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Preferences for Infant Facial Features in Pet Dogs and Cats
Abstract
A set of infant features (large forehead, large and low-lying eyes, and bulging cheeks), were described in classical ethology as social releasers, simple stimuli that evoke a stereotyped response, in this case nurturing. We assessed the attractiveness of such features in the faces of dogs or cats (adults and young) or teddy bears or human infants, and also related these preferences to the degree of attachment to a pet. Overall, faces with the infant features were rated as more attractive than those without. Human infant faces were no more attractive than those of kittens or puppies. Pet faces were rated as more attractive by pet owners than non-pet owners, regardless of whether the faces had infant features. A preference was also found for infant features in teddy bear faces. Women showed higher ratings than men for pets with infant features, but not for human infants or pets without infant features. Parents found human infants’ faces more attractive than did non-parents, but there were no differences for other faces with infant features. Preferences were to some extent specific to the participant’s preferred pet species. Owners who were more strongly attached to their pets showed stronger preferences for photographs with infant features. The findings are discussed in terms of the concept of social releaser, and its part in the development of attachment to a pet species.
... Regarding animal characteristics, people generally do not see all animals as equal, as their physical and behavioral traits play a role in how they are perceived, considered and treated [12,17,51]. Humans tend to prefer animals that are phylogenetically close to them and perceived as physically, behaviorally or cognitively similar; these aspects trigger more positive affect and attachment and caregiving behaviors, as well as greater empathy and a higher concern in terms of welfare and conservation [52][53][54][55][56][57]. At the same time, in all human societies, animals are ranked on a "ladder of worth" as is almost everything else, including other humans [58,59]. ...
... Empathy towards animals could be a psychological "side effect" of adaptive empathy towards humans, triggered by animals' signals, behaviors and physical characteristics that resemble those promoting empathy and caring towards humans, particularly infants [154,155]. Empathy probably evolved in the context of parental care, and its affective component covaries with the cute response elicited by the "baby schema" [56,126,154,156]. Infant-like animals trigger empathic responses and various studies have linked cuteness to increased empathy and compassion [157][158][159][160] and caretaking [161,162]. ...
... Infant-like animals trigger empathic responses and various studies have linked cuteness to increased empathy and compassion [157][158][159][160] and caretaking [161,162]. There is evidence, for example, that humans find one-day-old chicks, kittens and puppies cute and value nonhuman faces with infant features, such as those of puppies and kittens, as attractive as baby faces [17,56,77,163,164]. The existence of a biological mechanism deeply rooted in parenting that could account for empathy towards animals is also suggested by the large diffusion of pet-keeping and interspecific nurturant behavior, which are general human traits [42,77,154]. ...
The human–animal relationship is ancient, complex and multifaceted. It may have either
positive effects on humans and animals or poor or even negative and detrimental effects on animals or both humans and animals. A large body of literature has investigated the beneficial effects of this relationship in which both human and animals appear to gain physical and psychological benefits from living together in a reciprocated interaction. However, analyzing the literature with a different perspective it clearly emerges that not rarely are human–animal relationships characterized by different forms and levels of discomfort and suffering for animals and, in some cases, also for people.
The negative physical and psychological consequences on animals’ well-being may be very nuanced and concealed, but there are situations in which the negative consequences are clear and striking, as in the case of animal violence, abuse or neglect. Empathy, attachment and anthropomorphism are human psychological mechanisms that are considered relevant for positive and healthy relationships with animals, but when dysfunctional or pathological determine physical or psychological suffering, or both, in animals as occurs in animal hoarding. The current work reviews some of the literature on the multifaceted nature of the human–animal relationship; describes the key role of empathy, attachment and anthropomorphism in human–animal relationships; seeks to depict how these
psychological processes are distorted and dysfunctional in animal hoarding, with highly detrimental effects on both animal and human well-being.
... Cuteness and what individuals find attractive are highly subjective. However, infant features have been linked to increases in perceived cuteness in humans, non-animate objects, and animals [17][18][19][20][21]. Objective measures of baby schema have been developed previously through facial parameter measurements and manipulations. ...
... However, infant features have been linked to increases in perceived cuteness in humans, non-animate objects, and animals [17][18][19][20][21]. Objective measures of baby schema have been developed previously through facial parameter measurements and manipulations. These objective measurements were found to be associated with subjective cuteness scores, which were established by participants rating the 'cuteness' of a set of infant-related images [16,18,22,23]. Glocker et al. [16] developed a protocol that captures baby schema with six facial parameters and then used these to manipulate images of human infants to express high and low levels of baby schema. ...
... The high baby schema images were rated as 'cuter' than the low baby schema images when assessed by a panel of participants. Archer and Monton [18] did a comparative study of images of adult and infant humans, as well as cats, dogs and teddy bears, which expressed high and low levels of baby schema. This study found that the images with a larger forehead to face length ratio were the ones that expressed high levels of baby schema and were found to be the most attractive. ...
Several factors may influence cats’ length of stay (LoS) within the shelter environment. The aim of this study was to investigate the potential influence that baby schema (characteristic facial features of infants, related to perceived ‘cuteness’) has on cats’ length of stay (LoS) in an animal shelter. Other factors such as paired-homing requirements, adoption profile (adverts to encourage the adoption of a specific animal) wording, coat colour, sex and age were also explored. Objective ‘cuteness’ scores were created by measuring specific facial features of 165 shelter cats. Several proportions of the cats’ faces were explored to identify the best objective measure of cuteness, including elements which have been found to associate with cuteness in cats and humans and new exploratory eye measurements. Subjective cuteness scores were developed by participants rating the ‘cuteness’ of the cat from ‘1-Not very cute’ to ‘5-Extremely cute’ through two online surveys; survey 1 investigated the cats’ social nature as well as cuteness while the second only looked at cuteness. The subjective cuteness scores were used to validate the objective cuteness scores. Th analysis found that subjective cuteness in survey 1 was the only variable of influence on LoS. A novel objective cuteness measurement was developed which reflects the eye shape associated with subjective cuteness scores. The current study found that cuteness may not be as influential on cats’ LoS in shelters as hypothesised. This research looks to understand factors which influence LoS to help identify potential methods to reduce time spent in shelters and improve the welfare of cats within these environments.
... The factors that influenced the success of brachycephalic breeds are well known by authors in UK, Denmark and the USA, where many studies have been conducted [37,38]. The lovers of the brachycephalic breeds were less influenced by health and longevity in terms of breed selection compared with non-brachycephalic dogs' owners [39,40]. ...
... A variety of different drivers have been identified to explain the popularity of English Bulldogs and French Bulldogs, including factors that influenced owners' decisions to buy brachycephalic dogs [39][40][41]. The breeds' appearances (large forehead, big eyes, round face, and bulging cheeks), good behavior, deeply affectionate temperament and good relationships with children have been described as the most important determinants driving people's desire for these breeds [17,[37][38][39]. ...
