checked: low cutting of old vegetation; ploughing on depth about 20 cm and rototilling, removing of sward and upper soil layer thick 30 cm. Two ways of seeding material placement were also tested: sowing + rolling + mulching (covering with straw); sowing + rolling (without mulching). The applied methods of seedbed preparation and used seeding material allowed introducing of 17 plant species. Removing of topsoil was the most effective in limitation of invasive alien species occurrence and favored emergence and initial growth of Sanguisorba officinalis, Allium angulosum and Galium boreale. Ploughing and rototilling of topsoil layer effectively limited of Acer negundo occurrence and favored the growth of Cnidium dubium.
In the Czech Republic, the number of cattle has decreased by about 60% between the years 1990 and 2010 and one major question is therefore, how to manage mountain grasslands with reduced livestock and demand for forage. One possible alternative is low-cost mulching, which is defined as the crushing of aboveground biomass, which is then evenly spread onto the ground. In view of a lack of data on the effects of mulching, we established an experiment with different cutting and mulching regimes on mountain Festuca rubra grassland in 1997 and monitored plant species composition over twelve years. Treatments with a similar response of plant species composition were (i) unmanaged control and grassland mulched once a year in September; (ii) grassland mulched once a year in May and in July; (iii) grassland mulched twice a year in June and August and grassland mulched three times a year in May, July and September; (iv) grassland cut twice a year with biomass removal in June and August. We concluded that mulching performed at least twice a year can substitute for cutting management in low productive grassland, without substantial loss of plant species richness and diversity. Mulching only in September affected plant species composition of the grassland in a similar way to no management, therefore, mulching performed only in September can be used only for prevention of grassland encroachment by shrubs and trees. The majority of changes in plant species composition developed during the first five years, thus, experiments to study the effects of management on grasslands must be performed for at least this length. (c) 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
QuestionHow does the interaction between silicon (Si) and vegetation affect local and global ecological processes, higher levels of ecological organization, and terrestrial- and watershed-scale Si fluxes? LocationWe selected several ecosystems throughout the world, from river headwaters to estuaries, being examples of (i) terrestrial vegetation, (ii) aquatic and floodplain vegetation, and (iii) tidal wetland vegetation. Methods
We provide examples of the importance of linking Si use by terrestrial and aquatic vegetation, to larger-scale Si flux consequences towards and through rivers. Cross-disciplinary studies achieve the best understanding of vegetation effects on the global Si cycle, and the role of Si as a plant functional trait. Conclusion
Si use by plants has not always received the research attention of other elements. Yet, today the importance of Si for plant functioning is slowly becoming better understood. Silicon is a crucial element for many plant species, being important for decomposition processes, plant competitiveness and stress tolerance. The inclusion by vegetation scientists of Si uptake as a plant functional trait is important to assess links between plant physiology, plant distribution and plant tolerance to environmental changes, but also to understand the role of vegetation on Si fluxes through the watershed. However, lack of knowledge regarding the biological control of the Si cycle hinders accurate quantification. Only a concerted effort bringing scientists together from a broad array of disciplines will provide this new direction for research on vegetation–Si cycling.
This Special Feature focuses on lowland fens and flood plains. In this introduction we discuss the most important mire-related terms, present status, threats and conservation and restoration attempts. Floodplains and especially lowland fens are rare and vulnerable ecosystems. They are highly threatened all over the world because of direct conversion to agricultural land and especially the lack of appropriate management and altered catchment hydrology. Finally we present a framework for the conservation and restoration of these ecosystems. This consists of (1) optimising abiotic conditions; (2) safeguarding propagule availability of the target species; (3) creating and maintaining conditions for (re)establishment of these species, and (4) appropriate management to keep the conditions suitable.
We studied the restoration success of flood plain meadows in the northern Upper Rhine valley, where between 1988 and 1992, 35 ha of arable land was converted into grassland and subsequently managed for nature conservation. Remnant populations of typical alluvial meadow species were found in old meadows and along drainage ditches that dissect the whole area. We analysed the site conditions and phytosociological relevés in old and new meadows. Small differences in site parameters between old and new meadows contrasted with a clear floristic differentiation between the two meadow types. The vegetation of old meadows was much more differentiated along prevailing environmental gradients than the vegetation of new meadows. Despite the favourable site conditions for the re-establishment of species-rich meadows on the former arable land, restoration success was limited to the vicinity of remnant stands. In contrast to old meadows, indicator species of new grassland were still typical species of regularly disturbed ruderal and arable habitats, often capable of building up a persistent seed bank. The precise mapping of 23 target species revealed that even wind dispersal predominantly leads to re-establishment in the close circumference of parent plants. We found no indication that regular flooding, hay-making and autumnal grazing had an impact on recolonization of newly created grassland. Even under favourable conditions for the re-establishment of target species, restoration success in alluvial meadows proved to be strongly dispersal limited. We discuss the implications of our findings for future restoration management in grasslands. Nomenclature: Wisskirchen & Haeupler (1998).
This paper presents a new and simple method to find indicator species and species assemblages characterizing groups of sites. The novelty of our approach lies in the way we combine a species relative abundance with its relative frequency of occurrence in the various groups of sites. This index is maximum when all individuals of a species are found in a single group of sites and when the species occurs in all sites of that group; it is a symmetric indicator. The statistical significance of the species indicator values is evaluated using a randomization procedure. Contrary to TWINSPAN, our indicator index for a given species is independent of the other species relative abundances, and there is no need to use pseudospecies. The new method identifies indicator species for typologies of species releves obtained by any hierarchical or nonhierarchical classification procedure; its use is independent of the classification method. Because indicator species give ecological meaning to groups of sites, this method provides criteria to compare typologies, to identify where to stop dividing clusters into subsets, and to point out the main levels in a hierarchical classification of sites. Species can be grouped on the basis of their indicator values for each clustering level, the heterogeneous nature of species assemblages observed in any one site being well preserved. Such assemblages are usually a mixture of eurytopic (higher level) and stenotopic species (characteristic of lower level clusters). The species assemblage approach demonstrates the importance of the 'sampled patch size,' i.e., the diversity of sampled ecological combinations, when we compare the frequencies of core and Satellite species. A new way to present species-site tables, accounting for the hierarchical relationships among species, is proposed. A large data set of carabid beetle distributions in open habitats of Belgium is used as a case study to illustrate the new method.
For the restoration of river grasslands, soil conditions and isolation from remnant species-rich grasslands are considered critical factors for success. For a large set of newly created restoration sites along the Belgian-Dutch River Meuse reach a multilevel experiment design was drawn up. Different restoration techniques were compared for the realised diversity at different scales. The spatially nested sampling design allowed to distinguish between spatial and local topographical factors determining habitat development. A diversity partitioning approach was used to assess the relative contributions of alpha and beta diversity components to total regional diversity between contrasting restoration techniques. The results indicate that the local species pool and aspects of dispersal limitation and river influence are much stronger reflected in the pioneer vegetation than the environmental conditions. The applied restoration practices of soil and hay transfer proved successful in the recovery of target species. The practices showed significant effect for species richness at the site level yet did not affect vegetation cover or overall species richness. Whether the enhanced restoration practices of sowing and topsoil translocation are more successful in the long run depends on the river influence; surely they are beneficial in zones with less or irregular flooding, to ascertain that target species can prevail in the developments.
The seed bank of four sites representing different stages of semi-natural meadow succession in a west Estonian floodplain was investigated using the seedling emergence method. For 40 species, seed bank persistence types could be determined. Most grassland species were found to have a short-term persistent or a transient seed bank. Sites where management had ceased were found to have a significantly higher number of seeds of Carex spp., and, at least at the long-term abandoned site, a significantly lower number of seeds of grassland herbs. The highest number of grass seeds was found at the managed site, although this was non-significant. Similarity between seed bank and vegetation decreased with increasing time since abandonment and with soil depth. Implications for restoration are discussed. This study confirms that only on recently abandoned sites can the seed bank play a significant role in meadow restoration.
