No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Preferences for Infant Facial Features in Pet Dogs and Cats
Abstract
A set of infant features (large forehead, large and low-lying eyes, and bulging cheeks), were described in classical ethology as social releasers, simple stimuli that evoke a stereotyped response, in this case nurturing. We assessed the attractiveness of such features in the faces of dogs or cats (adults and young) or teddy bears or human infants, and also related these preferences to the degree of attachment to a pet. Overall, faces with the infant features were rated as more attractive than those without. Human infant faces were no more attractive than those of kittens or puppies. Pet faces were rated as more attractive by pet owners than non-pet owners, regardless of whether the faces had infant features. A preference was also found for infant features in teddy bear faces. Women showed higher ratings than men for pets with infant features, but not for human infants or pets without infant features. Parents found human infants’ faces more attractive than did non-parents, but there were no differences for other faces with infant features. Preferences were to some extent specific to the participant’s preferred pet species. Owners who were more strongly attached to their pets showed stronger preferences for photographs with infant features. The findings are discussed in terms of the concept of social releaser, and its part in the development of attachment to a pet species.
... Regarding animal characteristics, people generally do not see all animals as equal, as their physical and behavioral traits play a role in how they are perceived, considered and treated [12,17,51]. Humans tend to prefer animals that are phylogenetically close to them and perceived as physically, behaviorally or cognitively similar; these aspects trigger more positive affect and attachment and caregiving behaviors, as well as greater empathy and a higher concern in terms of welfare and conservation [52][53][54][55][56][57]. At the same time, in all human societies, animals are ranked on a "ladder of worth" as is almost everything else, including other humans [58,59]. ...
... Empathy towards animals could be a psychological "side effect" of adaptive empathy towards humans, triggered by animals' signals, behaviors and physical characteristics that resemble those promoting empathy and caring towards humans, particularly infants [154,155]. Empathy probably evolved in the context of parental care, and its affective component covaries with the cute response elicited by the "baby schema" [56,126,154,156]. Infant-like animals trigger empathic responses and various studies have linked cuteness to increased empathy and compassion [157][158][159][160] and caretaking [161,162]. ...
... Infant-like animals trigger empathic responses and various studies have linked cuteness to increased empathy and compassion [157][158][159][160] and caretaking [161,162]. There is evidence, for example, that humans find one-day-old chicks, kittens and puppies cute and value nonhuman faces with infant features, such as those of puppies and kittens, as attractive as baby faces [17,56,77,163,164]. The existence of a biological mechanism deeply rooted in parenting that could account for empathy towards animals is also suggested by the large diffusion of pet-keeping and interspecific nurturant behavior, which are general human traits [42,77,154]. ...
The human–animal relationship is ancient, complex and multifaceted. It may have either
positive effects on humans and animals or poor or even negative and detrimental effects on animals or both humans and animals. A large body of literature has investigated the beneficial effects of this relationship in which both human and animals appear to gain physical and psychological benefits from living together in a reciprocated interaction. However, analyzing the literature with a different perspective it clearly emerges that not rarely are human–animal relationships characterized by different forms and levels of discomfort and suffering for animals and, in some cases, also for people.
The negative physical and psychological consequences on animals’ well-being may be very nuanced and concealed, but there are situations in which the negative consequences are clear and striking, as in the case of animal violence, abuse or neglect. Empathy, attachment and anthropomorphism are human psychological mechanisms that are considered relevant for positive and healthy relationships with animals, but when dysfunctional or pathological determine physical or psychological suffering, or both, in animals as occurs in animal hoarding. The current work reviews some of the literature on the multifaceted nature of the human–animal relationship; describes the key role of empathy, attachment and anthropomorphism in human–animal relationships; seeks to depict how these
psychological processes are distorted and dysfunctional in animal hoarding, with highly detrimental effects on both animal and human well-being.
... Cuteness and what individuals find attractive are highly subjective. However, infant features have been linked to increases in perceived cuteness in humans, non-animate objects, and animals [17][18][19][20][21]. Objective measures of baby schema have been developed previously through facial parameter measurements and manipulations. ...
... However, infant features have been linked to increases in perceived cuteness in humans, non-animate objects, and animals [17][18][19][20][21]. Objective measures of baby schema have been developed previously through facial parameter measurements and manipulations. These objective measurements were found to be associated with subjective cuteness scores, which were established by participants rating the 'cuteness' of a set of infant-related images [16,18,22,23]. Glocker et al. [16] developed a protocol that captures baby schema with six facial parameters and then used these to manipulate images of human infants to express high and low levels of baby schema. ...
... The high baby schema images were rated as 'cuter' than the low baby schema images when assessed by a panel of participants. Archer and Monton [18] did a comparative study of images of adult and infant humans, as well as cats, dogs and teddy bears, which expressed high and low levels of baby schema. This study found that the images with a larger forehead to face length ratio were the ones that expressed high levels of baby schema and were found to be the most attractive. ...
Several factors may influence cats’ length of stay (LoS) within the shelter environment. The aim of this study was to investigate the potential influence that baby schema (characteristic facial features of infants, related to perceived ‘cuteness’) has on cats’ length of stay (LoS) in an animal shelter. Other factors such as paired-homing requirements, adoption profile (adverts to encourage the adoption of a specific animal) wording, coat colour, sex and age were also explored. Objective ‘cuteness’ scores were created by measuring specific facial features of 165 shelter cats. Several proportions of the cats’ faces were explored to identify the best objective measure of cuteness, including elements which have been found to associate with cuteness in cats and humans and new exploratory eye measurements. Subjective cuteness scores were developed by participants rating the ‘cuteness’ of the cat from ‘1-Not very cute’ to ‘5-Extremely cute’ through two online surveys; survey 1 investigated the cats’ social nature as well as cuteness while the second only looked at cuteness. The subjective cuteness scores were used to validate the objective cuteness scores. Th analysis found that subjective cuteness in survey 1 was the only variable of influence on LoS. A novel objective cuteness measurement was developed which reflects the eye shape associated with subjective cuteness scores. The current study found that cuteness may not be as influential on cats’ LoS in shelters as hypothesised. This research looks to understand factors which influence LoS to help identify potential methods to reduce time spent in shelters and improve the welfare of cats within these environments.
... The factors that influenced the success of brachycephalic breeds are well known by authors in UK, Denmark and the USA, where many studies have been conducted [37,38]. The lovers of the brachycephalic breeds were less influenced by health and longevity in terms of breed selection compared with non-brachycephalic dogs' owners [39,40]. ...
... A variety of different drivers have been identified to explain the popularity of English Bulldogs and French Bulldogs, including factors that influenced owners' decisions to buy brachycephalic dogs [39][40][41]. The breeds' appearances (large forehead, big eyes, round face, and bulging cheeks), good behavior, deeply affectionate temperament and good relationships with children have been described as the most important determinants driving people's desire for these breeds [17,[37][38][39]. ...
... However, the paradox that people buy breeds of dog that are predisposed to congenital heart diseases was also evidenced in our study, and, as reported elsewhere, fashions and trends influence many individual choices [18,19,36,37]. The owners are not often fully aware of the potential problems their dog may face prior to acquisition of a dog [38,45]. It is also possible that owners do not perceive the clinical signs of some inherited cardiac disorders as problems, but rather as normal, breed-specific characteristics (e.g., murmur in CKCS). ...
The epidemiology of Congenital Heart Diseases (CHDs) has changed over the past twenty years. This study aimed to evaluate the prevalence of CHDs in the population of dogs recruited in a single referral center (RC); compare the epidemiological features of CHDs in screened breeds (Boxers) versus non-screened (French and English Bulldogs, German Shepherds); investigate the association of breeds with the prevalence of CHDs; determine the popularity and volatility of breeds over a 20-year period; analysed the trends of the most popular breeds in the overall population of new-born dogs registered in the Italian Kennel Club (IKC) from 1st January 1997 to 31st December 2017. The RC’s cardiological database was analysed, and 1,779 clinical records were included in a retrospective observation study. Descriptive statistics and frequencies regarding the most representative breeds and CHDs were generated. A logistic regression model was used to analyse the trends of the most common CHDs found in single and in cluster of breeds. The relationship between breed popularity and presence of CHDs was studied. The most common CHDs were Pulmonic Stenosis, Patent Ductus Arteriosus, Subaortic Stenosis, Ventricular Septal Defect, Aortic Stenosis, Tricuspid Dysplasia, Atrial Septal Defect, Double Chamber Right Ventricle, Mitral Dysplasia, and others less frequent. The most represented pure breeds were Boxer, German Shepherd, French Bulldog, English Bulldog, Maltese, Newfoundland, Rottweiler, Golden Retriever, Chihuahua, and others in lower percentage. Chihuahuas, American Staffordshire Terriers, Border Collies, French Bulldogs, and Cavalier King Charles Spaniel were the most appreciated all of which showed a high value of volatility. This study found evidence for the value of the screening program implemented in Boxers; fashions and trends influence dog owners’ choices more than the worries of health problems in a breed. Effective breeding programs are needed in order to control the diffusion of CHDs without impoverishing the genetic pool.
... Research into the cute effect using animal images as stimuli has produced broadly similar results. People often show preferences for mammalian young, such as puppies and kittens, rather than older animals (Archer & Monton, 2011;Lehmann et al., 2013), and for animal images modified to have infant-like facial features (e.g., Little, 2012). Archer and Monton (2011) found that dog, cat, and teddy bear faces classified as being higher in kindchenschema facial features were rated more positively by observers. ...
... People often show preferences for mammalian young, such as puppies and kittens, rather than older animals (Archer & Monton, 2011;Lehmann et al., 2013), and for animal images modified to have infant-like facial features (e.g., Little, 2012). Archer and Monton (2011) found that dog, cat, and teddy bear faces classified as being higher in kindchenschema facial features were rated more positively by observers. Hecht and Horowitz (2015) demonstrated that modifying facial images of dogs and cats to look more infantile, in particular by increasing relative eye size (and eye separation), significantly influenced people's preferences. ...
Brachycephalic dog breeds have become increasingly popular in recent years, despite showing a high incidence of conformation-related disorders and early mortality. It has been suggested that this popularity might be explained by public perceptions of these short-muzzled dogs as looking particularly infant-like or “cute.” Here, the hypothesis that short-muzzled breeds are especially likely to be described as cute was investigated by analyzing the word contents of advertisements for dogs and puppies being sold online. The ages and breeds of dogs being advertised were considered, in addition to whether the text of each advertisement included the word “cute” or two associated words: “adorable” and “sweet.” Analyses of the entire sample of advertisements (n = 43,312) indicated that younger dogs were more likely to be advertised as “cute” and “adorable,” while older ones were more likely to be advertised as “sweet.” Short-muzzled, brachycephalic breeds (cranio-facial ratio < 0.5) were more likely to be advertised as “cute,” with brachycephalic puppies under 6 months of age being particularly likely to be called “cute” and also “adorable.” However, breed size had a larger and wider effect on word use in advertisements, with smaller dogs being advertised more frequently using all three words: “cute,” “adorable,” and “sweet.” When data for adult dogs only were considered (n = 11,400), and continuous muzzle shortening and age data were used, a somewhat different and more complex pattern of results were found. Use of the words “cute” and “adorable” were not associated with degree of muzzle shortening among these adult dogs, but “sweet” was used more often in advertisements for longer-muzzled breeds. We conclude that the present dataset provides partial support for the assertion that short-muzzled dogs are described as more “cute” than longer-muzzled ones, but that small size is a better predictor of the use of “cute” and its synonyms.