... However, the paradox that people buy breeds of dog that are predisposed to congenital heart diseases was also evidenced in our study, and, as reported elsewhere, fashions and trends influence many individual choices [18,19,36,37]. The owners are not often fully aware of the potential problems their dog may face prior to acquisition of a dog [38,45]. It is also possible that owners do not perceive the clinical signs of some inherited cardiac disorders as problems, but rather as normal, breed-specific characteristics (e.g., murmur in CKCS). ...
The epidemiology of Congenital Heart Diseases (CHDs) has changed over the past twenty years. This study aimed to evaluate the prevalence of CHDs in the population of dogs recruited in a single referral center (RC); compare the epidemiological features of CHDs in screened breeds (Boxers) versus non-screened (French and English Bulldogs, German Shepherds); investigate the association of breeds with the prevalence of CHDs; determine the popularity and volatility of breeds over a 20-year period; analysed the trends of the most popular breeds in the overall population of new-born dogs registered in the Italian Kennel Club (IKC) from 1st January 1997 to 31st December 2017. The RC’s cardiological database was analysed, and 1,779 clinical records were included in a retrospective observation study. Descriptive statistics and frequencies regarding the most representative breeds and CHDs were generated. A logistic regression model was used to analyse the trends of the most common CHDs found in single and in cluster of breeds. The relationship between breed popularity and presence of CHDs was studied. The most common CHDs were Pulmonic Stenosis, Patent Ductus Arteriosus, Subaortic Stenosis, Ventricular Septal Defect, Aortic Stenosis, Tricuspid Dysplasia, Atrial Septal Defect, Double Chamber Right Ventricle, Mitral Dysplasia, and others less frequent. The most represented pure breeds were Boxer, German Shepherd, French Bulldog, English Bulldog, Maltese, Newfoundland, Rottweiler, Golden Retriever, Chihuahua, and others in lower percentage. Chihuahuas, American Staffordshire Terriers, Border Collies, French Bulldogs, and Cavalier King Charles Spaniel were the most appreciated all of which showed a high value of volatility. This study found evidence for the value of the screening program implemented in Boxers; fashions and trends influence dog owners’ choices more than the worries of health problems in a breed. Effective breeding programs are needed in order to control the diffusion of CHDs without impoverishing the genetic pool.
... Research suggests that this phenomenon is found early in human development, as children as young as 3 to 6 years old were more attracted to canine than feline faces [36]. However, these preferences can be shaped over time by exposure to pets of specific species, the sex of the participant [36,37], and human personality traits [25]. Interestingly, a preference for cats over dogs was noted in both adults and children who had cats in their home when compared with those that did not, but a similar preference for dogs over cats was not found with dog ownership [36,37]. ...
... However, these preferences can be shaped over time by exposure to pets of specific species, the sex of the participant [36,37], and human personality traits [25]. Interestingly, a preference for cats over dogs was noted in both adults and children who had cats in their home when compared with those that did not, but a similar preference for dogs over cats was not found with dog ownership [36,37]. ...
Dog and cat preference has been associated with a few factors, like owner personality traits, but data regarding other aspects of preference ontogeny and the impact of preferences on pet wellbeing have yet to be examined. In this exploratory study, several of these characteristics, such as exposure to pets when young and as adults and current pet interactions and diet were analyzed from internet survey data. We found that more people identified as dog people (63.3%) versus cat people (36.7%) and preference for dogs remained consistent from childhood to adulthood compared with cats. In individuals who changed species preference, a lack of childhood exposure to cats (47.2%) was significantly associated with the group that changed preferences from dogs to cats from childhood to adulthood, compared with dog ownership as a child in the group that changed preferences from cats to dogs (24.4%). The number of cats and dogs in the home directly correlated with species preference (p < 0.001). Dwelling location was also significantly associated with species preference, with cat people being more likely to live in an urban area and dog people in a rural area (p = 0.002). More time was spent in both active and passive interactions with pets of the preferred species. Cats owned by cat people were more likely to be fed prescription diets compared with cats owned by dog people (p < 0.001). Interestingly, dog people were more likely to feed both their cats (p = 0.012) and dogs (p < 0.001) a raw diet compared with cat people. Additional research is needed to understand the development and impact of owner species preferences on pets to identify risks of suboptimal wellbeing.
... Neoteny [9] is the term that describe the retention of juvenile traits into adulthood, based on human preferences [35]. It is a common evolutionary phenomenon linked to domestication that significantly influences the physical appearance-childish-and behaviour-friendly-of animals throughout their domestication journey, and has been a driving force behind the remarkable diversity in the dog breeds that we witness today. ...
... It is a common evolutionary phenomenon linked to domestication that significantly influences the physical appearance-childish-and behaviour-friendly-of animals throughout their domestication journey, and has been a driving force behind the remarkable diversity in the dog breeds that we witness today. Thus, selective breeding for certain traits, such as a more youthful appearance, smaller size, and altered physical features, has made dogs more endearing and visually appealing to humans over thousands of years, playing a role in the likelihood of dogs being allowed to breed, adopted, and cherished as companions [35,36]. ...
The historical relationship between humans and dogs has involved selective breeding for various purposes, such as hunting, guarding, and service roles. However, over time, there has been a shift in preferences from functionality to aesthetics, which has influenced the diverse sizes, shapes, and coats of dog breeds. This review looks at fashionable dog breeding and questions the ethics of prioritising looks over health and behaviour. It aims to alert potential owners, breeders, and regulators to the importance of considering a dog’s overall well-being, not just its appearance, which has resulted in fad breeding, leading to genetic disorders, health issues, and a loss of biodiversity. Ethical concerns arise from breeding brachycephalic breeds with respiratory conditions, inbreeding causing inherited disorders, and overbreeding popular breeds while shelter dogs remain unadopted. Additionally, the impact of cosmetic surgeries on popular dog breeds, as well as the neglect of behavioural traits in favour of physical characteristics and strict breeding practices are also considered. The current breeding model can have a negative impact on the emotional and cognitive well-being of dogs, resulting in issues such as aggression, anxiety, and other behavioural problems that can significantly reduce their overall quality of life. Unregulated breeding practices and the demand for rare breeds can lead to illegal breeding, compromising animal welfare. Prospective owners, veterinarians, kennel clubs, and legislators all need to play a responsible role in protecting animals.
... Research into the cute effect using animal images as stimuli has produced broadly similar results. People often show preferences for mammalian young, such as puppies and kittens, rather than older animals (Archer & Monton, 2011;Lehmann et al., 2013), and for animal images modified to have infant-like facial features (e.g., Little, 2012). Archer and Monton (2011) found that dog, cat, and teddy bear faces classified as being higher in kindchenschema facial features were rated more positively by observers. ...