The majority of fens in Europe have been transformed for agricultural purposes and have disappeared or become degraded. Fen meadows that developed under low-intensity management of fens also have become degraded. In this paper, we consider the available restoration methods, biotic constraints for restoration and new prospects and approaches for the restoration of severely degraded fens. Due to irreversible changes in landscape settings, hydrology, soil and trophic conditions, a full restoration to natural mires is unlikely. Yet, an improvement of the ecosystem functions and revival of biodiversity in degraded fens is possible. A restoration of semi-natural meadows is one of the alternative targets. Important for restoration efforts to succeed are a sufficient reduction of nutrient levels and preventing acidification. In general, a combination of topsoil removal and seed transfer is an effective measure for fen meadow restoration, provided that groundwater seepage can be re-established. There are also several biotic limitations to fen meadow restoration, due to limited propagule availability of target species and the legacy of the former vegetation in form of its soil seed bank and high seed production by unwanted species. Under the present environmental conditions, the re-development of fen meadows on degraded fens will result in species compositions different from those observed in the past and such restoration may require considerable time and effort.
Vascular plants were recorded in a long-term (28-year) experiment on semi-natural grassland vegetation comparing six treatments: continued grazing, mowing every year, mowing every third year, annual spring burning, removal of woody plants, and untreated control. The treatments had created very different vegetation types: the annually mown and grazed plots had the highest species number while the untreated plots had the lowest. The species' ordination scores correlated with Ellenberg indicator values for nutrient status and light: species indicating poor nutrient conditions were mainly in grazed and mown plots, and shade-tolerant species were mainly in untreated and grazed plots. The original aim of this experiment was to evaluate alternative ways of maintaining semi-natural grassland vegetation, but there were no satisfactory long-term alternatives to annual mowing or grazing. An ordination contrasted annual mowing and grazing, ranking species from those associated with mowed plots (e.g. Leucanthemum vulgare, Luzula pilosa, Campanula persicifolia, Ajuga pyramidalis) to those associated with grazed plots (e.g. Ranunculus spp., Geum spp., Vicia sepium).
Question: How distinct is the flora of field boundaries? How does the structure of field boundaries determine the composition of vegetation?
Location: Estonia, six 4 km × 4 km agricultural areas.
Methods: We studied the vegetation of fields and field boundaries using 2 m × 2 m sample plots. We estimated the frequency of species in both habitat types, applied an MRPP test to analyse the vegetation composition of field boundaries with various combinations of landscape features (ditches, roads, tree and bush layers) illustrating this by DCA ordination, and used indicator species analysis to determine the characteristic species of each boundary type.
Results: Ca. 45% of the flora of field boundaries comprised species found on agricultural land. Most typical species in fields — agrotolerants — were also the most common in field boundaries. The vegetation of road verges and grassy boundaries consisted mainly of disturbance‐tolerant species. Woody boundaries were characterised by shade‐tolerant and nitrophilous species. Ditch banks included species typical of moist habitats and semi‐natural grasslands. Few threatened or protected species were observed.
Conclusion: The vegetation composition of field boundaries varied due to the complex effects of landscape structure around and in these boundaries. Plant species in agricultural landscapes can be classified into two broad emergent groups on the basis of their different responses to agricultural disturbances — agrotolerant species and nature‐value species. Agrotolerant species are promoted by agriculture, nature‐value species include rare weeds and habitat specialists. We suggest that high‐nature‐value species should prevail in monitoring the effects of land‐use intensification on biodiversity rather than total species richness.
We propose a conceptual model to explain the variation in species richness in local communities and in build-up of regional species pools over time. The idea is that the opportunity for new species to enter a community (its invasibility) determines the present richness of that community as well as the long-term build-up of a species pool by speciation and migration. We propose that a community's invasibility is determined by the turnover rate of reproductive genets in the community, which we call the ‘community-level birth rate’. The faster the turn-over, the more species will accumulate per unit time and per unit community size (number of genets) at a given per-birth rate of immigration and speciation. Spatially discrete communities inhabiting similar environments sum up to metacommunities, whose inhabitant species constitute the regional species pool. We propose that the size of a regional species pool is determined by the aggregate community-level birth rate, the size of the metacommunity through time and age of the metacommunity. Thus, the novel contribution is our proposal of a direct effect of local environment on the build-up rate of species pools. The relative importance of immigrating species and neospecies originating locally will change with the temporal and spatial scale under consideration. We propose that the diversification rate specific to evolutionary lineages and the build-up rate of species pools are two sides of the same coin, and that they are both depending on mean generation time. The proposed model offers a reconciliation of two contrasting paradigms in current community ecology, viz. one focussing on present-time ecological processes and one focussing on historical events governing the size of species pools which in turn determines local richness.
Questions: What is the contribution of management continuity during the last 30–40 years to variation in species diversity and composition of a calcareous wooded meadow plant community? Is tree cover related to species diversity and composition of the herbaceous layer? What are the effects of local soil gradients on species diversity?
Location: Laelatu calcareous wooded meadow, Western Estonian coastal zone.
Methods: Plant community composition was assessed in 150 1 m × 1 m plots, located at 30 sites with known management history within Laelatu meadow (7 ha). Light and soil conditions and relative altitude were measured at each plot. DCA was used to analyse variation in species composition and general linear mixed models to analyse the effects of management and environmental parameters on diversity.
Results: Management continuity was the primary determinant of plant community composition, followed by light conditions and soil parameters. Species richness, diversity and evenness are positively dependent on management continuity. Spatial autocorrelation is important as well. Diversity started to decline under the tree canopy where 50% or less irradiation reached the level of the herbaceous layer. We did not find significant effects of soil conditions on small‐scale diversity.
Conclusions: Management continuity, together with the cover of the tree layer, are the most important determinants of diversity. Despite grassland stands with different management history are located side by side, the regeneration of diversity and composition of plant communities after restoring regular management practices is a slow process.
We investigated the role of plant interactions in producing the zonation of strong competitors, i.e. clonal dominants, and weak competitors, i.e. interstitials. In addition, it was tested whether the effect of plant interactions on species richness depends on the position on the flooding gradient. During one growing season vegetation canopy was removed at a low elevation, dominated by Phragmites australis and at a high one, dominated by tall forbs, mainly Urtica dioica. The seed bank was examined and in half of the plots seeds of clonal dominants from high elevations and interstitials from low elevations were sown to ensure that seeds of both groups were present at both zones. At both elevations, removal of vegetation canopy resulted in a strong increase of interstitial species, but interstitials from low elevations failed to establish in cleared plots at the tall forb zone. This could not be attributed to the absence of seeds and we concluded that conditions unfavourable for germination, rather than plant interactions determine the zonation of interstitials from the P. australis zone. Many seedlings of tall forb dominants emerged in cleared plots at the low elevation. However, number of seedlings rapidly declined during the first year. Hence, abiotic conditions, most probably flooding, prevented seedling establishment of tall forb dominants at zones dominated by P. australis. Canopy removal increased species richness at the low elevation in the first year only, whereas at the higher elevation species richness in cleared plots remained higher throughout the second year when the canopy was no longer removed. We therefore concluded that species richness of freshwater shorelines is controlled by abiotic factors in the frequently flooded zone and by plant interactions at higher elevations.
We studied the restoration success of flood plain meadows in the northern Upper Rhine valley, where between 1988 and 1992, 35 ha of arable land was converted into grassland and subsequently managed for nature conservation.
Remnant populations of typical alluvial meadow species were found in old meadows and along drainage ditches that dissect the whole area. We analysed the site conditions and phytosociological relevés in old and new meadows. Small differences in site parameters between old and new meadows contrasted with a clear floristic differentiation between the two meadow types. The vegetation of old meadows was much more differentiated along prevailing environmental gradients than the vegetation of new meadows. Despite the favourable site conditions for the re‐establishment of species‐rich meadows on the former arable land, restoration success was limited to the vicinity of remnant stands. In contrast to old meadows, indicator species of new grassland were still typical species of regularly disturbed ruderal and arable habitats, often capable of building up a persistent seed bank.