... Hyper-attachment to the owner was significantly associated with separation anxiety in the dog, but it has not been proven in the cat [73]. Brachycephalic breeds have been selected for a neotenous appearance, favouring consequently neotenous behaviours, such as attachment and behavioural dependency, to satisfy specific human needs [52,74]. The correlation between the high score of separation-related problems and the presence of respiratory difficulties during/after feeding can underline that the onset of disease or clinical symptoms may contribute to the attachment process by acting as releasers of parental nurturing and caregiving behaviour [25,75]. ...
... The attraction of infant characteristics in companion animals can potentially influence the human-animal bond, and there is evidence that the degree of attachment reported by the owners is associated with their rating of the overall attractiveness of dogs and cats showing infant features. [31,74]. Moreover, dogs perceived as cute by owners were perceived to also be friendly, safe, and affectionate [84]. ...
Persian and exotic shorthair cats are the most-popular brachycephalic breeds worldwide. This study aimed to explore differences in human-cat bonding, behavioural traits, perception of clinical breed-related problems, and the motivation for purchasing between brachycephalic cat owners (BCOs) and non-brachycephalic cat owners (NBCOs). Using an online questionnaire, human-cat bonding and cats’ behavioural traits were explored using the CORS and Fe-BARQ scales, respectively. Breed-related problems and motivations for purchasing were explored only in BCOs. There were 278 BCOs and 250 NBCOs who completed the survey. Respiratory diseases resulted in being the main health problem of these breeds. Most BCOs were not aware of the incidence of these disorders in brachycephalic cats. Character and appearance were the main motivations for purchasing these breeds. Perceived emotional closeness (EC), cat-owner interaction (COI), and perceived cost (PC) mean scores were significantly higher in BCOs. Playfulness and affection-/attention-seeking scores were significantly higher in NBCOs. BCOs reported a significantly higher score for separation-related behaviours. The higher scores in separation-anxiety-related behaviours and in the EC and COI scales could be related mainly to the high level of care these breeds require. The motivation for acquiring brachycephalic breeds for good companionship seems in contrast with the lower scores obtained from BCOs for playfulness and affection-/attention-seeking.
... In the wolf, in contrast, the LAOM is small and surrounded by connective tissue, so the difference in movement in the AU101 region is greater in dogs [63]. This specific feature of the eyebrows in dogs is associated with dog-human interactions, which leads the latter to prefer certain breeds [65] (Figure 3). In comparison, observations of Siberian dogs, close relatives of the wolf, show little expressiveness in the eyes, because their muscular fibers are scarce and surrounded by large amounts of connective tissue, which impedes eyebrow movement. ...
... An example of this is the elevator of the eyebrow, which enlarges the eyes. Humans tend to associate this appearance with tenderness and care-motivation [65,66]. Although it has not been possible to demonstrate whether this characteristic represents a selection or preference advantage in humans [56], it is suggested that it may influence the interpretation of the mental state (a sensory state triggered by the perception of a specific stimulus). ...
Animals’ facial expressions are involuntary responses that serve to communicate the emotions that individuals feel. Due to their close co-existence with humans, broad attention has been given to identifying these expressions in certain species, especially dogs. This review aims to analyze and discuss the advances in identifying the facial expressions of domestic dogs and their clinical utility in recognizing pain as a method to improve daily practice and, in an accessible and effective way, assess the health outcome of dogs. This study focuses on aspects related to the anatomy and physiology of facial expressions in dogs, their emotions, and evaluations of their eyebrows, eyes, lips, and ear positions as changes that reflect pain or nociception. In this regard, research has found that dogs have anatomical configurations that allow them to generate changes in their expressions that similar canids—wolves, for example—cannot produce. Additionally, dogs can perceive emotions similar to those of their human tutors due to close human-animal interaction. This phenomenon—called “emotional contagion”—is triggered precisely by the dog’s capacity to identify their owners’ gestures and then react by emitting responses with either similar or opposed expressions that correspond to positive or negative stimuli, respectively. In conclusion, facial expressions are essential to maintaining social interaction between dogs and other species, as in their bond with humans. Moreover, this provides valuable information on emotions and the perception of pain, so in dogs, they can serve as valuable elements for recognizing and evaluating pain in clinical settings.
... En cuanto a la empatía hacia los animales, algunos investigadores han sugerido que se desarrolla de manera similar que hacia los humanos (Ascione, 1992;Borgi & Cirulli, 2016;Ruckert, 2016). Diversos estudios han mostrado que los bebés manifiestan interés y motivación hacia los animales (Archer & Monton, 2011;DeLoache, Pickard, & LoBue, 2011;Little, 2012;LoBue, Bloom Pickard, Sherman, Axford, & DeLoache, 2012;Sanefuji, Ohgami, & Hashiya, 2007). Estas motivaciones se acompañan frecuentemente de respuestas emocionales positivas. ...
... Los resultados encontrados muestran que cuando observaron a un animal ante un problema, tanto los niños como las niñas actuaron empáticamente hacia el animal, ayudándolo a recuperar la cuchara con alimento. En relación con estos resultados, investigaciones previas han observado que desde muy pequeños los niños tienen preferencia y motivación afectiva hacia algunos animales (Archer & Monton, 2011;DeLoache et al., 2011;Little, 2012;Maestripieri & Pelka, 2002;Sanefuji et al., 2007). De igual modo, el presente estudio presenta evidencia empírica acerca de la empatía que muestran los niños con un animal cuando lo observan ante una dificultad o problema. ...
El estudio de las conductas empáticas de los niños hacia los animales resulta de suma importancia, ya que podría contribuir al diseño de estrategias de intervención contra la violencia hacia los animales y, por extensión, hacia las personas. Sin embargo, esta temática ha sido poco estudiada. La presente investigación tuvo por objetivo explorar si los niños pequeños muestran conductas empáticas (conductas de ayuda) hacia los animales, específicamente hacia los perros domésticos. Para tal fin, se presentó a un grupo de niños de entre 18 a 38 meses de edad una situación en la que observaba a un perro que no podía acceder al alimento que se encontraba dentro de una caja. Se registraba el comportamiento del niño ante tal situación. Los resultados muestran que cuando observaron al animal ante un problema, los niños se comportaron de manera empática ayudándolo a lograr sus objetivos. Do children empathize with a dog? An empirical study of helping behaviors in young children. The study of the empathic behaviors of children towards animals is of utmost importance since it could contribute to the design of intervention strategies against violence towards animals and, by extension, towards people. However, this topic has been little studied. The objective of this study was to explore whether young children show empathetic behaviors (helping behaviors) towards animals, specifically towards domestic dogs. To this end, children were presented with a task in which they observed a dog facing a problem; the dog could not access the food that was inside a box. The behavior of the child in such situation was recorded. Twenty children between 18 and 38-months-of-age participated. The results showed that when children observed the animal facing a problem, they helped the animal to achieve its objectives, that is, children acted empathetically.
... Physical characteristics of dogs influence the human-dog interaction. Compared to adult dogs, puppies are more likely to evoke our nurturing instinct and more quickly and easily form a stronger attachment with humans [7,8]. Smaller dogs are generally perceived as less obedient, more anxious, fearful, excitable and aggressive [9], while larger dogs are thought to be more cooperative and playful [10]. ...
... A higher score of factor H represented a higher satisfaction of the walk. Walker's perception of dog factor (Factor D) utilised responses to questions 1,7,8,9,12,13. A higher score of factor D indicated that the dog was considered more supportive and better behaved. ...
Inappropriate leash reactivity is one of the most common problems in shelter dogs, which negatively affects the health of dogs and reduces their adoptability. We explored 370 human-dog interactions, involving 74 volunteers and 111 dogs, in an animal shelter when volunteers walked shelter dogs on a leash, considering the effects of canine demographics and the results of the shelter’s canine behavioural assessments. The interaction was video recorded and coded using ethograms, and a leash tension meter was used to measure the pull strength of dogs and handlers. Results showed that dogs that were more relaxed during the shelter assessment (i.e., when socialising with humans or being left alone in a new environment) were less reactive on the leash, with lower tension and pulling frequency. Moreover, socialised and relaxed dogs displayed more positive body language, such as tail in a high position, gazing at the handler, and exploring the environment. When walking with these dogs, volunteers utilised fewer verbal cues and body language during the walk. In addition to the canine behaviour assessment, there were correlations between canine demographics and the behavioural interaction and humans’ perception. Finally, volunteers perceived the walk as less satisfactory when they needed to pull the leash harder during the walk. This research suggests that the RSPCA behavioural assessment may be useful in predicting the behaviour of shelter dogs when walked by volunteers.
... This is adaptive as it increases the chances of offspring survival. However, the same set of social releasers may exist in the young of other species and possession of these traits in animals can result in the animal receiving care-giving behaviour from humans [3,5]. In humans, 'cute' infants receive higher quality maternal care, stimulate greater feelings of sympathy and are perceived as having a more positive temperament than less visually appealing infants [6,7]. ...
... Caregiving towards animals could then have arisen when the cost of failing to care for related young outweighed the costs of offering care to non-relatives [71]. This is evidenced in our nurturant behavioural responses to a key set of infant features that are characteristic not only of human infants, but of several species of animals [5,72]. The difference between non-psychopaths and those with psychopathic traits may therefore lie in the attention given to infant features; in the free viewing task, HP-LAA participants paid less attention to Cute stimuli in terms of dwell time, mean fixation duration and fixation count compared to LP-HAA participants. ...
Infant features are physical traits that are characteristic of human infants and include facial features such as large and low-lying eyes, and a small nose and mouth. Animals possessing high levels of infant features elicit care-giving responses in humans. Despite this, animal cruelty is a common occurrence. The aim of this research was to determine whether the ability to recognise and/or attend to infant features is linked to subclinical psychopathic traits and attitudes towards animals. Using a community sample, participants (n = 387) completed a cuteness forced-choice task. Self-reported psychopathy and attitude towards animals were not related to the participants' ability to detect cues of cuteness in human infants and animals. In a second study, participants (n = 142) were screened for low versus high primary psychopathy and low versus high animal attitude scores. A Psychopathy-Attitude Composite score was created and a subset of participants (n = 50) from the upper and lower quartiles completed a free-viewing eye-tracking task where 'Cute', 'Neutral, 'Monetary' and 'Control' images were presented in pairs. Higher levels of psychopathic traits and an anti-animal welfare attitude were associated with decreased attention to 'Cute' images in terms of decreased dwell time, mean fixation duration and mean fixation count, measures of voluntary attention. There were a number of interactions between Psychopathy-Attitude Composite classification and attention to each image category in terms of dwell time, first fixation duration, mean fixation duration and fixation count. These findings support the theory that individuals with psychopathic traits recognise facial cues of vulnerability but choose to give them reduced attentional priority. This may have implications for animal welfare.
... This suggests knowledge about breeding-related welfare problems does not necessarily detract people from owning a breed with extreme conformations. The motivation of people to acquire a dog can differ among desire for status, following fashion, giving care, loving its cuteness, having a friend, and being proud of its individuality (Amiot and Bastian, 2015;Archer and Monton, 2011;Beverland et al., 2008;Herzog, 2006;Sandøe et al., 2017). Attachment describes the reciprocal ability of minimum two individuals to give a secure basis (McNicholas et al., 2005). ...
... Previous Pavlovian conditioning can be a powerful effect on human decision-making (Seymour and Dolan, 2008). Conditioned stimuli that evoke a stereotyped response of humans are infant features (baby schema effect) such as a large forehead, large low-lying eyes, and bulging cheeks, also described as social releasers (Archer and Monton, 2011). The facilitation of the optimal behavior and status are important reinforcers for humans in a social decision-making context (Ho et al., 2012;Mitchell, 2011). ...