... People often show preferences for mammalian young, such as puppies and kittens, rather than older animals (Archer & Monton, 2011;Lehmann et al., 2013), and for animal images modified to have infant-like facial features (e.g., Little, 2012). Archer and Monton (2011) found that dog, cat, and teddy bear faces classified as being higher in kindchenschema facial features were rated more positively by observers. Hecht and Horowitz (2015) demonstrated that modifying facial images of dogs and cats to look more infantile, in particular by increasing relative eye size (and eye separation), significantly influenced people's preferences. ...
Brachycephalic dog breeds have become increasingly popular in recent years, despite showing a high incidence of conformation-related disorders and early mortality. It has been suggested that this popularity might be explained by public perceptions of these short-muzzled dogs as looking particularly infant-like or “cute.” Here, the hypothesis that short-muzzled breeds are especially likely to be described as cute was investigated by analyzing the word contents of advertisements for dogs and puppies being sold online. The ages and breeds of dogs being advertised were considered, in addition to whether the text of each advertisement included the word “cute” or two associated words: “adorable” and “sweet.” Analyses of the entire sample of advertisements (n = 43,312) indicated that younger dogs were more likely to be advertised as “cute” and “adorable,” while older ones were more likely to be advertised as “sweet.” Short-muzzled, brachycephalic breeds (cranio-facial ratio < 0.5) were more likely to be advertised as “cute,” with brachycephalic puppies under 6 months of age being particularly likely to be called “cute” and also “adorable.” However, breed size had a larger and wider effect on word use in advertisements, with smaller dogs being advertised more frequently using all three words: “cute,” “adorable,” and “sweet.” When data for adult dogs only were considered (n = 11,400), and continuous muzzle shortening and age data were used, a somewhat different and more complex pattern of results were found. Use of the words “cute” and “adorable” were not associated with degree of muzzle shortening among these adult dogs, but “sweet” was used more often in advertisements for longer-muzzled breeds. We conclude that the present dataset provides partial support for the assertion that short-muzzled dogs are described as more “cute” than longer-muzzled ones, but that small size is a better predictor of the use of “cute” and its synonyms.
... Hyper-attachment to the owner was significantly associated with separation anxiety in the dog, but it has not been proven in the cat [73]. Brachycephalic breeds have been selected for a neotenous appearance, favouring consequently neotenous behaviours, such as attachment and behavioural dependency, to satisfy specific human needs [52,74]. The correlation between the high score of separation-related problems and the presence of respiratory difficulties during/after feeding can underline that the onset of disease or clinical symptoms may contribute to the attachment process by acting as releasers of parental nurturing and caregiving behaviour [25,75]. ...
... The attraction of infant characteristics in companion animals can potentially influence the human-animal bond, and there is evidence that the degree of attachment reported by the owners is associated with their rating of the overall attractiveness of dogs and cats showing infant features. [31,74]. Moreover, dogs perceived as cute by owners were perceived to also be friendly, safe, and affectionate [84]. ...
Persian and exotic shorthair cats are the most-popular brachycephalic breeds worldwide. This study aimed to explore differences in human-cat bonding, behavioural traits, perception of clinical breed-related problems, and the motivation for purchasing between brachycephalic cat owners (BCOs) and non-brachycephalic cat owners (NBCOs). Using an online questionnaire, human-cat bonding and cats’ behavioural traits were explored using the CORS and Fe-BARQ scales, respectively. Breed-related problems and motivations for purchasing were explored only in BCOs. There were 278 BCOs and 250 NBCOs who completed the survey. Respiratory diseases resulted in being the main health problem of these breeds. Most BCOs were not aware of the incidence of these disorders in brachycephalic cats. Character and appearance were the main motivations for purchasing these breeds. Perceived emotional closeness (EC), cat-owner interaction (COI), and perceived cost (PC) mean scores were significantly higher in BCOs. Playfulness and affection-/attention-seeking scores were significantly higher in NBCOs. BCOs reported a significantly higher score for separation-related behaviours. The higher scores in separation-anxiety-related behaviours and in the EC and COI scales could be related mainly to the high level of care these breeds require. The motivation for acquiring brachycephalic breeds for good companionship seems in contrast with the lower scores obtained from BCOs for playfulness and affection-/attention-seeking.
... In the wolf, in contrast, the LAOM is small and surrounded by connective tissue, so the difference in movement in the AU101 region is greater in dogs [63]. This specific feature of the eyebrows in dogs is associated with dog-human interactions, which leads the latter to prefer certain breeds [65] (Figure 3). In comparison, observations of Siberian dogs, close relatives of the wolf, show little expressiveness in the eyes, because their muscular fibers are scarce and surrounded by large amounts of connective tissue, which impedes eyebrow movement. ...
... An example of this is the elevator of the eyebrow, which enlarges the eyes. Humans tend to associate this appearance with tenderness and care-motivation [65,66]. Although it has not been possible to demonstrate whether this characteristic represents a selection or preference advantage in humans [56], it is suggested that it may influence the interpretation of the mental state (a sensory state triggered by the perception of a specific stimulus). ...
Animals’ facial expressions are involuntary responses that serve to communicate the emotions that individuals feel. Due to their close co-existence with humans, broad attention has been given to identifying these expressions in certain species, especially dogs. This review aims to analyze and discuss the advances in identifying the facial expressions of domestic dogs and their clinical utility in recognizing pain as a method to improve daily practice and, in an accessible and effective way, assess the health outcome of dogs. This study focuses on aspects related to the anatomy and physiology of facial expressions in dogs, their emotions, and evaluations of their eyebrows, eyes, lips, and ear positions as changes that reflect pain or nociception. In this regard, research has found that dogs have anatomical configurations that allow them to generate changes in their expressions that similar canids—wolves, for example—cannot produce. Additionally, dogs can perceive emotions similar to those of their human tutors due to close human-animal interaction. This phenomenon—called “emotional contagion”—is triggered precisely by the dog’s capacity to identify their owners’ gestures and then react by emitting responses with either similar or opposed expressions that correspond to positive or negative stimuli, respectively. In conclusion, facial expressions are essential to maintaining social interaction between dogs and other species, as in their bond with humans. Moreover, this provides valuable information on emotions and the perception of pain, so in dogs, they can serve as valuable elements for recognizing and evaluating pain in clinical settings.