The precise mapping of 23 target species revealed that even wind dispersal predominantly leads to re‐establishment in the close circumference of parent plants. We found no indication that regular flooding, hay‐making and autumnal grazing had an impact on recolonization of newly created grassland. Even under favourable conditions for the re‐establishment of target species, restoration success in alluvial meadows proved to be strongly dispersal limited. We discuss the implications of our findings for future restoration management in grasslands.
Brzosko, E. 2001: Changes in population structure of Carex cespitosa during 10 years of secondary succession in an abandoned meadow in Bialowieza, Poland. — Ann. Bot. Fennici 38: 249–258. Changes in the structure of a Carex cespitosa population were studied during secondary succession on abandoned meadows near Bialowieza National Park (NE Poland) over a period of ten years (1987–1997). During succession the spatial relations between dominants (C. cespitosa, C. acutiformis, Filipendula ulmaria, and Salix spp.) changed. Carex cespitosa is one of the species playing a major role in the transformation of vegetation on abandoned meadows in Bialowieza. In the initial stage of the terminal phase of succession, which starts with the appearance of willows, the population of C. cespitosa begins to regress. The beginning of regression is manifested by changes in age structure of the population. The size of tussocks (diameter and height) still increased during the study, but the rate of growth was lower in patches dominated by C. acutiformis or willows than in meadows dominated by C. cespitosa.
Restoration management of a flood-plain meadow and its cost-effectiveness — the results of a 6-year experiment. — Ann. Bot. Fennici 46: 397–408. A key challenge of conservation management in seminatural grasslands is to find ecologically cost-effective management regimes which will maintain the ecological functionality and biodiversity of a community. We studied changes in the plant func-tional trait composition and diversity of the flooded meadow in the 6-year field experi-ment in Soomaa National Park, Estonia. Five management regimes were introduced: traditional (cutting with a scythe and hay removal), mowing (machine cutting and hay removal), mulching (machine cutting without hay removal), spring burning and unmanaged control. Unmanaged and burned plots differed from cut plots due to their higher percentage of grasses and sedges, and of C-strategists, and by lower percentage of trampling-and grazing-tolerant species, erosulate species, and vegetatively mobile guerrilla species. Removal of litter enhanced rosette species and winter-green species. Traditional management increased the compositional variability among plots. Species richness remained almost constant in burned plots, and fluctuated in unmanaged plots, while in all cut plots there was a significant increase in species richness. Within cutting treatments, richness increased relatively more in the plots that were cut by a machine. Results from the 6-year field experiment suggest that mulching is the most cost-effec-tive management regime in floodplain meadows, but only in combination with mowing (cutting with removal of the hay crop) every second or third year, providing the best management practice in the long run.
Summary • We studied seedling emergence in four familial pairs of floodplain herbs in response to the experimental manipulation of soil moisture and litter cover to analyse (i) whether the effect of litter changes from negative under humid to positive under dry conditions, and (ii) whether the response to changing water and light conditions with increasing litter cover varies among species and plant families. • We carried out a controlled pot experiment using four levels of litter cover (0 g, 2 g, 4 g and 8 g litter per pot, corresponding to 0 kg m−2, 0.2 kg m−2, 0.4 kg m−2 and 0.8 kg m−2) and two levels of water-addition, leading to constantly humid substrate or intermittently dry topsoil. • Across water-additions, percentage emergence reached a peak at low levels of litter cover (0.2 kg m−2 and 0.4 kg m−2). There was a significant litter × water-addition interaction in six species, with positive effects of litter under intermittently dry conditions and negative or neutral effects under constantly humid conditions. Litter lowered maximum temperature as well as amplitude, and alleviated soil humidity under low water supply, while imposing increasingly shaded conditions. Analysis of species- and family-specific responses suggested that germination under a litter cover of 0.8 kg m−2 was significantly reduced in smaller-seeded species (i.e. those that tend to have higher light demands for germination). • Our results suggest that transfer of seed-containing plant litter can aid restoration projects if applied at 0.2–0.4 kg m−2. Below these levels, establishment of most species may be inhibited by drought, while higher amounts will increasingly suppress seedling emergence, especially of small-seeded species. • In addition to facilitation effects observed between living plants, dead plant remains may also exert positive effects on establishment. The sign of the litter effect on seedling emergence depends on soil humidity, with negative effects seen above a threshold amount, which is species- and family-specific and is closely related to seed size. Whether positive litter effects in grasslands are a consequence of coevolution remains to be examined. Journal of Ecology (2005) doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2745.2005.01015.x
We do not know which aspects of community structure and ecosystem processes are restorable for most ecosystems, yet this information is crucial for achieving successful restoration.
We quantified three success criteria for 8–10‐year‐old grassland plantings in large‐scale tallgrass prairie restoration (reconstruction) sites relative to three nearby prairie remnant sites. The restoration sites included management of native ungulates and fire, important regulators of diversity and patchiness in intact grasslands. These have not been incorporated simultaneously into previous studies of restoration success.
We used the additive partitioning model of diversity, where α is neighbourhood (quadrat) scale diversity, β is accumulation of species diversity across neighbourhoods, and γ is total diversity. We decomposed α into richness and evenness to determine if both were equally restored.
The proportion of exotic biomass was similar between the restoration and remnant sites, but the proportion of exotic species and above‐ground net primary productivity remained between two and four times higher in the restoration sites.
Alpha diversity (Simpson's 1/D) and richness (S) values were exceptionally high in remnant sites, and approximately twice those of the restoration sites. Alpha evenness was similar between the restoration and remnant sites.
Distance per se between quadrats was not related to diversity after accumulated quadrat area was taken into account. Therefore, we may be able to use the additive partitioning model of diversity in areas that differ in size, at least at the scale of this study.
Contrary to our original predictions, the proportion of β diversity (1 − D) was approximately twice as high in the restoration sites than in remnant sites, possibly because patches of individual species were larger in the restoration.
Synthesis and applications . We have shown that current restoration methods are unable to restore plant diversity in tallgrass prairie. Grassland restoration will be improved if the number of species that co‐exist can be increased. New, local‐scale restoration techniques are needed to replicate the high levels of diversity observed in tallgrass prairie remnant sites.
Plants associated with traditional agricultural landscapes in northern Europe and Scandinavia are subjected to drastic habitat fragmentation. In this paper we discuss species response to fragmentation, against a background of vegetation and land-use history. Recent evidence suggests that grassland-forest mosaics have been prevalent long before the onset of human agriculture. We suggest that the creation of infield meadows and outland grazing (during the Iron Age) increased the amount and spatial predictability of grasslands, resulting in plant communities with exceptionally high species densities. Thus, distribution of plant species in the present-day landscape reflects historical land-use. This holds also when traditional management has ceased, due to a slow response by many species to abandonment and fragmentation. The distribution patterns are thus not in equilibrium with the present habitat distribution. Fragmentation influences remaining semi-natural grasslands such that species density is likely to decline as a result of local extinctions and invasion by habitat generalists. However, species that for a long time have been subjected to changing mosaic landscapes may be more resistant to fragmentation than is usually believed. Conservation should focus not only on ‘hot-spots’ with high species richness, but also consider species dynamics in a landscape context.
In previous studies, limited dispersal was revealed to be the main obstacle to restoration of species-rich flood-meadows along the northern Upper Rhine in Germany. To overcome dispersal limitation we transferred freshly mown plant material from species-rich sources to a restoration site on a former arable field. Before plant material application, topsoil was removed to accelerate nutrient impoverishment and create favourable conditions for seedling recruitment.