Understanding people's perception and attitude toward brachycephalic breeds is crucial for implementation of strategies to improve breed-related welfare problems. A survey was used to gather information of people with and without dog ownership experiences on their awareness of brachycephalic breeds and breed-related animal welfare problems. The survey was posted on different social media and collected data from 662 respondents, of which 538 questionnaires could be analyzed. Dog ownership, participants' age, and their gender best predicted the knowledge on breed-related welfare problems. A total of 15.43% of the participants currently own or previously owned a dog of a brachycephalic breed (e.g., pug, boxer, French, and English bulldog). Females and elderly people were the primary current owners of a brachycephalic dog. Many participants believed that the current breeding standards do not promote dogs' vitality or reduce overextreme conformations. Dog owners indicated brachycephaly and dwarfism (e.g., Chihuahua, dachshund) as an overextreme conformation. Despite peoples' knowledge on breed-related animal welfare problems of brachycephalic breeds or dwarfism in breeds, they acquire a dog of such a breed. To improve animal welfare in dog breeding, it is useful to consider pet owners reasons for acquiring a dog and factors affecting peoples' perception of dog breeds.
... There is some evidence that an infantile appearance in non-human animals may be similarly related to caretaking behaviour 9,[15][16][17][18] , but this has been tested exclusively in human perceivers. There are also some studies manipulating the extent of babyness in animal faces and testing the effect of the manipulation on cuteness evaluation by humans 16,19 , but the manipulations were based on developmental changes in human faces and were not www.nature.com/scientificreports/ ...
Infants across species are thought to exhibit specific facial features (termed the “baby schema”, such as a relatively bigger forehead and eyes, and protruding cheeks), with an adaptive function to induce caretaking behaviour from adults. There is abundant empirical evidence for this in humans, but, surprisingly, the existence of a baby schema in non-human animals has not been scientifically demonstrated. We investigated which facial characteristics are shared across infants in five species of great apes: humans, chimpanzees, bonobos, mountain gorillas, and Bornean orangutans. We analysed eight adult and infant faces for each species (80 images in total) using geometric morphometric analysis and machine learning. We found two principal components characterizing infant faces consistently observed across species. These included (1) relatively bigger eyes located lower in the face, (2) a rounder and vertically shorter face shape, and (3) an inverted triangular face shape. While these features are shared, human infant faces are unique in that the second characteristic (round face shape) is more pronounced, whereas the third (inverted triangular face shape) is less pronounced than other species. We also found some infantile features only found in some species. We discuss future directions to investigate the baby schema using an evolutionary approach.
... Interestingly, as noted, domestication results in neotenic, childish features, which are expected to increase our affiliative and empathic responses, and ultimately, to promote our prosociality. For instance, research conducted by Archer and Monton (2010) showed that infant features in the faces of dogs (young or adult) function as social releasers and evoke an affiliative response in humans, with pet owners who are more strongly attached to their pets showing stronger preferences for images of animals with infant features. According to our view, the ultimate triggering factor of the hypothesized feedback loop would have been the integration of the wolf into the human social structure, which was previously characterized by family-based groups with only little permeability, with the only exception of the assimilation of mating partners to avoid inbreeding (Sikora et al., 2017). ...
Different factors seemingly account for the emergence of present-day languages in our species. Human self-domestication has been recently invoked as one important force favouring language complexity mostly via a cultural mechanism. As a consequence, evolutionary changes impacting on aggression levels are expected to have fostered this process. Here we hypothesise about a positive effect of dog-human interactions on aggression management and more generally, on our self-domestication, ultimately, contributing to aspects of language evolution. We review evidence of diverse sort (ethological mostly, but also archaeological, genetic, and physiological) supporting a positive feedback loop between dog domestication and human-self domestication that might have favoured the mechanisms promoting structural complexity in human languages.
... Dans le cadre de la relation humain -chien, il a été rapporté que des interactions calmes et positives induisent une augmentation de la concentration d'ocytocine chez les deux protagonistes de la relation (Handlin et al. 2011, Miller et al. 2009, Nagasawa et al. 2009, Odendaal & Meintjes 2003. Nagasawa et ses collaborateurs ( (Archer & Monton 2011, Serpell 2004). Figure 11. ...
Dans une société où les animaux compagnons sont intégrés au cercle familial, beaucoup d’humains les considèrent comme des membres de la famille à part entière. La recherche doit suivre cette tendance et s’attacher à appréhender les mécanismes de relations qui se construisent entre différentes espèces amenées à cohabiter. L’objectif de cette thèse est d’enrichir et d’approfondir les connaissances scientifiques sur l’éthologie du chat compagnon (Felis catus), afin de mieux appréhender ses besoins et réponses comportementales, au sein d’un environnement souvent imposé par l’humain. Les travaux restitués sont principalement centrés sur la communication interspécifique entre l’humain et le chat. Soucieux d’explorer aussi bien la perspective de l’humain que celle du chat, nous avons étudié la façon dont chacun s’exprime et décode les messages de l’autre. Ainsi, nous nous sommes intéressés à la communication vocale et visuelle entre ces deux espèces différentes qui partagent un même milieu - et doivent apprendre à communiquer efficacement pour cohabiter sereinement. Nos études ont mis en évidence que les humains utilisaient un discours spécifique pour s’adresser à leur compagnons félins, caractérisé par l’utilisation d’une voix plus aiguë. Nous avons également rapporté que les chats étaient plus attentifs à ce type de discours, mais seulement lorsqu’il était prononcé par leur compagnon humain et non par un étranger. Dans une troisième étude, nous avons observé que les chats venaient plus volontiers au contact d’un humain peu familier si celui-ci proposait un contact bimodal ou visuel, plutôt que vocal. Enfin, nous avons vu que les humains comprenaient mieux les chats dans leurs expressions bimodales et visuelles que vocales. Ainsi, bien que communément utilisée par chaque émetteur de cette communication interspécifique, la modalité vocale ne semble pas être suffisante pour la transmission et la réception d’un signal clair. Ces résultats sont discutés à la lumière des notions d’attachement, d’anthropomorphisme et de bien-être animal.
... The Pug's small bodysize, combined with a flat face, large head, bulging eyes and wrinkled forehead, may arouse positive emotions by conforming to the 'baby schema' facial configuration which triggers innate nurturing responses in humans [16]. Lorenz noted that breeds of dog, such as the Pug, have retained infant-like features into adulthood [16], and empirical studies have since demonstrated that these features increase attractiveness, particularly for women [17]. Recent research found that owners of Pugs exhibited stronger higher emotional closeness with their dog than owners of other brachycephalic breeds, with these emotional bonds particularly high in female owners [18]. ...
... Moreover, a change in arousal level or emotional valence in response to children's voices may be explained by an attraction to juvenile traits. Attraction to juvenile traits is well known in humans toward both conspecifics and pets (Archer and Monton 2011;Little 2012). It is thought to be related to parental care (Archer 1997) and could be shared by other mammal species, such as horses. ...
Recently, research on domestic mammals’ sociocognitive skills toward humans has been prolific, allowing us to better understand the human–animal relationship. For example, horses have been shown to distinguish human beings on the basis of photographs and voices and to have cross-modal mental representations of individual humans and human emotions. This leads to questions such as the extent to which horses can differentiate human attributes such as age. Here, we tested whether horses discriminate human adults from children. In a cross-modal paradigm, we presented 31 female horses with two simultaneous muted videos of a child and an adult saying the same neutral sentence, accompanied by the sound of an adult’s or child’s voice speaking the sentence. The horses looked significantly longer at the videos that were incongruent with the heard voice than at the congruent videos. We conclude that horses can match adults’ and children’s faces and voices cross-modally. Moreover, their heart rates increased during children’s vocalizations but not during adults’. This suggests that in addition to having mental representations of adults and children, horses have a stronger emotional response to children’s voices than adults’ voices.
... Dogs' abilities to 'make' their owners feel guilty is a prevalent theme in dog owner conversations and social media postings. It is possible that the combination of owners' tendency to anthropomorphize and the paedomorphic (childlike) facial characteristics [118] in many breeds trigger owners' feelings of guilt. Paedomorphic facial features, especially those in which the upper facial muscle contractions lift the brow to increase the perceived height and size of the orbital cavity (i.e., puppy eyes), may exacerbate this effect. ...
Guilt refers to an unpleasant emotional state associated with one’s behaviors, thoughts, or intentions, and it is based on the possibility that one may be in the wrong or that others may have this perception. Parental guilt is one common subtype and is often associated with work–family conflict (WFC). WFC and related guilt have been found to be associated with depression and anxiety. Through an online anonymous survey, the current study was designed to explore dog owners’ guilt surrounding their dogs. Results suggest that dog owners’ guilt and WFC associated with their dog are at levels similar to those reported in human family studies. Additionally, the relationship between dog owners’ guilt and discrepancy between participants’ actual and ideal self, in regard to the role of a dog owner, also mirrored human-only family research. Because pet-related guilt is unrecognized, acknowledged, or supported, we suggest it is disenfranchised. As people return to work, in this period of post-COVID-19 pandemic time, it is paramount that companies and communities acknowledge pet owner guilt and WFC and help owners find practical, effective solutions.
... The Pug's small bodysize, combined with a flat face, large head, bulging eyes and wrinkled forehead, may arouse positive emotions by conforming to the 'baby schema' facial configuration which triggers innate nurturing responses in humans [16]. Lorenz noted that breeds of dog, such as the Pug, have retained infant-like features into adulthood [16], and empirical studies have since demonstrated that these features increase attractiveness, particularly for women [17]. Recent research found that owners of Pugs exhibited stronger higher emotional closeness with their dog than owners of other brachycephalic breeds, with these emotional bonds particularly high in female owners [18]. ...
Plain English summary
Pugs have become phenomenally popular in the UK over recent decades. The breed has a flat-faced look (brachycephalic) that many humans find highly attractive and ‘cute’ but this flat face is also linked to several serious health problems. Consequently, there is growing concern about the welfare issues associated with the popularity and health issues of Pugs. To get a better overall perspective on the health of Pugs, this study aimed to compare the risks of common disorders between Pugs and all remaining dogs.
The study collected clinical information from first opinion veterinary practices in the UK that were participating in VetCompass. Dogs were grouped as either Pugs or non-Pugs. Information was gathered from the clinical records on all disorders diagnosed in each group during 2016 and a list of the most common disorders in each group was generated.
From 905,544 dogs in the overall study, there were 16,218 (1.79%) Pugs and 889,326 (98.21%) non-Pugs. Pugs (2.36 years, interquartile range [IQR] 1.16–4.53) were generally younger than non-Pugs (4.44 years, IQR 1.90–8.12). Pugs (8.95 kg, IQR 7.80–10.17) were also generally lower in bodyweight than non-Pugs (14.07 kg, IQR 8.15–25.20). From a combined list of 40 common disorders among both groups of dogs, Pugs had increased risk for 23 (57.5%) but had reduced risk for 7 (17.5%) disorders compared to non-Pugs. The disorders with the highest relative risk in Pugs included brachycephalic obstructive airway syndrome (BOAS) (× 53.92 risk), narrowed nostrils (× 51.25), eye ulceration (× 13.01), and skin fold infection (× 10.98). Disorders with the lowest relative risk in Pugs included heart murmur (× 0.23), fatty lump (× 0.24), aggression (× 0.31), and wounds (× 0.53).
The study provides a broad evidence base on the positive and negative aspects of the health of Pugs. Disease predispositions were more common than disease protections, confirming the hypothesis that there are many critical health-related welfare challenges to overcome for Pugs. The widely differing health profiles between Pugs and other dogs in the UK suggest that the Pug has now diverged to such an extent from mainstream dog breeds that it can no longer be considered as a typical dog from a health perspective.