... En cuanto a la empatía hacia los animales, algunos investigadores han sugerido que se desarrolla de manera similar que hacia los humanos (Ascione, 1992;Borgi & Cirulli, 2016;Ruckert, 2016). Diversos estudios han mostrado que los bebés manifiestan interés y motivación hacia los animales (Archer & Monton, 2011;DeLoache, Pickard, & LoBue, 2011;Little, 2012;LoBue, Bloom Pickard, Sherman, Axford, & DeLoache, 2012;Sanefuji, Ohgami, & Hashiya, 2007). Estas motivaciones se acompañan frecuentemente de respuestas emocionales positivas. ...
... Los resultados encontrados muestran que cuando observaron a un animal ante un problema, tanto los niños como las niñas actuaron empáticamente hacia el animal, ayudándolo a recuperar la cuchara con alimento. En relación con estos resultados, investigaciones previas han observado que desde muy pequeños los niños tienen preferencia y motivación afectiva hacia algunos animales (Archer & Monton, 2011;DeLoache et al., 2011;Little, 2012;Maestripieri & Pelka, 2002;Sanefuji et al., 2007). De igual modo, el presente estudio presenta evidencia empírica acerca de la empatía que muestran los niños con un animal cuando lo observan ante una dificultad o problema. ...
El estudio de las conductas empáticas de los niños hacia los animales resulta de suma importancia, ya que podría contribuir al diseño de estrategias de intervención contra la violencia hacia los animales y, por extensión, hacia las personas. Sin embargo, esta temática ha sido poco estudiada. La presente investigación tuvo por objetivo explorar si los niños pequeños muestran conductas empáticas (conductas de ayuda) hacia los animales, específicamente hacia los perros domésticos. Para tal fin, se presentó a un grupo de niños de entre 18 a 38 meses de edad una situación en la que observaba a un perro que no podía acceder al alimento que se encontraba dentro de una caja. Se registraba el comportamiento del niño ante tal situación. Los resultados muestran que cuando observaron al animal ante un problema, los niños se comportaron de manera empática ayudándolo a lograr sus objetivos. Do children empathize with a dog? An empirical study of helping behaviors in young children. The study of the empathic behaviors of children towards animals is of utmost importance since it could contribute to the design of intervention strategies against violence towards animals and, by extension, towards people. However, this topic has been little studied. The objective of this study was to explore whether young children show empathetic behaviors (helping behaviors) towards animals, specifically towards domestic dogs. To this end, children were presented with a task in which they observed a dog facing a problem; the dog could not access the food that was inside a box. The behavior of the child in such situation was recorded. Twenty children between 18 and 38-months-of-age participated. The results showed that when children observed the animal facing a problem, they helped the animal to achieve its objectives, that is, children acted empathetically.
... Physical characteristics of dogs influence the human-dog interaction. Compared to adult dogs, puppies are more likely to evoke our nurturing instinct and more quickly and easily form a stronger attachment with humans [7,8]. Smaller dogs are generally perceived as less obedient, more anxious, fearful, excitable and aggressive [9], while larger dogs are thought to be more cooperative and playful [10]. ...
... A higher score of factor H represented a higher satisfaction of the walk. Walker's perception of dog factor (Factor D) utilised responses to questions 1,7,8,9,12,13. A higher score of factor D indicated that the dog was considered more supportive and better behaved. ...
Inappropriate leash reactivity is one of the most common problems in shelter dogs, which negatively affects the health of dogs and reduces their adoptability. We explored 370 human-dog interactions, involving 74 volunteers and 111 dogs, in an animal shelter when volunteers walked shelter dogs on a leash, considering the effects of canine demographics and the results of the shelter’s canine behavioural assessments. The interaction was video recorded and coded using ethograms, and a leash tension meter was used to measure the pull strength of dogs and handlers. Results showed that dogs that were more relaxed during the shelter assessment (i.e., when socialising with humans or being left alone in a new environment) were less reactive on the leash, with lower tension and pulling frequency. Moreover, socialised and relaxed dogs displayed more positive body language, such as tail in a high position, gazing at the handler, and exploring the environment. When walking with these dogs, volunteers utilised fewer verbal cues and body language during the walk. In addition to the canine behaviour assessment, there were correlations between canine demographics and the behavioural interaction and humans’ perception. Finally, volunteers perceived the walk as less satisfactory when they needed to pull the leash harder during the walk. This research suggests that the RSPCA behavioural assessment may be useful in predicting the behaviour of shelter dogs when walked by volunteers.
... Owners who rated a flat face shape as one of their top three most appealing physical traits in a dog were more likely to express this view, which may reflect their relative sensitivity to the baby schema, as explored above [37]. Attraction to infant features in dogs has complex effects, including being associated with the degree of attachment that owners report to their own pets [40,41]. Indeed, the dog-owner relationship in extreme brachycephalic breeds (specifically Bulldogs, French Bulldogs, and Pugs), as quantified by Monash Dog Owner Relationship Scale (MDORS) scores [42], has been found to be higher for these breeds across all three MDORS subscales (perceived emotional closeness, perceived costs, dog-owner interactions) than other recent studies utilising this tool in other breeds [43][44][45]. ...
The popularity of brachycephalic dogs has increased worldwide despite growing evidence of their profound health and welfare issues, largely as a result of their extreme conformation. This study aimed to evaluate the prevalence and risk factors for known perceptual barriers to improving their welfare. An online survey of n = 2006 UK dog owners was conducted, including owners of non-brachycephalic (non-BC; n = 964), mild-moderate brachycephalic (M-BC; n = 706), and extreme brachycephalic (E-BC; n = 336) dogs. The survey explored contemporary knowledge and attitudes toward brachycephalic dogs, with multivariable statistical analyses identifying risk factors for normalisation of brachycephaly-related abnormalities, preference for flat faces and ‘laziness’ in dogs, and self-reported intractability to being deterred from buying a brachycephalic breed. Almost 1 in 7 E-BC owners considered that there was ‘nothing’ that could dissuade them from buying a brachycephalic dog, predicted by a strong preference for flat faces as a highly desirable aesthetic characteristic and beliefs that brachycephaly did not negatively impact lifespan. E-BC owners were most likely to consider flat faces a highly desirable aesthetic characteristic, predicted by highly valuing ‘laziness’ as a behavioural characteristic. Preference for ‘laziness’ as a behavioural characteristic was predicted by low levels of pre-purchase research and aesthetic preferences (e.g., flat faces, large size). High levels of normalisation of brachycephaly-related abnormalities were observed across all ownership groups, particularly for clinical signs related to exercise intolerance, with these beliefs predicted by deficits in dog acquisition behaviours and knowledge, and intractability from being deterred from purchasing a flat-faced dog. These findings highlight the pervasiveness of perceptual barriers that inhibit campaigning regarding brachycephaly and the need for targeted interventions to address misconceptions (e.g., ‘myth busting’ laziness as a positive trait), while being mindful of the heterogeneity of beliefs within the brachycephalic-owning population, particularly the intractable sub-population to whom shifting preferences away from flat-faced conformations may prove impossible without stronger measures, e.g., legislative change.