Topsoil removal led to a drastic reduction in organic matter and essential mineral nutrients to the level of target communities (P) or even below (N, K). At a removal depth of 30 cm content of the soil seed bank that comprised exclusively of annual arable weeds, ruderals and some common grassland species, declined by 60 - 80%, while at a removal depth of 50 cm the seed bank was almost completely eliminated. With few exceptions, all species recorded in source plant material were found established at the restoration site. However, the overall correlation between seed content in plant material and establishment success was not very high.
Vegetation development at the restoration site was characterized by a rapid decline in arable weeds and ruderals, while resident grassland species and species transferred with plant material increased rapidly from the third year onwards. After four years as many as 102 species were established that could be exclusively attributed to plant material transfer, among them many rare and highly endangered plants. Establishment of species from plant material was most successful in regularly flooded plots, due to the suppression of competitors as well as the creation of favourable moisture conditions for seedling emergence.
Diaspore transfer with plant material proved to be an extremely successful method in restoring species-rich grassland. However, high quality of plant material and suitable site conditions with low competition in early stages of succession seem to be essential prerequisites.
In grasslands worldwide, grazing by ungulates and periodic fires are important forces affecting resource availability and plant community structure. It is not clear, however, whether changes in community structure are the direct effects of the disturbance (i.e. fire and grazing) or are mediated indirectly through changes in resource abundance and availability. In North American tallgrass prairies, fire and grazing often have disparate effects on plant resources and plant diversity, yet, little is known about the individual and interactive effects of fire and grazing on resource variability and how that variability relates to heterogeneity in plant community structure, particularly at small scales. We conducted a field study to determine the interactive effects of different long-term fire regimes (annual vs four-year fire frequency) and grazing by native ungulates (Bos bison) on small-scale plant community structure and resource variability (N and light) in native tallgrass prairie. Grazing enhanced light and nitrogen availability, but did not affect small-scale resource variability. In addition, grazing reduced the dominance of C4 grasses which enhanced species richness, diversity and community heterogeneity. In contrast, annual fire increased community dominance and reduced species richness and diversity, particularly in the absence of grazing, but had no effect on community heterogeneity, resource availability and resource variability. Variability in the abundance of resources showed no relationship with community heterogeneity at the scale measured in this study, however we found a relationship between community dominance and heterogeneity. Therefore, we conclude that grazing generated small-scale community heterogeneity in this mesic grassland by directly affecting plant community dominance, rather than indirectly through changes in resource variability.
Abandonment and fragmentation are the primary causes of decline for many light-demanding grassland species in the modern agricultural
landscape. In order to maintain a flora rich in such species, design of management practices based upon knowledge of life-history
consequences following management shifts is essential. In this study, we investigated the demography of the perennial grassland
species Plantago lanceolata for 4years in one mulched site and two abandoned sites to compare how the two treatments influenced population dynamics.
Compared to abandonment, mulching had a small but positive effect on the population growth rate (λ) of P. lanceolata. In both the mulched and the abandoned sites, growth and stasis among the largest plants contributed most strongly to λ,
while the contribution of fecundity was negligible in both treatments. λ of P. lanceolata varied more between years than between treatments, most notably because λ values below unity were observed in the abandoned
sites in a 1-year period that included a severe winter. The population of the mulched site consisted of larger ramets and
had higher clonal growth rates than the populations of the abandoned sites. This explains the apparently higher resilience
to unfavorable climatic conditions in the mulched site. We conclude that management by mulching is better than abandonment
for the long-term persistence of P. lanceolata. However, due to low recruitment also in the mulched site, even mulching may be insufficient for P. lanceolata to persist over long time periods.
KeywordsElasticity-Extinction debt-Matrix analyses-Population growth rate-Semi-natural grassland-Two-way LTRE
Species pool theory claims that diaspore and microsite availability limit species richness in plant communities. Wet meadows
(Calthion) and litter meadows (Molinion, Caricion davallianae) belonging to the most species-rich meadows in the foothills of the Alps have suffered from a strong decrease since the 1970s.
Restoration efforts including nutrient impoverishment and rewetting management after drainage and fertilization did not result
in the re-establishment of the former species richness although the abiotic filter would have been appropriate for the re-colonization
of many locally extinct species. In our experiment at four sites in the largest fen of Southwest-Germany we tested if the
restoration success was seed- and gap-limited. We applied sowing and hay spreading (hay seed) as treatments to make seeds
available and harrowing to increase gap availability. Sowing seeds or hay seed of species of the former meadow types increased
species richness immediately. The proportion of re-established species was higher when additional harrowing was applied. Species
richness could be increased not only in vascular plants but also in bryophytes when hay spreading was applied. The strongest
re-development towards the target communities (defined through the abiotic filter and the species richness before drainage
and fertilization) took place on those sites where hay spreading and harrowing were applied. Sowing seeds and hay seed were
traditional techniques to establish e.g. litter meadows, both techniques have been applied for centuries. Even harrowing was
described as early as the 19th century to increase the chance of establishing certain species. Therefore, the “application
of the knowledge coming from the species pool theory” (although not named during this time) has been common practice since
at least the 19th century.
This paper presents a new and simple method to find indicator species and species assemblages characterizing groups of sites. The novelty of our approach lies in the way we combine a species relative abundance with its relative frequency of occurrence in the various groups of sites. This index is maximum when all individuals of a species are found in a single group of sites and when the species occurs in all sites of that group; it is a symmetric indicator. The statistical significance of the species indicator values is evaluated using a randomization procedure. Contrary to TWINSPAN, our indicator index for a given species is independent of the other species relative abundances, and there is no need to use pseudospecies. The new method identifies indicator species for typologies of species releves obtained by any hierarchical or nonhierarchical classification procedure; its use is independent of the classification method. Because indicator species give ecological meaning to groups of sites, this method provides criteria to compare typologies, to identify where to stop dividing clusters into subsets, and to point out the main levels in a hierarchical classification of sites. Species can be grouped on the basis of their indicator values for each clustering level, the heterogeneous nature of species assemblages observed in any one site being well preserved. Such assemblages are usually a mixture of eurytopic (higher level) and stenotopic species (characteristic of lower level clusters). The species assemblage approach demonstrates the importance of the "sampled patch size," i.e., the diversity of sampled ecological combinations, when we compare the frequencies of core and satellite species. A new way to present species-site tables, accounting for the hierarchical relationships among species, is proposed. A large data set of carabid beetle distributions in open habitats of Belgium is used as a case study to illustrate the new method.
Seed and microsite limitation are seen as the main obstacles in the restoration of species-rich meadows. Past restoration projects of flood meadows along the northern Upper Rhine focusing solely on the re-creation of adequate site conditions were unsuccessful.In the present study, seed containing plant material was transferred on large scale of ca. 50 ha to former arable fields and some species-poor grassland to enhance species establishment. Additionally, we tested the effect of sward disturbance by rotovation in grassland and simultaneous sowing of grass at arable restoration sites.Four years after the application of plant material, 92 species were successfully re-established at the restoration sites, including 25 Red List species. Co-occurring vegetation had the highest impact on establishment success, with a negative effect of grasses. Establishment success at the arable fields was threefold higher than at grassland sites. In the latter, rotovation of the sward had only a small positive effect on establishment success. Simultaneously sown grass in former arable fields barely hampered establishment of plant material species.Although supply of phosphorus and potassium at the restoration sites was higher than at donor sites, we found no indication that this had negative effects on establishment success of plant material species.The transfer of plant material is a very effective measure to overcome dispersal limitation. A remaining obstacle for restoration are established swards with highly competitive species, whereas raised P and K levels seem to be tolerable in the case of limited N-supply at restoration sites.