... Previous research suggests that people have an innate instinct to care for dogs (57,58). This may be a mechanism that helps to explain why many owners in the current study reported that their decision or intention to acquire a dog was motivated by a desire to help a dog in need. ...
With an estimated 12. 5 million dogs in the UK alone, many people acquire a dog at some point during their lives. However, there are gaps in understanding about why UK owners decide to get dogs. Using a mixed-methods convergent design, this study identified the reasoning behind dog acquisition in a sample of UK current and prospective owners. An online survey of current ( n = 8,050) and potential ( n = 2,884) dog owners collected quantitative and qualitative data. Current owners were asked about the acquisition of their most recently acquired dog, whilst potential owners were asked about their dog ownership aspirations. Additional qualitative data were collected through semi-structured interviews with current ( n = 166) and potential ( n = 10) dog owners. Interviews focused on the factors that affected why and how people acquire dogs. Of survey responses, companionship for the respondent was the most common reason for wanting to get a dog, reported by 79.4 and 87.8% of current and potential owners, respectively. Facilitating exercise was reported as a reason for wanting to get a dog by 48.2 and 69.7% of current and potential owners, respectively. There were significant differences between current and potential owners in their likelihood of reporting pre-defined reasons, factors and influences involved in their decision to get a dog. Compared to current owners, potential owners were significantly more likely to report being motivated by most of the survey response options offered (including companionship for themselves or other adults in the household, helping a dog in need, lifestyle changes and previous experiences of meeting dogs), suggesting that current ownership status may affect experience and/or reporting expectations around dog ownership. Reflexive thematic analysis of qualitative data confirmed the importance of these motivations and identified additional reasons and factors that drive dog acquisition. These were organized into three overarching themes: Self-Related Motivation, Social-Based Motivation , and Dog-Related Positive Affect-Based Motivation . These findings provide insights into owners' expectations of ownership which may inform the development of interventions to support potential owners' decision-making around acquisition to maximize both dog and human welfare.
... 6 The infantile, anthropomorphic BC conformation has been shown to be appealing and likely drives some degree of popularity with these breeds. 7,8 Increasing demand for breeds with this extreme appearance may result in greater levels of conformational disease, and these dogs may be at increased risk of suffering. 9 BC breeds have been linked to many inherited disorders which can affect quality of life and longevity, including BC obstructive airway syndrome (BOAS), dystocia, ophthalmic diseases, neurological diseases and dermatological conditions. ...
Background:
The popularity of brachycephalic dogs continues to increase despite inherent breed health problems. Increased education of current and potential brachycephalic dog owners could reduce the desirability of severely affected dogs.
Methods:
Members of the general public were prospectively recruited to assess their understanding and opinions of brachycephalic breed-related health problems, before and after an educational intervention on brachycephalic obstructive airway syndrome (BOAS).
Results:
A total of 587 people participated. Before the intervention most participants considered characteristics of BOAS to be normal for brachycephalic dogs. Following the intervention this was moderately reduced. Responses highlighted that defining 'normal' for a breed is difficult. Referring to a trait as 'normal', even in a negative context results in normalisation. 99.7% of participants had an improved understanding of BOAS following the intervention. However, only 53.0% of the total participants and 29.3% of brachycephalic dog owning participants had their opinion of brachycephalic dogs changed. 99.5% of participants believed that potential owners should be more aware of BOAS and 57.3% of brachycephalic dog owners would have liked further information about breed health problems before purchasing their dog.
Conclusion:
Educational interventions may be beneficial in improving understanding and awareness of BOAS however, normalisation of clinical signs of BOAS remains prevalent.
... Interestingly, as noted, domestication results in neotenic, childish features, which are expected to increase our affiliative and empathic responses, and ultimately, to promote our prosociality. For instance, research conducted by Archer and Monton (2010) showed that infant features in the faces of dogs (young or adult) function as social releasers and evoke an affiliative response in humans, with pet owners who are more strongly attached to their pets showing stronger preferences for images of animals with infant features. According to our view, the ultimate triggering factor of the hypothesized feedback loop would have been the integration of the wolf into the human social structure, which was previously characterized by family-based groups with only little permeability, with the only exception of the assimilation of mating partners to avoid inbreeding (Sikora et al., 2017). ...
Different factors seemingly account for the emergence of present-day languages in our species. Human self-domestication has been recently invoked as one important force favoring language complexity mostly via a cultural mechanism. Because our self-domestication ultimately resulted from selection for less aggressive behavior and increased prosocial behavior, any evolutionary or cultural change impacting on aggression levels is expected to have fostered this process. Here, we hypothesize about a parallel domestication of humans and dogs, and more specifically, about a positive effect of our interaction with dogs on human self-domestication, and ultimately, on aspects of language evolution, through the mechanisms involved in the control of aggression. We review evidence of diverse sort (ethological mostly, but also archeological, genetic, and physiological) supporting such an effect and propose some ways of testing our hypothesis.
... Although the reason for intake was not reported, the prevalence of young birds of altricial species indicates that people likely perceive birds at younger life stages as needing to be rescued. This explanation is supported by other work showing people often feel a connection toward infant animals and perceive them to be in danger (Archer and Monton 2011;Levin et al. 2017). ...
Animals from urban areas are regularly brought into wildlife rehabilitation centers, providing untapped potential data records to inform management of wildlife species. Although rescues may be considered a wildlife stewardship behavior, not all ‘rescues’ may be warranted. Some animals are more likely to be brought into a rescue center than others, suggesting that human drivers underlying wildlife rehabilitation efforts are important to understand for urban conservation efforts. Literature has primarily focused on understanding the ecological drivers and implications of wildlife rescues. Our study is the first to investigate both the social and ecological drivers of bird rescues using census, household survey, and intake data. In Phoenix metropolitan area, Arizona, USA in 2017–2018, we found doves and common species were sent to the center most often. Altricial species (helpless at hatching) and young birds were more likely to be brought to the center, perhaps due to perceptions of young animals as vulnerable. We found rescues came from neighborhoods with higher incomes and residents with pro-ecological worldviews, perhaps reflecting a perceived responsibility for wildlife. Conversely, few rescues came from neighborhoods with a high percentage of Hispanic/Latinx residents, who often feel more interdependent with nature. Neighborhoods with greater numbers of rescues were more likely to have residents participating in yard stewardship activities as compared to neighborhoods with fewer rescues. Our findings are relevant to understanding drivers of wildlife stewardship actions and for intake centers who wish to reduce the occurrence of people bringing in wildlife that do not need to be rescued.
... The first to investigate this phenomenonthe influential ethologist Konrad Lorenzcoined the term "baby schema," i.e. specific stimulus attributes that trigger a caretaking response and the corresponding "complete affective attitude" ("Affektive Gesamteinstellung"; Lorenz, 1935). Indeed, the responses to the baby schema seem to be so deeply ingrained in human perceptual patterns that they even generalize to adults with babyish facial features (Deag & Crook, 1971;Zebrowitz & Montepare, 1992;Zebrowitz, 2003), animals (Archer & Monton, 2011;Fridlund & MacDonald, 1998;Golle, Lisibach, Mast, & Lobmaier, 2013;Lehmann, Huis in't Veld, & Vingerhoets, 2013;Sanefuji, Ohgami, & Hashiya, 2007), and inanimate objects (Gould, 1979;Miesler, Leder, & Herrmann, 2011;Morris, Reddy, & Bunting, 1995). Because of this wide generalization of responses, the baby schema response is considered universal. ...
The baby schema elicits care from potential caregivers. However, much of the research on the baby-schema is based on self-report only. To address this issue, we explored the effects of baby schema and child age on facial expressions (EMG), and eye-blink startle, in addition to self-reported liking and caring for 43 men and 48 women (39 parents). Further, basal testosterone was assessed. All groups responded with liking and caring to high baby schema, but only women also responded with more positive facial expressions. Caring and smiling towards infants compared to first graders depended on parenthood and testosterone levels. Basal testosterone levels were associated with overall reduced responsiveness to children in women and fathers, but positively in non-fathers. Whereas the baby schema overall lead to positive affect and caring, the scope of these responses and the processes underlying them, depended on gender, parenthood and hormonal status.
... Para a recepção, tabulação e tratamento de dados do rastreamento do olhar dos participantes foi usado o aplicativo Tobii Studio versão 3.3.2. Outros pesquisadores estudaram também essa ativação por estímulos de animais no homem com resultados positivos no sentido da existência desta ativação (Burnham, Kitamura, & Vollmer-Conna, 2002;Sanefuji, Ohgami, & Hashiya, 2007;Horn et al., 2013;Archer & Monton, 2011;e Golle et al., 2013). ...
Neoteny is an important biological-evolutionary process that retains phenotypic traits of the young in the adult individual of a species. Neoteny modifies the typical ontogeny velocity of the morphological characteristics shared with the ancestors. These changes may represent opportunities for dramatic phenotype modifications with few genetic changes, allowing for alterations in specialized states. The ethologist Konrad Lorenz has recognized neotenic characteristics in humans and some species of mammals in the structural formula of the body (mainly of the face) typical of infants. This body formula was named by Lorenz Kindchenschema. Typical humans respond when they observe infant traits by activating a response called the Kindchenschema Effect (KE). In this effect, there is a decrease in aggressiveness, stimulation of parental care and social engagement. There is a paucity of eye scanning in individuals with neurodevelopmental disorders such as Williams Syndrome (WS) and Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD). The present work is the first in the literature to investigate the eye scanning in WS and ASD patients using neotenic facial stimuli of humans and animals. In the present investigation, 21 WS and 25 ASD participants were studied. The control group (CG) had 33 participants. We found a correspondence between the stated results of the preferred stimulus and the fixation time. The results showed that all the participants fixed more the region of the eyes of humans and animals, and the CG fixed more time than the WS and ASD participants. It was possible to distinguish, using the fixation time in the eyes and Heat Maps, the three groups. The production of a rapid and non-invasive auxiliary clinical examination is feasible for individuals suspected in presenting a neurodevelopmental dysfunction. Perhaps the nose and mouth areas are less important, and the ears are more important than previously considered with respect. The more neotenic stimuli of human and animal infants produced a similar pattern of fixation time in the three groups studied. This may represent a greater adaptive value than we thought of those with WS and ASD. We suggest that the new investigations can also incorporate facial variables as ears, hair color and eyes, and facial symmetry.
... Natal attraction, an indiscriminate attraction towards infantile traits perceived to be 'cute', has been suggested to be a major driver of parental and prosocial behaviours in group-living animals (Silk, 1999;Archer & Monton, 2011;Stark et al., 2016). We found little support for natal attraction as a driver of allocare in belugas. ...
Allocare, investment in offspring from non-parents, poses an evolutionary enigma. While the fitness trade-offs driving parental care are universal, alloparents may be driven by kin selection, reciprocation, the need to acquire parenting skills (‘learning-to-parent’), an indiscriminate attraction towards infants (‘natal attraction’), or a combination of multiple drivers. Among belugas ( Delphinapterus leucas ), allocare has been reported in wild and captive populations, but its underlying mechanisms remain untested. Using over 1800 focal observations, we quantified alloparental associations in St. Lawrence Estuary (SLE) belugas to determine whether the learning-to-parent and natal attraction hypotheses are consistent with patterns of allocare in this population. We found that subadults showed little interest in providing allocare and that alloparental investment remained constant across offspring age classes. As the observed patterns of allocare are inconsistent with both the learning-to-parent and natal attraction hypotheses, allocare in SLE belugas is likely driven by kin selection, reciprocation, or a combination thereof.