... The findings revealed that the most attractive faces across all species were not those of neonates, but rather of infants several months old. Humans perceive the attractiveness of heterospecific faces using the same criteria as they do for conspecific infants [30,31]. Hence, if infantile facial features are shared across animal taxa [8], this suggests the potential existence of non-linear development of infantile faces in non-human species. ...
Facial features of immature individuals play a pivotal role in eliciting caretaking behaviors in humans. It has been posited that non-human animals share particular infantile facial features with humans, which can elicit caregivers’ attention and caretaking behaviors. Nevertheless, the empirical examination of this hypothesis is extremely limited. In this study, we investigated infantile facial features in Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata), their developmental processes, and their correlation with caretaking and infant behaviors, based on 470 facial photographs from one free-ranging group. We measured the size of facial parts and evaluated these features using non-contact procedures with the animals. The results indicated that, although some partial species differences were observed, the infantile facial features in Japanese macaques were broadly consistent with those previously observed in humans and great apes. Furthermore, half of the infant subjects displayed non-linear developmental trajectories of infantile faces, similar to those suggested in humans. However, unlike previous studies in humans, infantile faces were not significantly associated with maternal or non-maternal caretaking behaviors, nor were their developmental changes correlated with infant behavioral development. These findings indicate that while many aspects of infantile facial features are shared among particular primates, humans may have evolved a uniquely elevated preference for selecting such features among the primate lineage.
... On the other hand, cats have been reported to react differently to their owner's voice compared to a stranger's voice (de Mouzon et al., 2023, Saito andShinozuka, 2013), suggesting the importance of everyday interactions between cats and their humans for developing stronger bonds. Furthermore, recent literature has been pointing out to a "parent-child" like attachment bond between humans and cats, both from the human's perspective (Archer andMonton, 2011, Bouma et al., 2022;de Mouzon et al., 2022, Finka et al., 2019 and from the cat's perspective (Behnke et al., 2021, Schwartz, 2002. This evoluting bond between cats and humans should be taken into account when considering cats' position in our contemporary society. ...
As a central key to apprehend the human-cat relationship, the question of how humans decode the behaviours expressed by their feline companions has drawn scientists’ attention in the past decades. To this point, previous studies have not investigated humans’ understanding of cats’ communicative cues in a multimodal perspective. While communication generally implies multiple channels, the influence of signal modality as relates to human-cat communication, is still poorly understood. Therefore, the primary aim of the present study was to investigate whether people can identify cats’ communicative information using unimodal (visual or vocal) and bimodal (visual and vocal) signals. Participants (n=630) were recruited via online advertisement on social media. Each participant viewed 24 carefully operationalised video clips of cats in different emotional/behavioural conditions. Four categories were included: contentment, discontentment, solicitation (food or attention) and predatory behaviour. Clips were presented as vocal only, visual only, or bimodal (visual and vocal cues). Video clips showing a bimodal expression were identified with the highest score (91,8% of correct ratings) compared with the visual only (87,3%) and the vocal only (72,2%). All modalities considered, contentment returned the highest identification score (90,1% correct), followed by solicitation (87,2%), then predatory behaviour (86,3%). Discontentment was the most difficult behaviour to be correctly identified (71,6%). Finally, for all behavioural categories and modalities, professionals working with animals returned a higher score than lay people (86.2% vs 82.9%). Taken together, our data underline the influence of the signal modality on interspecific communication between cats and humans. Information emitted by cats as a bimodal signal (visual and vocal) is better understood by humans than visual signals. The most difficult to decipher for humans are vocal signals emitted alone. A better understanding of humans’ abilities to understand their feline counterparts, could potentially help pet owners, and animal care practitioners to optimise cat care and welfare.
... A specific facial muscle has even been described in dogs, functioning to raise the inner corner of the eyebrow, making them appear cuter and more appealing to humans, presumably giving them a selective advantage (Kaminski et al., 2019;Waller et al., 2013). Humans find child-like facial features, including big eyes, to be generally more appealing in dogs than fully mature-like eyes (Archer and Monton, 2011), yet human preference for dogs making eye contact with them has not been confirmed (Bognár and Kubinyi, 2023). Regarding ears, the two breeds featured in this study differ in the ear shape (large, rigidly erect, bat-like ears in the Boston Terrier compared to semi-hanging, V-shaped, forward-facing ears of the Jack Russell Terrier). ...
... Neoteny refers to the retention of juvenile features in adult animals (Beck, 2014). Research demonstrates a preference towards this juvenile appearance in animals that display baby schema, round face, large eyes, small nose, and mouth (e.g., Archer and Monton, 2010;Estren, 2012;Piazza et al., 2018). For example, Fridlund and MacDonald (2015) found that passers-by were more likely to stop and approach a younger puppy compared to an older puppy. ...
The aim of this study was to explore whether different durations of canine-assisted intervention (CAI) influenced the beneficial effects of CAI on anxiety, stress, depression, and the well-being of higher education (HE) students. Eighty-eight participants took part in an exploratory randomised control trial (RCT) and were assigned to the 2, 5, and 10-min CAI groups who interacted with a canine, or a control group who watched an unrelated slideshow. Pre- and post-intervention anxiety, stress, depression, and well-being levels were measured. Additionally, the type of interaction between humans and canines was recorded as well as participants’ views of the canines’ neoteny (juvenile features) to explore whether interaction activity and canine features have an impact on the beneficial positive effects of CAI. The results showed no differences in the duration of CAI in reducing anxiety, stress, and depression, meaning a 2-min CAI session was as effective as a 10-min session. The results also found individual intervention activities between humans and canines did not predict a reduction in anxiety, stress, depression, or an increase in general well-being. Additionally, a negative correlation was found between the cuteness of the canine and anxiety, and between the cuddliness of the canine and stress, although these results should be interpreted with caution due to high canine trait scores. Overall, this study used a CAI and control group to explore the differences between a single 2, 5, and 10-min CAI sessions in HE students and demonstrated a 2-min CAI session was as effective as a longer 10-min CAI session in supporting the mental health of HE students, by reducing anxiety, stress, and depression levels in the treatment group.
... The infantile feature of large, low-lying eyes in brachycephalic dogs has been demonstrated to increase their attractiveness to humans, particularly to women [34,56]. Similar to results reported by Steinmetz et al. (2017), it was reassuring that a large proportion of owners were satisfied with the cosmetic outcome of MC (87.5%, 56/64) despite the change in the appearance of their dog's eyes [57], with the pre-existing dog-owner bond (which is reported to be high with brachycephalic breeds, particularly with Pug owners [23]) possibly making relatively minor changes in their dog's appearance more tolerable. ...