Techniques such as rewetting, topsoil removal, diaspore transfer or combinations of these are increasingly applied in fen meadow and flood meadow restoration in Western Europe. In this paper, we present a quantitative assessment of the effectiveness of the commonly used meadow restoration methods. We use the change in ‘saturation index’ to evaluate the degree of success. The index reflects the completeness of restored communities in comparison to regional target communities. Meadow restoration has limited success in most cases, with an average increase in species richness below 10% of the regional species pool. Restoration success was partly determinated by the starting situation. The more species-rich the starting situation, the higher the saturation index after restoration but, at the same time, the smaller the increase in the number of target species due to restoration. Top soil removal and diaspore transfer were found to contribute most to restoration success. A combination of top soil removal and diaspore transfer and a combination of all three techniques appeared to be the most effective measure and resulted in an increase in the saturation index of up to 16%. Rewetting alone had no measurable effect on restoration success.
The Netherlands are a small, low-lying delta in W. Europe (42000 km2; 50°–54° N; 3°–8° E), mainly consisting of alluvial deposits from the North Sea and from the large rivers Rhine and Meuse. The country was ‘created by man’. The conversion of natural aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems into drained agricultural land was a major cultural operation over the past 1000 years. Roughly 55% of the country’s surface area is still agricultural land. Some decades ago, The Netherlands’ landscape was characterised by an armoured coastline and bridled estuaries, a drastically reduced area of saline and freshwater marshes, fully regulated rivers and streams, and numerous artificial lakes. The aquatic ecosystems beyond the influence of the large rivers, the Pleistocene raised bogs and moor lands, have almost been completely annihilated in the past. Acidification and eutrophication led to the deterioration of the remaining softwater lake vegetation. Last but not least, an artificial drainage system was constructed, leading to an unnatural water table all over the country, high in summer, low in winter. Only very recently, some 25 years ago, the tide has been turned and ecological rehabilitation and restoration of disturbed ecosystems are in full swing now, enhanced by the European Union policy to set aside agricultural land in the Netherlands in favour of the development of ‘nature’. The state of the art of aquatic and semi-aquatic ecological restoration projects in the Netherlands is given. Starting from the conceptual basis of restoration ecology, the successes and failures of hundreds of restoration projects are given. Numerous successful projects are mentioned. In general, ecological restoration endeavours are greatly benefiting from progressive experience in the course of the years. Failures mainly occur by insufficient application of physical, chemical or ecological principles. The spontaneous colonisation by plants and animals, following habitat reconstruction, is preferred. But sometimes the re-introduction of keystone species (e.g. eelgrass; salmon; beaver) is necessary in case the potential habitats are isolated or fragmented, or when a seed bank is lacking, thus not allowing viable populations to develop. Re-introduction of traditional management techniques (e.g. mowing without fertilisation; low intensity grazing) is important to rehabilitate the semi-natural and cultural landscapes, so characteristic for the Netherlands. For aquatic ecosystems proper (estuaries, rivers, streams, larger lakes) the rule of thumb is that re-establishment of the abiotic habitat conditions is a pre-requisite for the return of the target species. This implies rehabilitation of former hydrological end geomorphological conditions, and an increase in spatial heterogeneity. The ‘bottom-up’ technique of lake restoration, viz. reduction in nutrient loadings, and removal of nutrient-rich organic sediment, is the preferred strategy. The ‘top-down’ approach of curing eutrophicated ecosystems, that is drastic reduction of fish stock, mainly bream, and introduction of carnivorous fish, may be considered as complementary. For semi-aquatic ecosystems (river-fed and rain-fed peat moors, brook valleys, coastal dune slacks) it also counts that the abiotic constraints should be lifted, but here the species-oriented conservation strategy, the enhancement of the recovery of characteristic plant and animal species, is mainly followed. An important pre-requisite for the rehabilitation of the original natural or semi-natural vegetation is the presence of viable seed bank. Restoration of salt-marsh vegetation has to deal with a short-lived persistent seed bank, which means that transport of seeds by water currents is important. Isolated softwater ecosystems may rely on the long-lived seeds of the aquatic macrophytes. The paper ends with some notes on the predictability of the outcome of ecological restoration measures and the societal position of restoration ecology as a science. Scientists hold different views on the predictability of restoration measures. A fact is that the predictability of ecosystem development increases, with increasing knowledge of the underlying environmental processes.
Seed dispersal by mowing machinery was investigated within a grassland reserve. Transported seed numbers amounted to hundreds of thousands. Seeds of 26 species were found on the machinery, including species that play an important role in succession during vegetation restoration (Holcus lanatus, Rhinanthus angustifolius, Anthoxanthum odoratum). Species occurrence was related to field abundance, but not to plant size, seed size or month of first flowering. Species seed amounts were also positively correlated only to their abundance within fields. Several abundant species were not found because they carried no seeds at the cutting date (Caltha palustris, Juncus acutiflorus). There was a difference in species composition within material accumulating in two machinery parts, which was related to their height above ground level. It was concluded that dispersal by mowing machinery is moderately selective towards and against certain species. Seeds were transported from species-rich fields into species-poor fields and vice versa. The seeds transported after mowing a field were partially deposited in the next field. Dispersal by machinery may have a larger impact on the speed of succession in the hay-fields of the Drentse A reserve than any other form of dispersal and establishment from the seed bank. Therefore, it is important for vegetation restoration in practice. However, machinery does not always connect seed sources with restoration areas. Large-scale machinery movement also creates a new form of vegetation dynamics compared to the days of former, more primitive, agricultural use. Both factors have to be considered when attempts are made to restore species-rich vegetation types. It is probable that new methods will not produce the vegetation that once existed.
It has been proposed that the much discussed 'hump-backed' relationship between species richness and habitat productivity might be an artifact, arising from the use of an anthropocentric sampling scale. We studied this relationship in 27 Estonian grassland and forest ground-layer plant communities by using scale-independent sampling. Richness was estimated simultaneously from 1-m(2) quadrats, and from quadrats inhabited by 500 plant ramets. We also studied richness relative to the size of the actual species pool (relative richness). Modal maximum richness at intermediate standing biomass was observed in both fixed-size and flexible-size quadrats, indicating that the unimodal shape of the studied curve is not merely a sampling artifact. Relative richness varied in a very narrow interval (especially when estimated per 500 ramets), showing that small-scale absolute richness is mostly determined by the size of the local species pool. However, the relationship between relative richness and biomass was slightly parabolic, showing that modal relative richness is expected at intermediate biomass. This could be interpreted as evidence supporting the competition-based explanation of the hump-backed curve, but, more likely, this is an artifact due to possible underestimation of the size of the actual species pool (overestimation of relative richness) in species-rich communities with intermediate productivity. Relative richness is positively correlated with absolute richness in 1-m(2) quadrats, but independent of absolute richness when scale-independent sampling is used. In flexible-size quadrats, richness is predictable as a certain percent of the actual species pool, independent of the density of ramets in the community.
The relationship between hydrological connectivity and species diversity patterns (alpha and beta diversity) of macrophytes, molluscs, odonates and amphibians was investigated in a semi-natural floodplain segment in the ‘Alluvial Zone National Park’ of the Danube River in Austria. Based on environmental variables, we distinguished four major channel types (inflow channel, parapotamal, plesiopotamal and palaeopotamal) that reflected a lateral connectivity gradient. In addition, a longitudinal environmental gradient along the parapotamal channel was found.Connectivity, rather than the surface area of individual floodplain water bodies, explained local species richness. Species diversity patterns varied among taxa: the highest species richness values for molluscs occurred in the parapotamal channels, for odonates in the para- and plesiopotamal channels, for macrophytes in the plesiopotamal channels and for amphibians in the palaeopotamal channels. Within the parapotamal channels, the species richness of odonates and amphibians increased moving upstream. Beta diversity displayed an almost inverse relationship with alpha diversity, with highest average values in isolated and fragmented floodplain channels. Habitat fragmentation favoured the beta diversity of most groups, although connectivity favoured the beta diversity of amphibians. The highest proportion of endangered species (mainly rheophilic forms) was found in the parapotamal channels.It is concluded that preservation of the high diversity of this alluvial flood plain would be more fully realised by reconstitution of fluvial dynamics and the associated connectivity gradients, rather than by restoration strategies for individual groups or endangered species. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
"Measuring Biological Diversity assumes no specialist mathematical knowledge and includes worked examples and links to web-based software. It will be essential reading for all students, researchers, and managers who need to measure biological diversity."--BOOK JACKET.