... A specific set of infantile features, including a large head, round face and large, low-lying eyes, were described in classical ethology as evoking a nurturing response from human caregivers [25]. This human attraction to infant-like stimuli has been generalised to cats and dogs [26], with evidence suggesting that people demonstrate the same degree of empathy for a baby as for a puppy [27]. The ability of puppies to eclipse rational human thought, due to the "cute response" is suggested to be an important motivation to acquire a puppy [28]. ...
Understanding the factors that result in people becoming dog owners is key to developing messaging around responsible acquisition and providing appropriate support for prospective owners to ensure a strong dog–owner bond and optimise dog welfare. This qualitative study investigated factors that influence pet dog acquisition. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 142 sets of dog owners/caretakers at 23 Dogs Trust community events. Interviews focused on the motivations and influences that impacted how people acquired their dogs. Transcribed interviews and notes were thematically analysed. Two acquisition types were reported, that each accounted for half of our interviewees’ experiences: planned and unplanned. Whilst planned acquisitions involved an intentional search for a dog, unplanned acquisitions occurred following an unexpected and unsought opportunity to acquire one. Unplanned acquisitions frequently involved a participant’s family or friends, people happening upon a dog in need, or dogs received as gifts. Motivations for deciding to take the dog included emotional attachments and a desire to help a vulnerable animal. Many reported making the decision to acquire the dog without hesitation and without conducting any pre-acquisition research. These findings present valuable insights for designers of interventions promoting responsible acquisition and ownership, because there is minimal opportunity to deliver messaging with these unplanned acquisitions. Additionally, these findings may guide future research to develop more complete understandings of the acquisition process. Further studies are required to understand the prevalence of unplanned acquisitions.
... It is posited that the aesthetic appeal of brachycephalic breeds is driven by the "baby schema effect" whereby brachycephalic face shapes mimic human infantile features to arouse positive emotions and nurturing responses in human adults [23]. Empirical studies have demonstrated that infantile features in cats, dogs and teddy bears increase their attractiveness, and that women show higher ratings for pets with infantile features than men [24]. As well as being biologically rewarding, the attractiveness of the appearance of brachycephalic dogs may be also socially reinforced. ...
Brachycephalic breeds are proliferating internationally, with dramatic rises in popularity juxtaposed with common and severe breed-related health problems. Physical appearance is as a dominant factor attracting owners to brachycephalic breeds; however, whether these owners will choose their current breed for future ownership and develop ‘breed-loyalty’ in the face of health problems is not yet known. The aims of this study were (1) to quantify levels of, and explore factors associated with, brachycephalic dog owners’ intentions to: (i) reacquire and/or (ii) recommend their current breed to potential first-time dog owners, and (2) to use qualitative methods to explore why brachycephalic dog owners would or would not recommend their current breed. This large mixed methods study reports on 2168 owners of brachycephalic breeds (Pugs: n = 789; French Bulldog: n = 741; Bulldogs: n = 638). Owners were highly likely to want to own their breed again in the future (93.0%) and recommend their breed to other owners (65.5%). Statistical modelling identified that first-time ownership and increased strength of the dog-owner relationship increased the likelihood of reacquisition and/or recommendation. In contrast, an increased number of health problems, positive perception of their dog’s health compared with the rest of their breed, and dog behaviour being worse than expected decreased the likelihood of reacquisition and/or recommendation. Thematic analyses constructed three themes describing why owners recommend their breed: positive behavioural attributes for a companion dog, breed suited to a sedentary lifestyle with limited space, and suitability for households with children. Five themes described why owners recommended against their breed: high prevalence of health problems, expense of ownership, ethical and welfare issues associated with breeding brachycephalic dogs, negative effects upon owner lifestyle and negative behavioural attributes. Understanding how breed-loyalty develops, and whether it can be attenuated, will be key to controlling the current population boom in brachycephalic breeds in the long-term.
... Adults tend to perceive young children's faces as cuter or more attractive than older children's, but they find all juvenile faces cuter or more attractive than adult faces (Luo, Li, & Lee, 2011). Archer and Monton (2011) demonstrated faces with the infant features were rated as more attractive than those without. Adult women are more attentive to infants' faces-particularly expressive faces-than adult faces (Thompson-Booth et al., 2013), and adults tend to pay more attention to (Cardenas, Harris, & Becker, 2013) and devote more resources to infants (Brosch et al., 2007). ...
Effects of cuteness‐perception on individual cognition, emotion, behavior have significant implications for moral education. On the one hand, cuteness perception will make individuals think that moral violations are more serious and lead to tougher moral judgments; on the other hand, cuteness perception can activate moral emotions such as compassion and empathy, and induce to expand the scope of moral concern. Cuteness perception can also promote people to engage in altruistic moral behaviors such as donating, helping, etc. Based on these findings, we suggest to provide the lively content of moral education with diverse educational forms and take advantage of the anthropomorphic effect of cuteness while reduce the negative effects of cuteness. Lay abstract: Effects of cuteness perception on individual cognition, emotion, behavior have significant implications for moral education. Cuteness perception can activate moral emotions such as compassion and empathy, and induce to expand the scope of moral concern. It can also promote people to engage in altruistic moral behaviors such as donating, helping, etc. Based on these findings, we provide some suggestions to moral education.
... It has been found that humans are not only sensitive to human infant baby schema but also to baby schema as a rating of cuteness in adult faces 27 . In addition, humans are sensitive to animal baby schema 28,29 and have an instinctive ability to recognise cuteness in the form of baby schema in animals 30,31 . Therefore, baby schema has the potential to be a valid predictor of cuteness and sex in animals, and might influence human intention to approach/interact with animals. ...
Close human-wildlife interactions are rapidly growing, particularly due to wildlife tourism popularity. Using both laboratory and ecological observation studies we explored potential interspecies communication signalling mechanisms underpinning human-animal approach behaviour, which to date have been unclear. First impression ratings (n = 227) of Barbary macaques’ social and health traits were related to the macaques’ facial morphology and their observed behaviour supporting a shared facial signalling system in primates. These ratings significantly predicted intended approach to the macaques during hypothetical interactions. Finally, real-world interspecies proximity was observed and found to be best predicted by the interaction between human first impression perception and animal behaviour. Specifically, perceived macaque health in interaction with actual macaque dominance drives close interactions despite human proclivity to avoid dominant animals, raising safety concerns in interspecies interactions.
... B. Maskottchen, werden oft eingesetzt, da sie als Symbolfiguren einer Marke auch als Sympathieträger fungieren (Lange & Schwab, 2017;Wehner, 1996). Ein Beispiel ist Mickey Mouse von Disney (Gould, 1979 (Senese et al., 2013), die Aufmerksamkeit fokussieren (Brosch et al., 2007;Cárdenas, Harris & Becker, 2013) und zur Zu-schreibung verschiedener positiver Charaktereigenschaften, wie u. a. Ehrlichkeit, führen (Berry & McArthur, 1985;Keating, Randall, Kendrick & Gutshall, 2003) (Archer & Monton, 2011;Cárdenas et al., 2013;Lehmann et al., 2013;Lobmaier et al., 2010). Dennoch gibt es auch einige Studien, die keine derartigen Geschlechtseffekte in den Reaktionen auf Kindchenschema-Reize identifizieren konnten (Brosch et al., 2007;Golle, Lisibach, Mast & Lobmaier, 2013;Sprengelmeyer et al., 2013) (Lorenz, 1943;Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1997 Evolutionspsychologische Überlegungen dieser Art sind in der Vergangenheit bereits mehrfach sowohl in der Konsumenten-(z. ...
Zur Untersuchung der Auswirkungen von Kindchenschema-Merkmalen in der Werbung auf ihre Beurteilung durch Rezipienten / potentielle
Konsumenten (N = 318) in Abhängigkeit ihres Geschlechts, Alters und Elternstatus (bereits Eltern?) wurde ein Experimentaldesign gewählt, in
dem die Ausprägung von Kindchenschema-Merkmalen eines Kindes in einer Werbeanzeige für Mineralwasser gezielt manipuliert wurde. Zur
Beurteilung kam eine selbstentwickelte Skala zur Messung der Produkteinstellung zum Einsatz. Wir fanden bei hohem Kindchenschema keinen
signifikant höheren Wert für die Produkteinstellung, allerdings u. a. einen signifikanten Interaktionseffekt zwischen experimenteller Bedingung,
Geschlecht und Alter (zwei Gruppen nach Median-Split). U. a. gaben junge Frauen höheren Beurteilungen bei hohem Kindchenschema als ältere.
Auch wurden Interaktionseffekte zwischen Bedingung und Geschlecht jeweils innerhalb der beiden Altersgruppen evident. Auch Effekte des
Elternstatus konnten gefunden werden. Praktische Implikationen unserer Ergebnisse werden diskutiert.
... This is not to say that this relationship is entirely analogous to a parental model. However, Companion dogs, in particular, rely on owners for basic needs and many have been created, through artificial selection, to retain infantile features (e.g., large eyes, bulging cheeks) throughout adulthood (Coppinger et al., 1987;Archer and Monton, 2011). Therefore, it is not surprising that domesticated dogs are able to elicit human caregiving responses. ...
Behaviorally, attachment is demonstrated when one individual maintains close proximity to another individual and shows distress upon separation. For 29 owner-dog dyads, we employed a modified Ainsworth’s Strange Situation Test (SST) to investigate whether both members would show a physiological reaction to separation. Dogs experienced a series of separation from and reuniting events with their owners and were introduced to a stranger. Before and after the SST, saliva samples were taken from each dyad to measure stress-related analytes: cortisol (CORT) and chromogranin A (CgA). Dogs exhibited attachment behaviors toward owners as evidenced by more time spent in close proximity, more contact initiated and less time spent near the door, compared to episodes with the stranger. Dogs that initiated more contact with their owners in re-uniting episodes had lower CgA than dogs that initiated less contact, but their owners had higher CgA levels. Also during re-uniting episodes, dogs and owners spent more time near each other when owner CgA levels were low, owner CORT levels were high, and the dog had owner-reported separation anxiety. During the episodes alone with the stranger, dogs with higher CORT spent more time with the stranger. Finally, dogs’ initial CgA levels were correlated with their owner’s initial CORT levels, and dog final CORT levels were correlated with their owners’ final CORT levels, suggesting some hormonal synchrony within the dyad. As all owner-dog dyads were assessed as securely attached, attachment style differences could not explain variation in hormonal or behavioral results. These results suggest that dogs may respond to owner hormonal state and/or behavior and demonstrate that individual differences in responses to a behavioral challenge reflect the stress physiology of both dogs and their owners.
... These features are part of Lorenz's 'baby schema', infantile facial stimuli that arouse positive emotions and nurturing responses in human adults [18]. Empirical studies have demonstrated that infantile features in cats, dogs and teddy bears increase their attractiveness, and that women show higher ratings for pets with infant features than men [19]. Thus, emotional drivers for ownership of brachycephalic breeds are complex, strong and multifactorial but nonetheless clearly highly influential in breed selection. ...
Popularity of brachycephalic (flat-faced) dog breeds is increasing internationally despite well-documented intrinsic health and welfare problems associated with their conformation. Given this apparent paradox, greater understanding of the expectations and reality for brachycephalic dog owners and factors driving the dog-owner bond are needed. This study reports a large-scale online survey with valid responses from 2168 owners of brachycephalic dogs (Pugs: n = 789, median age of dogs 2.5 years; French Bulldog: n = 741, median age 2.0 years; Bulldogs: n = 638, median age 2.5 years). The most common owner-reported disorders in their dogs were allergies, corneal ulcers, skin fold infections and Brachycephalic Obstructive Airway Syndrome (BOAS). One-fifth (19.9%) of owners reported that their dog had undergone at least one conformation-related surgery, 36.5% of dogs were reported with a problem with heat regulation, and 17.9% with problems breathing. Despite awareness of their dog's health issues, 70.9% owners considered their dog to be in very good health or the best health possible. Paradoxically, just 6.8% of owners considered their dog to be less healthy than average for their breed. Dog owner-relationships were extremely strong across all three breeds. Emotional closeness to their dog was highest for owners of Pugs, female owners, and owners with no children in the household. Ownership of brachycephalic dog breeds is a complex phenomenon, characterised by extremely strong dog-owner relationships and unrealistic perceptions of good health set against high levels of disease in relatively young dogs. Perceptual errors in owner beliefs appear to exist between brachycephalic owner perspectives of their own dog's health versus the health of the rest of their breed, which may be fuelled by cognitive dissonance processes. These novel data improve our understanding of the cognitive processes and relationships that facilitate the rising popularity of breeds that paradoxically are affected by high levels of conformation-related morbidity.