Brachycephalic breeds have increased in popularity despite growing awareness of their predisposition to a wide range of conformation-related diseases. The extreme facial conformation of many popular brachycephalic breeds compromises their ocular surface health, increasing the risk of painful corneal ulceration. Medial canthoplasty (MC) is a surgical procedure to address ocular abnormalities in brachycephalic dogs, which are collectively referred to as brachycephalic ocular syndrome (BOS). This study retrospectively reviewed the records of dogs recommended MC at a referral hospital between 2016 and 2021. A questionnaire was designed to identify owners’ perceptions pre- and post-operatively. From 271 brachycephalic dogs recommended MC, 43.5% (118/271) underwent surgery and 72.0% (85/118) were Pugs. The majority of dogs (73.7%, 87/118) that underwent surgery had current or historical corneal ulceration. Follow-up was available in 104 dogs, of which 5.7% (6/104) had corneal ulceration post-operatively. Sixty-four owners completed the questionnaire and reported post-operative corneal ulceration in 12.5% of dogs (8/64), reduced ocular discharge (70.8%, 34/48), reduced ocular irritation (67.7%, 21/31) and less periocular cleaning (52.5%, 32/61). Owners were satisfied with the clinical (85.9%, 55/64) and cosmetic (87.5%, 56/64) outcome. In conclusion, MC has high clinical relevance for the surgical management of BOS, restoring functional conformation and improving the quality of life of affected dogs.
... The attitude was found to be influenced by demographic features, with younger people and women being more likely to have a positive attitude compared to older people and men. This may be due to their increased sensitivity to the baby schema effect (Archer and Monton, 2011;Glocker et al., 2009;Lehmann et al., 2013). Furthermore, parents had a more positive attitude towards brachycephalism than those without children. ...
... There is some evidence that an infantile appearance in non-human animals may be similarly related to caretaking behaviour 9,[15][16][17][18] , but this has been tested exclusively in human perceivers. There are also some studies manipulating the extent of babyness in animal faces and testing the effect of the manipulation on cuteness evaluation by humans 16,19 , but the manipulations were based on developmental changes in human faces and were not www.nature.com/scientificreports/ ...
Infants across species are thought to exhibit specific facial features (termed the “baby schema”, such as a relatively bigger forehead and eyes, and protruding cheeks), with an adaptive function to induce caretaking behaviour from adults. There is abundant empirical evidence for this in humans, but, surprisingly, the existence of a baby schema in non-human animals has not been scientifically demonstrated. We investigated which facial characteristics are shared across infants in five species of great apes: humans, chimpanzees, bonobos, mountain gorillas, and Bornean orangutans. We analysed eight adult and infant faces for each species (80 images in total) using geometric morphometric analysis and machine learning. We found two principal components characterizing infant faces consistently observed across species. These included (1) relatively bigger eyes located lower in the face, (2) a rounder and vertically shorter face shape, and (3) an inverted triangular face shape. While these features are shared, human infant faces are unique in that the second characteristic (round face shape) is more pronounced, whereas the third (inverted triangular face shape) is less pronounced than other species. We also found some infantile features only found in some species. We discuss future directions to investigate the baby schema using an evolutionary approach.
... Interestingly, as noted, domestication results in neotenic, childish features, which are expected to increase our affiliative and empathic responses, and ultimately, to promote our prosociality. For instance, research conducted by Archer and Monton (2010) showed that infant features in the faces of dogs (young or adult) function as social releasers and evoke an affiliative response in humans, with pet owners who are more strongly attached to their pets showing stronger preferences for images of animals with infant features. According to our view, the ultimate triggering factor of the hypothesized feedback loop would have been the integration of the wolf into the human social structure, which was previously characterized by family-based groups with only little permeability, with the only exception of the assimilation of mating partners to avoid inbreeding (Sikora et al., 2017). ...
Different factors seemingly account for the emergence of present-day languages in our species. Human self-domestication has been recently invoked as one important force favouring language complexity mostly via a cultural mechanism. As a consequence, evolutionary changes impacting on aggression levels are expected to have fostered this process. Here we hypothesise about a positive effect of dog-human interactions on aggression management and more generally, on our self-domestication, ultimately, contributing to aspects of language evolution. We review evidence of diverse sort (ethological mostly, but also archaeological, genetic, and physiological) supporting a positive feedback loop between dog domestication and human-self domestication that might have favoured the mechanisms promoting structural complexity in human languages.
... Dans le cadre de la relation humain -chien, il a été rapporté que des interactions calmes et positives induisent une augmentation de la concentration d'ocytocine chez les deux protagonistes de la relation (Handlin et al. 2011, Miller et al. 2009, Nagasawa et al. 2009, Odendaal & Meintjes 2003. Nagasawa et ses collaborateurs ( (Archer & Monton 2011, Serpell 2004). Figure 11. ...
Dans une société où les animaux compagnons sont intégrés au cercle familial, beaucoup d’humains les considèrent comme des membres de la famille à part entière. La recherche doit suivre cette tendance et s’attacher à appréhender les mécanismes de relations qui se construisent entre différentes espèces amenées à cohabiter. L’objectif de cette thèse est d’enrichir et d’approfondir les connaissances scientifiques sur l’éthologie du chat compagnon (Felis catus), afin de mieux appréhender ses besoins et réponses comportementales, au sein d’un environnement souvent imposé par l’humain. Les travaux restitués sont principalement centrés sur la communication interspécifique entre l’humain et le chat. Soucieux d’explorer aussi bien la perspective de l’humain que celle du chat, nous avons étudié la façon dont chacun s’exprime et décode les messages de l’autre. Ainsi, nous nous sommes intéressés à la communication vocale et visuelle entre ces deux espèces différentes qui partagent un même milieu - et doivent apprendre à communiquer efficacement pour cohabiter sereinement. Nos études ont mis en évidence que les humains utilisaient un discours spécifique pour s’adresser à leur compagnons félins, caractérisé par l’utilisation d’une voix plus aiguë. Nous avons également rapporté que les chats étaient plus attentifs à ce type de discours, mais seulement lorsqu’il était prononcé par leur compagnon humain et non par un étranger. Dans une troisième étude, nous avons observé que les chats venaient plus volontiers au contact d’un humain peu familier si celui-ci proposait un contact bimodal ou visuel, plutôt que vocal. Enfin, nous avons vu que les humains comprenaient mieux les chats dans leurs expressions bimodales et visuelles que vocales. Ainsi, bien que communément utilisée par chaque émetteur de cette communication interspécifique, la modalité vocale ne semble pas être suffisante pour la transmission et la réception d’un signal clair. Ces résultats sont discutés à la lumière des notions d’attachement, d’anthropomorphisme et de bien-être animal.