The aim of this study is to assess the effect of different management practices on mountain meadow plant biomass, species richness and diversity. The experiment was carried out in the Bohemian Forest Mts. at the altitude of 1150–1170m for 10 years. We applied three treatments (mowing, mulching – i.e., cutting and crushing of the sward into small pieces which are left at the site to decompose, abandonment – fallow) to a mountain meadow with dominant Deschampsia cespitosa, Agrostis capillaris, Festuca rubra and Hypericum maculatum. The aboveground biomass was significantly highest in the fallow treatment and lowest in the mown one, the belowground biomass was the lowest in the fallow treatment and the highest in the mown one. The litter accumulation was higher in the fallow treatment than in the mulched one, where, nonetheless, the mulched material persisted for more than one growing season.The treatments significantly affected the plant species diversity and shifts of dominance among certain species were observed. Decrease of the species richness was observed in the fallow plot, while slightly lowered Shannon diversity and evenness were observed in the mown plot. If regular mowing of mountain meadows is not feasible for economic or technical reasons, mulching can represent an economically advantageous alternative. It will temporarily check the successional changes that sooner or later occur in meadows left fallow.
This long-term study (23yr) aims at specifying the characteristic features of secondary progressive successions in abandoned wet eutrophic grasslands as a precondition for better understanding causal relationships and improving the predictability of successions on such habitats. The vegetation of inundated fen grasslands (Calthion) at the lower course of the river Wümme near Bremen (Northwest Germany) was studied annually on three permanent plots (each 10×10m2) where hay making had ceased in 1983, 1985 and 1992, respectively. In the initial succession phase of three to five years a fast increase of tall-growing, rhizomatous, deciduous reed species (e.g. Phalaris arundinacea) occurred. This strongly changed vegetation structure and within-canopy light climate, which was the reason for the strong decrease in species diversity. Rhizomes are hypothesized to be a key factor of high competitiveness in abandoned wet grasslands because this organ combines multiple advantageous functions: low-risk vegetative propagation, nutrient storage and nutrient re-allocation between above- and below-ground plant organs, all these functions allowing for a gradual build-up of a high biomass. Extinct grassland species (e.g. Senecio aquaticus) represent a contrasting set of plant traits such as small stature, short lifespan, prevailing generative reproduction and evergreen leaves. The subsequent succession phase commencing about five years after mowing was ceased was characterized by persistence of the established reed vegetation, which prevented tree colonisation until today. Secondary successions in abandoned wet eutrophic grasslands can be predicted on the level of plant communities and functional species groups considering changes in the habitat (esp. light climate), the presence of reed species with a specific set of plant traits in the “Initial Floristic Composition” and their potentially high competitive vigour.
Question: How does species composition change in traditionally managed meadows after mowing has ceased, and in abandoned meadows after re-introduction of mowing? Are there differences in the dynamics of dry and moderately wet meadows?
Location: Zázrivá-Plešivá (19°11′N, 49°16′E), north-western Slovakia, western Carpathians.
Methods: Pairs of experimental plots (mown and unmown) were established to replicate each combination of dry/wet and traditionally managed/abandoned meadows. Changes in species composition were studied over 5 years. The data on changes in species composition was analysed by constrained and unconstrained ordinations, and visualized using Principal Response Curves.
Results: Species composition of newly abandoned wet grasslands was changing towards the corresponding long-abandoned plots even in the first year of abandonment. Similarly, newly established restoration mowing in abandoned dry grasslands rapidly shifted the stand species composition towards that of traditionally managed ones. Nevertheless, 4 year after reintroduction of mowing, the species composition of the restored plots was still far from the target composition. The effect of mowing in abandoned wet grasslands and abandonment in dry grasslands was much less pronounced and slower.
Conclusions: Moisture regime is a very important factor determining the management needs of various grassland types. Wet grasslands are much more sensitive to abandonment, with a rapid degradation rate and limited possibilities for restoration, which can be extremely slow. Even in the dry grasslands, that quickly responded to restoration mowing, restoration is a long-term process.
In seminatural grasslands, the success of reintroduction of locally extinct rare plant species may depend on the ambient management regime. We aimed to study to what extent the success of the restoration of a rare species (Gladiolus imbricatus) depends on management conditions. A management experiment with traditional cutting by scythe and hay removal, mowing (machine cutting and hay removal), mulching (machine cutting without hay removal), spring burning, and unmanaged control, combined with reintroduction of seeds of Gladiolus, was conducted in an Estonian flooded meadow in which the species had become extinct. Seeds were reintroduced in 2003 in all management treatments and populations monitored until 2006. Mulching, mowing, and traditional management resulted in the greatest establishment, whereas the subsequent mortality was not influenced greatly by management regime. The population started to increase in mulching treatment in the third season due to vegetative growth. The results indicate that the establishment of G. imbricatus is primarily seed limited under current conditions, whereas favorable management significantly enhances establishment in a river floodplain meadow. Successful restoration depends on seed addition and proper grassland management—mowing to a height of approximately 15 cm and mulching.
Classical ecological theory predicts a succession towards plant communities that are determined by environmental conditions. However, in ecological restoration, species composition often remains different from the predicted target community, compromising the success of restoration measures.
We analysed the relative importance of environmental conditions, management and distance to source populations for floodplain grassland succession following re‐conversion from intensive to traditional use. The study was established at 33 grassland sites in central German river valleys. Species composition, environmental variables, past and current management, and the distance to source populations of characteristic species of traditional management (indicator species) were recorded and compared using multivariate statistics. We further tested the speed of colonization by two indicator species, Silaum silaus and Serratula tinctoria , along transects from source populations into unoccupied fields.
The species composition of the successional grassland was mainly determined by elevation, total soil nitrogen, distance to remnant species‐rich grasslands and frequency of mowing or grazing. Elevation and distance were negatively, and frequency was positively related to the occurrence of late successional species.
Colonization by indicator species was only dependent on the distance to source populations; other explanatory variables were not significant. Migration from adjacent source sites of S. silaus and S. tinctoria into re‐converted grasslands was slow, reaching only 40 m and 15 m after 15 years.
Synthesis and applications . The results demonstrated the limitations of the deterministic view on plant succession and the high relative importance of propagule availability in grassland restoration. Natural colonization will only be successful if source populations of the target species are adjacent to the restoration sites. Artificial introduction techniques are recommended to overcome dispersal barriers.
Disturbance has profound effects on plant community composition. This paper deals with the influence of grazing on species richness and proportions of life‐history attributes of grassland vegetation at six spatial scales (0.001‐1000 m ² ) in two provinces of southern Sweden. The study comprised 33 dry grassland sites, including 22 grazed and 11 abandoned localities, and 28 sites of coastal brackish meadows, divided into five management types (from “heavily grazed” to “abandoned since long time”).
In general grazed sites were species‐richer than abandoned sites, especially at small plot sizes. However, there was a steeper increase in species number towards larger plot sizes in the abandoned sites. Heavy grazing in the coastal meadows resulted in a comparatively low number of species, corroborating the intermediate disturbance hypothesis.
The analysis of life‐history traits indicated the importance of taxonomic group, canopy structure, height, regenerative strategy and, in particular, life form. Leaf anatomy and seed dispersal seemed to be less important. The responses to grazing as regards species traits differed somewhat between grassland types. Grazed sites generally had high proportions of legumes, therophytes, species with basal position of leaves and with regeneration by means of a persistent seed bank. Abandonment of grazing favoured monocots, geophytes, species with vegetative regeneration and (partly) leafy canopy structure. Some differences between grazed and abandoned sites were confined to either the smallest or largest plot sizes, indicating different responses of matrix and interstitial species. Various positive associations (attribute syndromes) or negative associations between individual traits were identified. There was, for example, a positive link between the attributes “geophytes” and “ability of vegetative regeneration”. The recognition of such links is important to avoid misinterpreting certain attributes as functional adaptations to grazing while they are only positively correlated to other attributes of larger significance.