... Selection for traits that facilitate eye contact between dogs and humans might have, therefore, led to 1) anatomical differences in the facial musculature around the eyes between dogs and wolves and 2) behavioral differences between the species in terms of how they use these muscles to promote eye contact. We know that humans favor dogs that show paedomorphic (infantlike) anatomical features like a large forehead, large eyes, and so on; in studies asking people to select pictures presenting dog (or cat) faces, people prefer the faces that present paedomorphic features over others (16). Importantly, paedomorphic facial features can be even further exaggerated by facial muscle movements, which act to enhance the appearance of specific facial features (particularly the eyes). ...
Significance
Dogs were shaped during the course of domestication both in their behavior and in their anatomical features. Here we show that domestication transformed the facial muscle anatomy of dogs specifically for facial communication with humans. A muscle responsible for raising the inner eyebrow intensely is uniformly present in dogs but not in wolves. Behavioral data show that dogs also produce the eyebrow movement significantly more often and with higher intensity than wolves do, with highest-intensity movements produced exclusively by dogs. Interestingly, this movement increases paedomorphism and resembles an expression humans produce when sad, so its production in dogs may trigger a nurturing response. We hypothesize that dogs’ expressive eyebrows are the result of selection based on humans’ preferences.
... They were also more likely to be reported as abandoned or left in a heated vehicle. The higher abandonment potential is supported by an anthropomorphic theory that states that as adult dogs possess fewer infant-like traits, and thus are regarded as less attractive, they are less likely to evoke our nurturing instinct, creating a weaker bond with humans [12,58,59]. Adult dogs may have a greater chance of being left in a hot car because they are more difficult to carry and are usually not allowed to enter public places. ...
Animal neglect and cruelty are important welfare and social issues. We conducted an epidemiological study of dog welfare complaints and identified risk factors. The retrospective study included 107,597 dog welfare complaints received by RSPCA Queensland from July 2008 to June 2018. The risk factors considered were the age of dogs and the year of being reported. The number of complaints received each year increased by 6.2% per year. The most common complaints were poor dog body conformation, insufficient food and/or water, dogs receiving inadequate exercise, and dogs being confined or tethered. Increasing numbers were most evident for poor living conditions and leaving dogs in a hot vehicle unattended, both of which may have resulted from increasing public awareness. The majority of complaints were neglect-related rather than related to deliberate cruelty. Compared with puppies, adult dogs were more likely to be reported to have been poisoned, left unattended in a hot car or abandoned, as well as to have had inadequate exercise and shelter. Reported puppies were more likely to be alleged to have experienced cruelty, lack of veterinary support, overcrowding, poor living and health conditions, and inappropriate surgery. In conclusion, animal neglect was the most commonly reported welfare concern in dogs. Due to an assumed increasing public awareness of some types of cruelty, the trends of reported concerns differed. Adult dogs and puppies were reported to be involved in different types of welfare concerns. Strategies to address cruelty to dogs can be informed by an understanding of risk factors and trends in types of cruelty.
... According to the ethologist Lorenz, such attributes are understood to help make animals appear "cute" and appealing to humans, motivating their desire to care for the animal [49]. Empirical research, using pictures to evaluate the appeal of infantile facial features in dogs, supports Lorenz's claim [46,50]. This bias towards infantile features might help explain the extreme aesthetic traits prevalent among dogs of certain breeds; especially those that are considered brachycephalic. ...
Given the prevalence of pet dogs in households throughout the world, decisions regarding dog acquisition affect many people each year. Across the stages of dog acquisition there is potential for practices that may promote or compromise canine welfare. For instance, prospective owners may not fully understand the time, energy and financial commitment entailed in their decision to acquire a dog. Thus, it is pressing that stakeholders, including those working in the canine welfare sector, refine their ability to identify and respond to trends in the behavior of potential dog owners. The motivations, attitudes and behaviors of current and prospective dog owners is a small but growing area of interdisciplinary study. Yet, no synthesis of the evidence exists. To address this gap, this critical review collates data and insights from studies published by academic researchers and animal welfare charities. The most widely reported factors associated with acquisition behavior include: the dog’s physical appearance, behavior and health; social influences, such as trends in the popularity of certain breeds; demographic and socioeconomic factors; and the owner’s previous ownership experience. Overall, the research discussed in this paper highlights that complex interactions likely underpin the various factors that might influence prospective owners’ motivators and behaviors.
... There is some evidence that this difference develops at puberty and that it is influenced by female gonadal hormones, although female socialization clearly plays an important part as well. Further evidence for a hormonal involvement comes from studies measuring ratings of the cuteness of baby faces (Sprengelmeyer et al., 2009), on which there is also a sex difference (Archer & Monton, 2011). ...
The aims of this article are: (i) to provide a quantitative overview of sex differences in human psychological attributes; and (ii) to consider evidence for their possible evolutionary origins. Sex differences were identified from a systematic literature search of meta‐analyses and large‐sample studies. These were organized in terms of evolutionary significance as follows: (i) characteristics arising from inter‐male competition (within‐sex aggression; impulsiveness and sensation‐seeking; fearfulness; visuospatial and object‐location memory; object‐centred orientations); (ii) those concerning social relations that are likely to have arisen from women's adaptations for small‐group interactions and men's for larger co‐operative groups (person‐centred orientation and social skills; language; depression and anxiety); (iii) those arising from female choice (sexuality; mate choice; sexual conflict). There were sex differences in all categories, whose magnitudes ranged from (i) small (object location memory; negative emotions), to (ii) medium (mental rotation; anxiety disorders; impulsivity; sex drive; interest in casual sex), to (iii) large (social interests and abilities; sociosexuality); and (iv) very large (escalated aggression; systemizing; sexual violence). Evolutionary explanations were evaluated according to whether: (i) similar differences occur in other mammals; (ii) there is cross‐cultural consistency; (iii) the origin was early in life or at puberty; (iv) there was evidence for hormonal influences; and (v), where possible, whether there was evidence for evolutionarily derived design features. The evidence was positive for most features in most categories, suggesting evolutionary origins for a broad range of sex differences. Attributes for which there was no sex difference are also noted. Within‐sex variations are discussed as limitations to the emphasis on sex differences.
Brachycephalic dog breeds are highly popular, yet their conformation-related disorders represent a major welfare concern. It has been suggested that the current popularity of such breeds can be explained by their cute, infant-like facial appearances. The concept of ‘kindchenschema’ refers to the observation that certain physical features of infant humans and other animals can automatically stimulate positive and nurturant feelings in adult observers. But the proposal that brachycephalic dogs possess heightened ‘kindchenschema’ facial features, even into adulthood, has never been formally investigated. Here, we hypothesised that relative muzzle shortening across a range of breeds would be associated with known ‘kindchenschema’ facial features, including a relatively larger forehead, larger eyes and smaller nose. Relative fronto-facial feature sizes in exemplar photographs of adult dogs from 42 popular breeds were measured and associated with existing data on the relative muzzle length and height-at-withers of the same breeds. Our results show that, in adulthood, shorter-muzzled breeds have relatively larger (taller) foreheads and relatively larger eyes (i.e. area of exposed eyeball relative to overall face area) than longer-muzzled breeds, and that this effect is independent of breed size. In sum, brachycephalic dog breeds do show exaggeration of some, but not all, known fronto-facial ‘kindchenschema’ features, and this may well contribute to their apparently cute appearance and to their current popularity as companion animals. We conclude that the challenge of addressing conformation-related disorders in companion dogs needs to take account of the cute, ‘kindchenschema’ looks that many owners are likely to be attracted to.
The decision-making behavior of potential dog adopters remains a research gap that needs to be addressed to model the adoption decision-making process and understand how shelter and rescue strategies may increase adoption decisions. This study investigated decision considerations of potential adopters visiting eight Mid-Atlantic dog adoption sites. Surveys from potential adopters (N = 517) were examined for information about their search, adoption intent during visit, and the decision factor(s) under consideration. Findings showed dog behavior was the top decision factor that potential adopters considered (305; 58.9%), which was significantly greater than chance (χ² = 16.729, p < .01). Behavior was followed by dog’s age (χ² = 17.456, p < .01), size (χ² = 50.137, p < .01), and lifestyle fit (χ² = 57.89, p < .01). Overall findings suggest potential adopters consider similar sets of decision factors when heading into adoption site visits, independent of age group, type of household, or prior experience having pets.
Cuteness in the young has long been theorized to elicit care and protection. Most research on this topic has focused on human infants, despite theories suggesting that cuteness may elicit broader social interest that could support learning and development beyond infancy. In four experiments (N = 531 adults, 98 children), we tested whether ‘kindchenschema’—facial features associated with cuteness—and perceived cuteness elicit interest in playing with and caring for children, and whether masks disrupt these processes. Participants viewed images of children’s faces, masked or unmasked. Kindchenschema correlated with perceived cuteness and age, and these variables predicted adults’ interest in playing with and caring for children. Masks did not reduce cuteness ratings or interest in children, although they weakened relations between perceived cuteness and interest, and between perceived age and interest. Cuteness and related signals may guide adults’ interactions with children, fostering learning and development.
Animal-assisted therapy (AAT) is highly heterogeneous at many levels, for example with regards to the setting itself, recipients of the intervention, species involved as therapy animals and their therapeutic potential. Dogs are the most commonly involved species in this work, and there may be good reasons for this beyond their availability. Some specific characteristics such as their cognitive and emotional capacities and biases, their evolutionary connection with humans, as well as a natural attraction and emotional connection between both species make dogs particularly suitable for AAT and many other forms of AAI. In this chapter, we elaborate on the significance of these characteristics and discuss the attributes required of an ideal dog working in this sort of context. Furthermore, we provide suggestions for strategies and approaches to optimally prepare, help, and support therapy dogs for and during their work in order to minimise risks, maximise therapeutic potential, and secure the well-being of all involved parties.
Anthropomorphic figures of nonhuman animals are omnipresent in various forms of mass media (e.g., movies, books, and advertising). The depiction of companion and wild animals, including nonhuman primates (e.g., chimpanzees), as possessing human characteristics or behaviors can influence these animals’ desirability as companions. Ultimately, this can distort general public perception of what constitutes “normal” wild behavior, as well as the conservation status of these animals. Therefore, anthropomorphic animal representations can contribute to the spread of misleading messages that may have highly unpredictable effects. In the present review, we have highlighted various articles from the academic literature which focus on anthropomorphised animals, noting the main thematic issues. We suggest that further studies on this topic are needed to deepen such a complex and not yet clarified topic.