... The Pug's small bodysize, combined with a flat face, large head, bulging eyes and wrinkled forehead, may arouse positive emotions by conforming to the 'baby schema' facial configuration which triggers innate nurturing responses in humans [16]. Lorenz noted that breeds of dog, such as the Pug, have retained infant-like features into adulthood [16], and empirical studies have since demonstrated that these features increase attractiveness, particularly for women [17]. Recent research found that owners of Pugs exhibited stronger higher emotional closeness with their dog than owners of other brachycephalic breeds, with these emotional bonds particularly high in female owners [18]. ...
... Moreover, a change in arousal level or emotional valence in response to children's voices may be explained by an attraction to juvenile traits. Attraction to juvenile traits is well known in humans toward both conspecifics and pets (Archer and Monton 2011;Little 2012). It is thought to be related to parental care (Archer 1997) and could be shared by other mammal species, such as horses. ...
Recently, research on domestic mammals’ sociocognitive skills toward humans has been prolific, allowing us to better understand the human–animal relationship. For example, horses have been shown to distinguish human beings on the basis of photographs and voices and to have cross-modal mental representations of individual humans and human emotions. This leads to questions such as the extent to which horses can differentiate human attributes such as age. Here, we tested whether horses discriminate human adults from children. In a cross-modal paradigm, we presented 31 female horses with two simultaneous muted videos of a child and an adult saying the same neutral sentence, accompanied by the sound of an adult’s or child’s voice speaking the sentence. The horses looked significantly longer at the videos that were incongruent with the heard voice than at the congruent videos. We conclude that horses can match adults’ and children’s faces and voices cross-modally. Moreover, their heart rates increased during children’s vocalizations but not during adults’. This suggests that in addition to having mental representations of adults and children, horses have a stronger emotional response to children’s voices than adults’ voices.
... Dogs' abilities to 'make' their owners feel guilty is a prevalent theme in dog owner conversations and social media postings. It is possible that the combination of owners' tendency to anthropomorphize and the paedomorphic (childlike) facial characteristics [118] in many breeds trigger owners' feelings of guilt. Paedomorphic facial features, especially those in which the upper facial muscle contractions lift the brow to increase the perceived height and size of the orbital cavity (i.e., puppy eyes), may exacerbate this effect. ...
Guilt refers to an unpleasant emotional state associated with one’s behaviors, thoughts, or intentions, and it is based on the possibility that one may be in the wrong or that others may have this perception. Parental guilt is one common subtype and is often associated with work–family conflict (WFC). WFC and related guilt have been found to be associated with depression and anxiety. Through an online anonymous survey, the current study was designed to explore dog owners’ guilt surrounding their dogs. Results suggest that dog owners’ guilt and WFC associated with their dog are at levels similar to those reported in human family studies. Additionally, the relationship between dog owners’ guilt and discrepancy between participants’ actual and ideal self, in regard to the role of a dog owner, also mirrored human-only family research. Because pet-related guilt is unrecognized, acknowledged, or supported, we suggest it is disenfranchised. As people return to work, in this period of post-COVID-19 pandemic time, it is paramount that companies and communities acknowledge pet owner guilt and WFC and help owners find practical, effective solutions.
... The Pug's small bodysize, combined with a flat face, large head, bulging eyes and wrinkled forehead, may arouse positive emotions by conforming to the 'baby schema' facial configuration which triggers innate nurturing responses in humans [16]. Lorenz noted that breeds of dog, such as the Pug, have retained infant-like features into adulthood [16], and empirical studies have since demonstrated that these features increase attractiveness, particularly for women [17]. Recent research found that owners of Pugs exhibited stronger higher emotional closeness with their dog than owners of other brachycephalic breeds, with these emotional bonds particularly high in female owners [18]. ...
Plain English summary
Pugs have become phenomenally popular in the UK over recent decades. The breed has a flat-faced look (brachycephalic) that many humans find highly attractive and ‘cute’ but this flat face is also linked to several serious health problems. Consequently, there is growing concern about the welfare issues associated with the popularity and health issues of Pugs. To get a better overall perspective on the health of Pugs, this study aimed to compare the risks of common disorders between Pugs and all remaining dogs.
The study collected clinical information from first opinion veterinary practices in the UK that were participating in VetCompass. Dogs were grouped as either Pugs or non-Pugs. Information was gathered from the clinical records on all disorders diagnosed in each group during 2016 and a list of the most common disorders in each group was generated.
From 905,544 dogs in the overall study, there were 16,218 (1.79%) Pugs and 889,326 (98.21%) non-Pugs. Pugs (2.36 years, interquartile range [IQR] 1.16–4.53) were generally younger than non-Pugs (4.44 years, IQR 1.90–8.12). Pugs (8.95 kg, IQR 7.80–10.17) were also generally lower in bodyweight than non-Pugs (14.07 kg, IQR 8.15–25.20). From a combined list of 40 common disorders among both groups of dogs, Pugs had increased risk for 23 (57.5%) but had reduced risk for 7 (17.5%) disorders compared to non-Pugs. The disorders with the highest relative risk in Pugs included brachycephalic obstructive airway syndrome (BOAS) (× 53.92 risk), narrowed nostrils (× 51.25), eye ulceration (× 13.01), and skin fold infection (× 10.98). Disorders with the lowest relative risk in Pugs included heart murmur (× 0.23), fatty lump (× 0.24), aggression (× 0.31), and wounds (× 0.53).
The study provides a broad evidence base on the positive and negative aspects of the health of Pugs. Disease predispositions were more common than disease protections, confirming the hypothesis that there are many critical health-related welfare challenges to overcome for Pugs. The widely differing health profiles between Pugs and other dogs in the UK suggest that the Pug has now diverged to such an extent from mainstream dog breeds that it can no longer be considered as a typical dog from a health perspective.
... Previous research suggests that people have an innate instinct to care for dogs (57,58). This may be a mechanism that helps to explain why many owners in the current study reported that their decision or intention to acquire a dog was motivated by a desire to help a dog in need. ...