Ranunculus acris subsp. acris is widespread in pastures across Europe. In New Zealand, it persists in dairy pastures throughout the country, despite the annual use of herbicides, causing a loss in the national yield of milk solids estimated at NZ$156 million in the 2001–2002 milking season. Its persistence appears to be due in part to the production of a blistering agent, protoanemonin, which deters grazing animals, combined with evolved resistance to herbicides and a resilience imparted by a stout rhizome supporting dormant axillary buds. The latter enables regeneration after damage inflicted by herbicides, fungi and other control agents, and facilitates lateral spread and asexual reproduction. Its persistence in dairy pastures may also be influenced by plants recruiting from seeds which are formed annually subject to the availability of insect pollinators. Based on a review of observations and experiments conducted mainly in Europe and New Zealand, we propose a detailed life-cycle model for R. acris. This provides the basis for a matrix population model that will identify the life-cycle stages that contribute most to population growth and, hence, the extent to which each of these would need to be targeted for improved management in dairy pastures in New Zealand.
The relative importance of regional species pools and local ecological processes in governing landscape variation in plant species diversity and productivity was evaluated in a Kansas grassland.
We examined the impact of multispecies sowing treatments and experimental canopy disturbances on plant species diversity and ecosystem processes along a complex natural gradient of plant standing crop.
Data collected 4 years after sowing showed that plant invasion and diversity were seed limited in unproductive sites, but microsite limited in productive sites. Effects of sowing on plant diversity along the natural landscape gradient were paralleled by significant effects of sowing on measures of local plant production and community resilience to disturbance.
These results support the shifting limitations hypothesis (SLH) that landscape gradients in local plant diversity should reflect shifts in the major regulating factor, from species pools to local ecological processes, as one moves from sites of inherently low to inherently high productivity.
Our findings also indicate that diversity at the level of the available propagule pool acts to constrain ecosystem productivity and stability by mediating local community assembly, by determining the availability of key species, and by governing opportunities for functional compensation within the community.
In total, our results support an emerging view that community processes and ecosystem functions are dynamically linked and act reciprocally to constrain each other.
To improve the ecological functioning of riverine ecosystems, large-scale floodplain rehabilitation has been carried out in the Rhine–Meuse Delta since the 1990s. This paper evaluates changes in abundance of 93 breeding bird species over a period of 10 years in response to rehabilitation, by comparing population changes in 75 rehabilitated sites with 124 non-rehabilitated reference sites. Such quantitative, multi-species, large-scale and long-term evaluations of floodplain rehabilitation on biodiversity are still scarce, particularly studies that focus on the terrestrial component. We try to understand the effects by relating population trends to ecological and life-history traits and strategies of breeding birds. More specifically, we try to answer the question whether rehabilitation of vegetation succession or hydro-geomorphological river processes is the key driver behind recent population changes in rehabilitated sites. Populations of 35 species have significantly performed better in rehabilitated sites compared to non-rehabilitated floodplains, whereas only 8 have responded negatively to rehabilitation. Differences in effects between species are best explained by the trait selection of nest location. Reproductive investment and migratory behaviour were less strong predictors. Based on these three traits we defined eight life-history strategies that successfully captured a substantial amount of variation in rehabilitation effects. We conclude that spontaneous vegetation succession and initial excavations are currently more important drivers of population changes than rehabilitation of hydrodynamics. The latter are strongly constrained by river regulation. If rehabilitation of hydro-geomorphological processes remains incomplete in future, artificial cyclic floodplain rejuvenation will be necessary for sustainable conservation of characteristic river birds. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Question: Which management treatments are suitable to replace historically applied grazing regimes? How and why does vegetation structure change following changes in management?
Location: Semi‐natural calcareous dry grasslands in southwest Germany.
Methods: We analysed changes in floristic and functional composition induced by different management treatments (grazing, mowing, mulching, succession) in long‐term experimental sites. First, floristic and functional distances between the initial conditions and the following years were determined. Second, we used RLQ analyses to include data on abiotic conditions, vegetation composition and functional traits in one common analysis. Finally, we applied cluster analyses on RLQ species scores to deduce functional groups.
Results: In contrast to the historical management regime of grazing, all alternative management treatments led to changes in floristic and functional composition, depending on their intensity with respect to biomass removal. The distance analyses showed that mulching twice per year and mowing did not lead to strong changes in floristic or functional composition. However, RLQ analysis clearly provided evidence that only the grazed sites are in equilibrium, indicating that vegetation change still goes ahead.
Conclusions: The current study clearly shows that RLQ is a powerful tool to elucidate ongoing processes that may remain hidden when separately analysing floristic and functional data. Alternative management treatments are not appropriate to sustain the typical disturbance dynamics of species‐rich semi‐natural grasslands. The less frequent an alternative management treatment is with respect to biomass removal, the less the floristic and functional structure can be maintained.
Understanding patterns of vascular plant diversity in managed temperate grasslands and the processes that determine them requires analyses at multiple spatial scales. In this study, we applied additive partitioning to plant species richness data of two contrasting management regimes (meadow vs. pasture) collected from a nested sampling design that consisted of two hierarchical scales. At the local scale, we quantified additive diversity components in 180 vegetation plots, and at the regional scale in 60 grassland parcels. Total observed regional species richness (γr) was partitioned into its additive components within (αl) and among vegetation plots (βl) and among grassland parcels (βr). We used the same approach in a comparison of common and infrequent plant species. Partitioning analyses revealed that the relative contributions of diversity components to total observed regional species richness changed as a function of spatial scale. We found that species richness among grassland parcels (βr) of both meadows and pastures contributed most to total observed regional species richness (γr) of all and infrequent plant species (up to 81% and 96%, respectively), whereas for common species only up to 51% of γr were attributable to species richness among grassland parcels (βr). To gain insight into the processes that may affect local patterns of species richness in grasslands, we analysed the observed local species diversity components with respect to management regime, nitrogen fertilisation and abiotic environmental factors (slope angle and soil quality). Our results show that grazing at a low-to-moderate stocking density promotes the β-diversity of all plant species at the local scale due to increased within-habitat heterogeneity. Low application rates of nitrogen fertilisers and abiotic environmental conditions such as steep slopes and soils with a low nutrient status generally benefited local species diversity components. We conclude that the observed patterns of plant species diversity are shaped by processes at multiple spatial scales.ZusammenfassungUm die Muster pflanzlicher Artenvielfalt im Wirtschaftsgrünland gemäßigter Klimate und die ihnen zugrundeliegenden Zusammenhänge verstehen zu können, sind Analysen auf multiplen räumlichen Skalen erforderlich. Um die Artenanzahl in zwei gegensätzlichen Managementsystemen (Wiese vs. Weide) zu analysieren, wurde in dieser Untersuchung der Ansatz der additiven Partitionierung verwendet. Die Daten wurden mit Hilfe eines räumlich genesteten Versuchsdesigns gewonnen, das aus zwei hierarchischen Skalen bestand. Auf der lokalen Skala wurden die additiven Diversitätskomponenten auf 180 Vegetationsparzellen bestimmt, während die Bestimmung der Komponenten auf regionaler Skala auf 60 Grünlandschlägen erfolgte. Die gesamte regionale Artenanzahl (γr) wurde in ihre additiven Komponenten innerhalb (αl) und zwischen den Vegetationsparzellen (βl) sowie zwischen den Grünlandschlägen (βr) aufgeteilt. Zusätzlich wurde die beschriebene Vorgehensweise für den Vergleich von häufig und selten vorkommenden Arten verwendet. Die Partitionsanalysen ergaben, dass sich der relative Beitrag der Diversitätskomponeten zur Gesamtartenzahl auf regionaler Ebene abhängig von der räumlichen Skala unterschied. Es zeigte sich, dass die Artenanzahl zwischen den Grünlandschlägen (βr) von sowohl Wiesen als auch Weiden den größten Beitrag zur Gesamtartenzahl (γr) auf regionaler Skala bei allen sowie bei selten vorkommenden Pflanzenarten leistete (bis zu 81% bzw. 96%). Dagegen konnte bei den häufig auftretenden Arten nur bis zu 51% von γr der Artenanzahl zwischen den Grünlandschlägen (βr) zugeordnet werden. Um Einblicke in die Prozesse zu erlangen, die den Artenreichtum auf Grünlandflächen beeinflussen, wurden die beobachteten Muster der lokalen Diversitätskomponenten auf ihre Abhängigkeit von Managementsystem, Stickstoffdüngung und abiotischen Umweltfaktoren (Hangneigung und Bodenqualität) untersucht. Die Ergebnisse weisen darauf hin, dass eine niedrige bis mittlere Besatzdichte die β-Diversität aller Pflanzenarten auf lokaler Skala durch eine Heterogenitätszunahme innerhalb des Habitates erhöhen kann. Geringe Stickstoffdüngungen und abiotische Umweltbedingungen wie steile Hanglagen und nährstoffarme Böden begünstigen generell die lokalen Diversitätskomponenten. Aus der durchgeführten Untersuchung lässt sich ableiten, dass die beobachteten Muster pflanzlicher Artenvielfalt durch Prozesse auf multiplen räumlichen Skalen gestaltet wurden.