Los vínculos entre personas y otros animales se han convertido en área respetada de investigación dentro de la antrozoología. La Asociación Americana de Medicina Veterinaria los define como relaciones dinámicas y mutuamente beneficiosas que incluyen conductas que impactan en el bienestar de los humanos y animales implicados. Con el propósito de describir sus particularidades, se revisan las tres teorías más renombradas sobre la formación de vínculos humano-animal: Teoría del Apoyo Social, Teoría del Apego y Teoría de la Biofilia. Partiendo de un esquema propuesto por Fine (2014; 2019) se desarrollan los constructos conceptualizados como factores que motivan la formación de estos vínculos, proponiendo una redefinición y ampliación de estos factores. De este modo, se plantea un esquema integrado por: (1) antropomorfismo, (2) dependencia/cuidados nutricios, (3) integración en la vida familiar, (4) balance costo-beneficio, y (5) influencia sociocultural. Estos factores se fundamentan a su vez en el apoyo social, el apego y la biofilia. Finalmente, se discute la falta de mención del afecto implicado en la definición de vínculo. Se cuestiona el intento de adecuación conceptual del vínculo humano-animal a una definición de amistad, en tanto el primero cuenta diferencialmente con la asimetría dada por la dependencia y los cuidados, más bien, propios de una relación parental. Así, se desarrolla el concepto de amor familiar, como un afecto desinteresado y leal que permite que vínculos sociales externos a la familia puedan ser incorporados a esta, y se integra esta noción a la definición del vínculo.
Abstract: The bonds between people and other animals has become a respected research field within anthrozoology. The American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) considers them as dynamic and mutually beneficial relationships, which include actions that impact on the wellbeing of both parts. With the aim of describing their particular traits, we revisited the three most renowned theories on the human-animal bond formation: Social support theory, Attachment theory and Biophilia theory (hypothesis). As of a scheme proposed by Fine (2014; 2019) the conceptualized constructs as factors that motivate the formation of these bonds were developed, which led to their redefinition and extension. Hence, we pose a scheme compound of: (1) anthropomorphism, (2) dependence/nurturing, (3) integration in family life, (4) cost-benefit balance and (5) sociocultural influence. These factors are grounded, at the same time, on social support, attachment and biophilia. Finally, we discuss the omission of affection implied in the definition of bond. We question the intent of conceptual adequation of the human-animal bond into a friendship definition, as the former possesses a differential asymmetry given by the dependency and care, rather typical of a parental relationship. Thus, the concept of familial love is developed as a selfless and loyal kind of affection that allow external social bonds to be incorporated to the family and this notion is integrated in the bond definition.
Background:
Visual atypicalities in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are a well documented phenomenon, beginning as early as 2-6 months of age and manifesting in a significantly decreased attention to the eyes, direct gaze and socially salient information. Early emerging neurobiological deficits in perceiving social stimuli as rewarding or its active avoidance due to the anxiety it entails have been widely purported as potential reasons for this atypicality. Parallel research evidence also points to the significant benefits of animal presence for reducing social anxiety and enhancing social interaction in children with autism. While atypicality in social attention in ASD has been widely substantiated, whether this atypicality persists equally across species types or is confined to humans has not been a key focus of research insofar.
Methods:
We attempted a comprehensive examination of the differences in visual attention to static images of human and animal faces (40 images; 20 human faces and 20 animal faces) among children with ASD using an eye tracking paradigm. 44 children (ASD n = 21; TD n = 23) participated in the study (10,362 valid observations) across five regions of interest (left eye, right eye, eye region, face and screen).
Results:
Results obtained revealed significantly greater social attention across human and animal stimuli in typical controls when compared to children with ASD. However in children with ASD, a significantly greater attention allocation was seen to animal faces and eye region and lesser attention to the animal mouth when compared to human faces, indicative of a clear attentional preference to socially salient regions of animal stimuli. The positive attentional bias toward animals was also seen in terms of a significantly greater visual attention to direct gaze in animal images.
Conclusion:
Our results suggest the possibility that atypicalities in social attention in ASD may not be uniform across species. It adds to the current neural and biomarker evidence base of the potentially greater social reward processing and lesser social anxiety underlying animal stimuli as compared to human stimuli in children with ASD.
The epidemiology of Congenital Heart Diseases (CHDs) has changed over the past twenty years.
Evaluate the prevalence of CHDs in the population of dogs recruited in a single RC (referral center); compare the epidemiological features of CHDs in not screened (French and English Bulldogs and German Shepherds) and screened (Boxers) dogs; determine the association of breeds with the prevalence of CHDs; determine the popularity and volatility of breeds; and analyze the trends of the most popular breeds in the overall population of puppies registered in the Italian Kennel Club from 1st January 1997 to 31st December 2017.
A total of 1,779 clinical records fulfilled the inclusion criteria
Retrospective observational study. The relationship between the breed popularity, volatility and the presence of CHD was studied.
The most common CHDs were PS (pulmonic stenosis), PDA (patent ductus arteriosus), SAS (subaortic stenosis) and VSD (ventricular septal defect). The most represented purebreds were Boxer, German Shepherd, French Bulldog, English Bulldog. Chihuahuas, American Staffordshire Terriers, Border Collies, French Bulldogs, and Cavalier King Charles Spaniel showed a high value of volatility.
Evident is the value of the screening program implemented in Boxers. Fashions and trends influence dog owners’ choices more than the health problems frequently found in a breed. An effective breeding program is needed to control the diffusion of CHDs without impoverishing the genetic pool; dog owners should be educated, and the breeders supported by a network of veterinary cardiology center.
Given the attentional and motivational saliency of infant faces, triggered by a set of perceptual baby schema features, other‐ethnicity infant faces may overcome the processing differences associated with the other‐race effect (ORE). Using an attentional bias paradigm, we found that while there was a same‐ethnicity attentional bias for adult faces, there was no difference in attention to same‐ and other‐ethnicity infant faces, suggesting that other‐ethnicity infant faces are equally salient and not subject to the same bias as other‐ethnicity adult faces. To directly measure the ORE, we used a recognition memory test to measure differences between same‐ and other‐ethnicity infant and adult faces. Regardless of age, same‐ethnicity faces were better remembered than other‐ethnicity faces. Further, regardless of ethnicity, adult faces were better remembered than infant faces, a finding consistent with an Other Age Effect. Taken together, these experiments suggest that the saliency of baby schema does not fully overcome the social or perceptual factors leading to the ORE.
Across a 15-year period, annual cohorts of first-year veterinary science students (n = 1,380; 77% female) at a British university completed the Belief in Animal Sentience (BiAS) questionnaire, in which they reported their beliefs about the sentience (capacity to feel) of ten species: dogs, cats, lions, pigs, sheep, rats, rabbits, chickens, bees, and spiders. On the basis of previous findings regarding people’s beliefs about animals’ capacities for mind, it was hypothesized that female students would ascribe more human-like sentience to animals than would male students. It was also hypothesized that the proportion of female students in each of the cohorts studied would have an influence on the beliefs of the year group as a whole: cohorts comprising a larger percentage of women would have higher animal sentience beliefs in both males and females. The data were analyzed using two-level regression models to concurrently investigate the effects of individual respondents’ gender and the percentage of female students in their cohort. Compared with their male counterparts, female veterinary students across all the cohorts studied attributed significantly higher (more human-like) sentience to each of the ten animals listed in the BiAS questionnaire, but the percentage of female students in each year group was not associated with students’ sentience beliefs. It was also found that childhood experience of having owned pet cats or dogs was related to students’ beliefs about the sentience of these species, although this association did not contribute to the differences found between male and female respondents. Given the increasing number of women entering the veterinary profession, and previous findings that beliefs about animals’ capacities for sentience may be associated with the veterinary care they are given, we conclude that gender differences in sentience beliefs could have a significant impact on the future of veterinary practice and patient welfare.
Most animals live in the wild and a majority probably have lives of net suffering. An increasing number of ethicists argue that humans have a duty to help them. Nevertheless, people’s attitudes and perceptions toward wild animal suffering have rarely been studied. Psychology has traditionally framed the analysis of human–wild animal relations within environmental psychology, conceptualizing wild animals as merely one further component of nature. Though this approach is suitable for environmental and conservation purposes, I argue that it fails to track our attitudes toward animals as individuals with a well-being of their own. I use Kellert’s framework about factors affecting attitudes toward wildlife to review and integrate existing findings in social psychology. I also suggest how other factors merit further investigation. Finally, I defend that the study of human–wild animal relations is a suitable topic of psychosocial research independently of other anthropocentric or conservationist purposes.
The ability to evaluate the welfare of non-human animals accurately and objectively is influenced by a variety of factors including the nature of our relationships with them. Subjective biases in the perception of an animal’s quality of life can have either positive or negative consequences for its welfare and are likely to be particularly exaggerated in the case of companion animals, such as dogs, cats and other pet species, with which people tend to form strong anthropomorphic, attachment-based relationships. The consequences of these subjective biases are likely to be further exacerbated by the fact that many of the physical and behavioural attributes that humans find appealing, and have selected for, in companion animals, are inherently detrimental to their welfare. Using a range of examples, this paper explores some of the complex ways in which anthropomorphism and subjectivity can cloud our ability to make reliable judgements concerning the welfare of companion animals, even in the face of seemingly obvious and overt indicators of pain and suffering. © 2019 Universities Federation for Animal Welfare The Old School, Brewhouse Hill, Wheathampstead, Hertfordshire AL4 8AN, UK.
Therapy and visitation dogs are becoming more common on college campuses to provide comfort and support to students, but little attention has been given to the concerns of faculty and staff who share space with the dogs in their workplaces. The purpose of this study was to assess the perceptions of faculty and staff with regard to both the benefits and the hazards (e.g., dander, bites, fleas) and risks associated with the presence of visitation dogs in their workplaces. One hundred and thirty-eight employees who worked in buildings with resident visitation dogs completed an online survey about their perceptions of the hazards and risks of the dogs and the effects of dogs on the wellbeing of both students and employees. In general, employees perceived that the dogs presented minimal risks, and most employees believed that they can reduce stress and provide comfort to students on campus. There were a few employees, however, who reported that the dogs did not improve the work environment and conferred no benefits to the staff or students. The findings of the present survey support the mostly positive attitudes that people have for dogs in the workplace, but they also highlight a potential challenge: accommodating individuals who believe very strongly that dogs do not belong in work environments.
I review the direction and magnitude (effect sizes) of gender differences that have been reported in several areas of human-animal interactions. These include: attitudes toward the treatment of animals, attachment to pets, involvement in animal protectionism, animal hoarding, hunting, animal abuse, and bestiality. Women, on average, show higher levels of positive behaviors and attitudes toward animals (e.g., attitudes towards their use, involvement in animal protection), whereas men typically have higher levels of negative attitudes and behaviors (e.g., hunting, animal abuse, less favorable attitudes toward animal protection). The effect sizes of gender differences range from small (e.g., attachment), to medium size (e.g., attitudes toward animal use) to large (e.g., animal rights activism, animal abuse by adults.) In most areas, there is considerable overlap between men and women, with much greater within-sex than between-sex variation. Research on the roles of gender in human-animal relationships is hindered by the omission in many reports of gender difference effect sizes and basic descriptive statistics.
In Exps I and II, 25 undergraduates viewed drawings from 1 frontal and/or 2 profile series of heads produced by using a transformation that models the changes in cephalic morphology during growth. In Exps III and IV, 80 Ss viewed actual profile outlines of a girl's head at 4 different ages. Ss selected from pairs (Exps I and III), ranked (Exp II), or rated (Exp IV) the drawings according to how compelled they would feel to defend the depicted individuals if they saw someone striking them. In all 4 experiments the tendency to protect others decreased as the shape of the recipient's head changed due to simulated or actual growth. Results of 2 experiments indicate that being female or having more experience with children may increase the effect of age-related changes in head shape on the protective responses of Ss. Results are discussed from an ethological view of perception and adult–infant interactions. (47 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Although the literature on human-animal interactions has documented the physical, psychological, and social benefits resulting from positive relationships with dogs, cats, and other kinds of companion animals, many attachment instruments include items that pertain to specific kinds of interactions with dogs. For this reason, dog owners attain higher scores on these measures than owners of cats and other types of pets. This study introduces a scale for measuring attachment in terms of the perceived comfort received from a pet. A sample of 87 cat owners and 58 dog owners completed the Comfort from Companion Animals Scale. The results showed that, when two items pertaining to dogs were included, dog owners showed a significantly higher degree of attachment. When only the 11 items pertaining to the emotional nature of the relationship were included, however, there were no differences in the scores of the two groups. The results indicate the importance of clarifying both the commonalities and differences of human interactions with various companion animal species.