The conservation of biological diversity requires an integrated approach covering the ecological demands of a multitude of species. Integration may be achieved by focusing on a careful selection of target species, which is rare in practice. Calcareous grasslands offer a case in point. Although they harbour a high diversity of both plant and insect species, in management the emphasis is placed on the flora. This results in an underestimation of, notably, the importance of structural heterogeneity in the vegetation. As an apparent consequence, conservation management in the Netherlands has been much more successful for the flora than for butterflies. In contrast, Germany shows promising efforts to integrate both plant and animal species in conservation management and landscape planning. The main constraints for a successfully integrated conservation management presently consist of a limited availability and exchange of information, and an insufficient organisation of research and management at an international level.
Restoration projects in previously intensively used wet grassland areas in Europe showed that the re-establishment of target plant species can be strongly limited by propagule dispersal. In a large wet grassland area in Northwest Germany (Borgfelder Wümmewiesen, 677 ha) with relatively intact habitat conditions and extensive inundations it was tested whether the re-establishment of grassland species during restoration succession depends on population density in the established vegetation, the ability to survive in the soil seed bank, or on long-distance dispersal through inundations. For this purpose species recruitment was recorded in 58 permanent plots over a period of 6 years. In a multiple regression, species frequencies in the established vegetation (a measure for population density), frequencies in the drift line (dispersal capacity by winter inundation) and seed persistence in the soil were used as predictors for recruitment rates. Recruitment was mainly controlled by population density in the established vegetation. Long distance dispersal by means of winter floods and a long seed bank persistence contributed less (but still significantly) to the recruitment rates. Propagation by means of stolons and adaptations to hydrochory had a positive effect on recruitment rates and frequencies in the drift line. High recruitment rates of target species in the test area, compared with other grassland areas of a more intensive land use history, emphasize the importance of a big species pool and the spatial interconnection of species-rich (source-) and species-deficient (sink-) habitats. Many target species, however, exhibited low recruitment rates because their ability to disperse in time and space is low. Restoration management for wet grasslands should, therefore, focus on large areas with a short intensification history and remnants of target species populations, which are connected with sink habitats by inundations.
Five management treatments have been applied to a calcareous grassland since 1974 to study their efficiency in maintaining high diversity of grassland species. The treatments were: continuing sheep grazing, mowing, mulching, burning and leaving fallow (unmanaged). After 25 years of management, the treatments mowing and mulching resulted in a species composition similar to that from grazing by sheep. Thus, mowing and mulching can be useful management alternatives to grazing. In contrast, both burning and leaving fallow considerably changed the species composition. The changes were similar in both treatments and neither can be recommended for management purposes. We also evaluated eight traits with assumed sensitivity to the treatments (life form, life cycle, growth form, runners, lateral spread, fecundity, seed mass, germination season). In 1999, all traits except life cycle were found to respond to the different treatments. Trait response is discussed in detail.
Figure optionsView in workspace
Figure optionsView in workspace
Figure optionsView in workspace
SummaryIn climate chamber and outdoor experiments we analysed germination traits of 42 vascular plant species typical of flood-meadows of the alliance Cnidion. In Central Europe such flood-meadows and their highly endangered character species are confined to large lowland river corridors with a dry and warm climate. Due to the prevailing ecological conditions, particularly the extremely high variability in soil moisture potential, it was hypothesised that flood-meadow species exhibit specific strategies in terms of germination phenology, temperature requirements and primary dormancy to avoid constraints on seedling recruitment imposed by flooding, drought and competition from established vegetation. Furthermore, we expected that germination characteristics could be a key for the causal understanding of range size, confinement to large river corridors, recent rarification processes, seed bank persistence and establishment success in restoration projects.PCA ordination of germination traits reflected a continuous gradient of increasing primary dormancy levels ranging from species with a high capacity for fast and almost complete germination over a wide range of temperatures to those with high and narrow temperature requirements and/or a delayed and asynchronous emergence. Many of the studied species germinated only at relatively high temperature in the year of shedding, but the primary conditional dormancy disappeared in most cases after a period of cold wet stratification. Requirements for chilling and/or high germination temperature were revealed to be the most common strategies for avoidance of harmful autumn and winter germination. The majority of the studied species tends to exploit particularly favourable regeneration niches in early spring. Surprisingly, many species with large long-term persistent soil seed banks exhibited relatively low dormancy levels in light; this was correlated with small seed size and a consequent higher probability of burial. We found no relationship between germination characteristics and river corridor confinement or Central European range size. However, there was a significant trend in endangered species towards higher temperature requirements and delayed, asynchronous germination. This is presumably disadvantageous under the environmental conditions of subcontinental flood-meadows.
Comprehensive and standardized biodiversity monitoring schemes are needed to build scientifically sound decision-making tools for biodiversity conservation. Based on a thorough review of published literature, we propose a novel biodiversity monitoring framework to unify conservation theory and practice. The framework is built on the inter-connection among different types of indicators, and on the systematic articulation of their relationships into seven indicator approaches. Semi-natural grasslands and shrublands in Europe, which still lack a common biodiversity monitoring scheme, are used as a model for the framework. Different biotic indicators have been widely used to estimate the state of biodiversity, but we integrate these with biodiversity drivers, i.e. factors driving changes in biodiversity, to track biodiversity response to environmental changes. Precise information on biodiversity drivers (e.g. past and present management or disturbance regimes, environmental conditions, landscape patterns) has an effective indicator value, but this is often not taken into account in monitoring schemes. Our framework can be used to detect gaps in available data, translate indicator systems into practical conservation, identify combined sets of indicators to monitor biodiversity in target habitats, and recognize most suitable surrogates when information for some indicators is missing. We also take into account the effect of regional species pools in order to consider large-scale historical and biogeographical processes. We propose general guidelines to create validate and launch biodiversity monitoring frameworks for target habitats in the light of current examples of biodiversity conservation schemes (e.g. Natura 2000 in Europe).
NOTE: This is not a book, contrary to what ResearchGate claims. This is a software application and User's Guide. The current version is Version 9. The citations here are incomplete, since each version has its own citations. EstimateS currently has more than 4000 citations in the peer-reviewed literature. For the full list, go to GoogleScholar: http://bit.ly/11YdUlg .