An alternative to the view that during evolution the human brain became specialized to preferentially attend to threat-related stimuli is to assume that all classes of stimuli that have high biological significance are prioritized by the attention system. Newborns are highly biologically relevant stimuli for members of a species, as their survival is important for reproductive success. The authors examined whether the Kindchenschema (baby schema) as described by Lorenz (1943) captures attention in the dot probe task. The results confirm attentional capture by photos of human infants presented to the left visual field, suggesting right hemisphere advantage. The magnitude of the attentional modulation was highly correlated with subjective arousal ratings of the photos. The findings show that biologically significant positive stimuli are prioritized by the attention system.
"(Tuan) does a masterful job exploring the condescending human treatment of animals as 'playthings' that exist only for our entertainment. He charts the malevolent history of male domination over women and children and the sad chronicle of slaves, dwarfs and other 'freaks' treated as human appliances or toys. This provocative study of power in the world of pleasure, play and art is a tour de force." -Cultural Information Service "A brilliant book that will appeal to a wide audience. The volume provides excellent material for school and college seminar debates on humankind's place in nature and attitudes toward other living things. . . . (A) penetrating analysis. . . . Readable at all levels."-Choice.
The problem addressed in this paper is variability in the quality of parental care. Situational determinants of this variability are considered within the framework of evolutionary theory. Parental behavior in people and animals is discussed from this perspective, with attention to parental attachment, child abuse and neglect, parental sex differences, adoption, and differential treatment of one's children.
Neonatal features in the newborn are thought to trigger parental care, the most fundamental prosocial behaviour. The underlying mechanisms that release parental care have not yet been resolved. Here we report sex differences in the ability to discriminate cues to cuteness despite equivalence in the capability to discriminate age and facial expression. These differences become apparent in a task where adults were asked to choose the cuter of two babies. While women could reliably choose the cuter infant, men had more difficulty in doing so. When showing the exact same face pairs but asking to choose the younger or the happier baby, there was no sex difference. These results suggest that the sex difference in the ability to discriminate cues to cuteness in infants underlies female-specific emotive responses. We argue that this reactivity expressed by women evolved to ensure that a female allocates her caretaking resources to her youngest offspring while it needs mothering care.
The evidence that people form strong attachments with their pets is briefly reviewed before identifying the characteristics of such relationships, which include pets being a source of security as well as the objects of caregiving. In evolutionary terms, pet ownership poses a problem, since attachment and devoting resources to another species are, in theory, fitness-reducing. Three attempts to account for pet keeping are discussed, as are the problems with these views. Pet keeping is placed into the context of other forms of interspecific associations. From this, an alternative Darwinian explanation is proposed: pets are viewed as manipulating human responses that had evolved to facilitate human relationships, primarily (but not exclusively) those between parent and child. The precise mechanisms that enable pets to elicit caregiving from humans are elaborated. They involve features that provide the initial attraction, such as neotenous characteristics, and those that enable the human owner to derive continuing satisfaction from interacting with the pet, such as the attribution of mental processes to human-like organisms. These mechanisms can, in some circumstances, cause pet owners to derive more satisfaction from their pet relationship than those with humans, because they supply a type of unconditional relationship that is usually absent from those with other human beings.
Lorenz's concept of "babyness" as an innate releaser for infant caretaking behavior was investigated in relation to its developmental aspects. 20 males and 20 females at grade levels 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, and adults were presented with pairs of slides depicting human adults, human infants, animal adults, and animal infants and asked for their preference. Results indicated that for females there was a striking change in preference from adults to infants occurring between grades 6 and 8. Males also showed a significant increase in infant preference, but it was not so dramatic and occurred at least 2 years later. There was no difference in preference for animal versus human slides.
Do we read character in faces? What information do faces actually provide? Why do we associate certain facial qualities with particular character traits? What are the social and psychological consequences of reading character in faces? Zebrowitz unmasks the face and provides the first systematic, scientific account of our tendency to judge people by their appearance. Offering an in-depth analysis of two appearance qualities that influence our impressions of others, babyfaceness" and attractiveness", and an account of these impressions, Zebrowitz has written an accessible and valuable book for professionals and general readers alike.The assumption that people's faces provide a window to their inner nature has a long and distinguished history, eloquently expressed in the works of ancient philosophers, like Aristotle, and great writers, like Shakespeare. Zebrowitz examines this assumption, focusing on four central points. She shows that facial appearance, particularly babyfaceness and attractiveness, has a strong impact on how we perceive an individual's character traits and on social outcomes in the workplace, in the criminal justice system, and in other settings. She proposes that facial stereotypes derive from evolutionarily adaptive reactions to useful information that faces can provide. She assesses the accuracy of facial stereotypes in light of plausible links between appearance and character. Finally, Zebrowitz suggests ways to counteract the consequences of reading faces.
A 35-item questionnaire (DAQ: Dog Attachment Questionnaire) involving 5-point Likert responses to items designed to measure aspects of attachment to a pet/companion animal dog was constructed. The content was derived from theoretical treatments of adult human attachment, used in a broad sense as equivalent to an affectional bond. Items based on four groupings were modified for a pet dog. Two samples of dog owners (n = 112 and 306, respectively) were used to investigate the factor structure of the questionnaire, using first exploratory and then confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The questionnaire showed high overall internal consistency, it indicated a high level of attachment to the pets, and factor analysis indicated a four-factor solution, which was replicated using CFA in Sample 2. Three of these factors produced reliable subscales, indicating (1) degree of closeness with the pet; (2) caring and protecting the pet, and companionship; (3) as a secure base and a source of emotional comfort and well-being. In sample 2, Total DAQ scores were positively related to a single-item pictorial measure of attachment to the dog, and were higher for women than men but not associated with age or duration of ownership.
Discusses the role of selection based on particular human propensities in the evolution of artifacts. Changes in teddy bear appearance since 1903 are related to K. Lorenz's (1950) suggestion that certain key features elicit nurturance and affection and that dolls and cartoon characters are influenced by this dynamic. (5 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Relationships whose loss triggers grief are termed “relationships of attachment.” These relationships are pair-bond relationships, parental attachments to children, transference relationships to helpers, and persisting childlike attachments to parents. Because these relationships share significant characteristics, it is proposed that they are developments of a single socio-emotional system—the attachment system of children. This point of view permits a unified treatment of a number of topics, including the threats that elicit attachment emotions and behaviors, the impact of loss, the nature and course of recovery from loss, impediments to recovery, and the forms taken by failures to recover.
A clearly written and detailed survey of the area where psychology, physiology, and ethology overlap. Harvard Book List (edited) 1971 #219 (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Natural selection leads to maladaptive behavior through several interrelated means. New adaptations may be constrained by designs resulting from past adaptations, there may be maladaptive by-products of adaptive responses, and environments may change faster than the capacity to respond to them. The behavior of hosts of avian brood parasites provides an example, and it is argued that human pet keeping is another, involving the manipulation of human responses that evolved for other purposes. This leads to strong attachments by humans to their pets, which are underpinned by the following: (a) infant schema, which may be maintained in adult pets; (b) anthropomorphism; (c) motherese or infant-directed speech, which further facilitates the development of the human-pet bond; and (d) the ability to regard attachments to pets more favorably than those to humans. Adaptations by pet species facilitate human attachments, and support the view that pets manipulate the human owners.
In 1943 Konrad Lorenz postulated that certain infantile cues served as releasers for caretaking behaviour in human adults. This study is an attempt to confirm this hypothesis and to identify relevant cues. The stimuli studied were variations in facial features, and the responses were ratings of the attractiveness of the resultant infant faces. Parametric variations of eye height, eye width, eye height and width, iris size, and vertical variations in feature position (all presented in full-face drawings) were tested for their effect on the ratings, and highly significant preferences for particular stimuli were found. In general these preferences are consistent across a wide variety of environmental factors such as social class and experience with children. These findings are consistent with an ethological interpretation of the data.
The Panda's Thumb Gender differences in human–animal interactions: a review Ethology and developmental psychol-ogy. In: Carmichael's Manual of Child Psychology
- S J Gould
- H A Herzog
- E H Hess
Gould, S. J. 1980: The Panda's Thumb. Norton, New York. (Penguin edition, 1983) Herzog, H. A. 2007: Gender differences in human–animal interactions: a review. Anthrozoö s 20, 7—21. Hess, E. H. 1970: Ethology and developmental psychol-ogy. In: Carmichael's Manual of Child Psychology, 3rd edn, Vol. 1 (Mussen, P. H. ed.). Wiley, New York, pp. 1—38.
Attachment and Loss Loss: Sadness and Depression
- J Bowlby
Bowlby, J. 1980: Attachment and Loss, Volume 3. Loss: Sadness and Depression. The Hogarth Press & Institute of Psychoanalysis, London. (Penguin edition, 1981).
Attachment and Loss, Volume 1. Attachment. The Hogarth Press & Institute of Psycho-analysis
- J Bowlby
Bowlby, J. 1969: Attachment and Loss, Volume 1. Attachment. The Hogarth Press & Institute of Psycho-analysis, London. (Penguin edition, 1971).
The attachment bond in childhood and adulthood
- R S Weiss
Weiss, R. S. 1991: The attachment bond in childhood
and adulthood. In: Attachment Across the Life Cycle
(Parkes, C. M., Stevenson-Hinde, J. & Marris, P., eds).
Semantic and conceptual issues in the nature-nurture problem. In: The Development and Evolution of Behavior
- D A Lehrman
Lehrman, D. A. 1970: Semantic and conceptual issues in the nature-nurture problem. In: The Development and Evolution of Behavior (Aronson, L. S., Tobach, E., Lehrman, D. S. & Rosenblatt, J. S., eds). W.H. Free-man, San Francisco, pp. 17—52.
Attachment. The Hogarth Press & Institute of Psychoanalysis
- J Bowlby
Bowlby, J. 1969: Attachment and Loss, Volume 1.
Attachment. The Hogarth Press & Institute of Psychoanalysis, London. (Penguin edition, 1971).
Loss: Sadness and Depression. The Hogarth Press & Institute of Psychoanalysis
- J Bowlby
Bowlby, J. 1980: Attachment and Loss, Volume 3. Loss:
Sadness and Depression. The Hogarth Press & Institute
of Psychoanalysis, London. (Penguin edition, 1981).
Ethology and developmental psychology. In: Carmichael's Manual of Child Psychology
- E H Hess
Hess, E. H. 1970: Ethology and developmental psychology. In: Carmichael's Manual of Child Psychology, 3rd
edn, Vol. 1 (Mussen, P. H. ed.). Wiley, New York,
pp. 1-38.
⁄ 1971: Part and parcel in animal and human societies
- K Lorenz
Lorenz, K.1950 ⁄ 1971: Part and parcel in animal and
human societies. In: Studies in Animal and Human
Behaviour, Vol. 2 (Lorenz, K. ed.; Martin, R. Trans.),
Methuen, Londo, pp. 115-195.
Pet keeping: a case study in non-adaptive behavior The Oxford Handbook of Evolutionary Family Psychology Shackelford
- J Archer