With an estimated 12. 5 million dogs in the UK alone, many people acquire a dog at some point during their lives. However, there are gaps in understanding about why UK owners decide to get dogs. Using a mixed-methods convergent design, this study identified the reasoning behind dog acquisition in a sample of UK current and prospective owners. An online survey of current (n = 8,050) and potential (n = 2,884) dog owners collected quantitative and qualitative data. Current owners were asked about the acquisition of their most recently acquired dog, whilst potential owners were asked about their dog ownership aspirations. Additional qualitative data were collected through semi-structured interviews with current (n = 166) and potential (n = 10) dog owners. Interviews focused on the factors that affected why and how people acquire dogs. Of survey responses, companionship for the respondent was the most common reason for wanting to get a dog, reported by 79.4 and 87.8% of current and potential owners, respectively. Facilitating exercise was reported as a reason for wanting to get a dog by 48.2 and 69.7% of current and potential owners, respectively. There were significant differences between current and potential owners in their likelihood of reporting pre-defined reasons, factors and influences involved in their decision to get a dog. Compared to current owners, potential owners were significantly more likely to report being motivated by most of the survey response options offered (including companionship for themselves or other adults in the household, helping a dog in need, lifestyle changes and previous experiences of meeting dogs), suggesting that current ownership status may affect experience and/or reporting expectations around dog ownership. Reflexive thematic analysis of qualitative data confirmed the importance of these motivations and identified additional reasons and factors that drive dog acquisition. These were organized into three overarching themes: Self-Related Motivation, Social-Based Motivation, and Dog-Related Positive Affect-Based Motivation. These findings provide insights into owners' expectations of ownership which may inform the development of interventions to support potential owners' decision-making around acquisition to maximize both dog and human welfare.
... 6 The infantile, anthropomorphic BC conformation has been shown to be appealing and likely drives some degree of popularity with these breeds. 7,8 Increasing demand for breeds with this extreme appearance may result in greater levels of conformational disease, and these dogs may be at increased risk of suffering. 9 BC breeds have been linked to many inherited disorders which can affect quality of life and longevity, including BC obstructive airway syndrome (BOAS), dystocia, ophthalmic diseases, neurological diseases and dermatological conditions. ...
Background:
The popularity of brachycephalic dogs continues to increase despite inherent breed health problems. Increased education of current and potential brachycephalic dog owners could reduce the desirability of severely affected dogs.
Methods:
Members of the general public were prospectively recruited to assess their understanding and opinions of brachycephalic breed-related health problems, before and after an educational intervention on brachycephalic obstructive airway syndrome (BOAS).
Results:
A total of 587 people participated. Before the intervention most participants considered characteristics of BOAS to be normal for brachycephalic dogs. Following the intervention this was moderately reduced. Responses highlighted that defining 'normal' for a breed is difficult. Referring to a trait as 'normal', even in a negative context results in normalisation. 99.7% of participants had an improved understanding of BOAS following the intervention. However, only 53.0% of the total participants and 29.3% of brachycephalic dog owning participants had their opinion of brachycephalic dogs changed. 99.5% of participants believed that potential owners should be more aware of BOAS and 57.3% of brachycephalic dog owners would have liked further information about breed health problems before purchasing their dog.
Conclusion:
Educational interventions may be beneficial in improving understanding and awareness of BOAS however, normalisation of clinical signs of BOAS remains prevalent.
... Interestingly, as noted, domestication results in neotenic, childish features, which are expected to increase our affiliative and empathic responses, and ultimately, to promote our prosociality. For instance, research conducted by Archer and Monton (2010) showed that infant features in the faces of dogs (young or adult) function as social releasers and evoke an affiliative response in humans, with pet owners who are more strongly attached to their pets showing stronger preferences for images of animals with infant features. According to our view, the ultimate triggering factor of the hypothesized feedback loop would have been the integration of the wolf into the human social structure, which was previously characterized by family-based groups with only little permeability, with the only exception of the assimilation of mating partners to avoid inbreeding (Sikora et al., 2017). ...
Different factors seemingly account for the emergence of present-day languages in our species. Human self-domestication has been recently invoked as one important force favoring language complexity mostly via a cultural mechanism. Because our self-domestication ultimately resulted from selection for less aggressive behavior and increased prosocial behavior, any evolutionary or cultural change impacting on aggression levels is expected to have fostered this process. Here, we hypothesize about a parallel domestication of humans and dogs, and more specifically, about a positive effect of our interaction with dogs on human self-domestication, and ultimately, on aspects of language evolution, through the mechanisms involved in the control of aggression. We review evidence of diverse sort (ethological mostly, but also archeological, genetic, and physiological) supporting such an effect and propose some ways of testing our hypothesis.
... Although the reason for intake was not reported, the prevalence of young birds of altricial species indicates that people likely perceive birds at younger life stages as needing to be rescued. This explanation is supported by other work showing people often feel a connection toward infant animals and perceive them to be in danger (Archer and Monton 2011;Levin et al. 2017). ...
Animals from urban areas are regularly brought into wildlife rehabilitation centers, providing untapped potential data records to inform management of wildlife species. Although rescues may be considered a wildlife stewardship behavior, not all ‘rescues’ may be warranted. Some animals are more likely to be brought into a rescue center than others, suggesting that human drivers underlying wildlife rehabilitation efforts are important to understand for urban conservation efforts. Literature has primarily focused on understanding the ecological drivers and implications of wildlife rescues. Our study is the first to investigate both the social and ecological drivers of bird rescues using census, household survey, and intake data. In Phoenix metropolitan area, Arizona, USA in 2017–2018, we found doves and common species were sent to the center most often. Altricial species (helpless at hatching) and young birds were more likely to be brought to the center, perhaps due to perceptions of young animals as vulnerable. We found rescues came from neighborhoods with higher incomes and residents with pro-ecological worldviews, perhaps reflecting a perceived responsibility for wildlife. Conversely, few rescues came from neighborhoods with a high percentage of Hispanic/Latinx residents, who often feel more interdependent with nature. Neighborhoods with greater numbers of rescues were more likely to have residents participating in yard stewardship activities as compared to neighborhoods with fewer rescues. Our findings are relevant to understanding drivers of wildlife stewardship actions and for intake centers who wish to reduce the occurrence of people bringing in wildlife that do not need to be rescued.
... The first to investigate this phenomenonthe influential ethologist Konrad Lorenzcoined the term "baby schema," i.e. specific stimulus attributes that trigger a caretaking response and the corresponding "complete affective attitude" ("Affektive Gesamteinstellung"; Lorenz, 1935). Indeed, the responses to the baby schema seem to be so deeply ingrained in human perceptual patterns that they even generalize to adults with babyish facial features (Deag & Crook, 1971;Zebrowitz & Montepare, 1992;Zebrowitz, 2003), animals (Archer & Monton, 2011;Fridlund & MacDonald, 1998;Golle, Lisibach, Mast, & Lobmaier, 2013;Lehmann, Huis in't Veld, & Vingerhoets, 2013;Sanefuji, Ohgami, & Hashiya, 2007), and inanimate objects (Gould, 1979;Miesler, Leder, & Herrmann, 2011;Morris, Reddy, & Bunting, 1995). Because of this wide generalization of responses, the baby schema response is considered universal. ...
The baby schema elicits care from potential caregivers. However, much of the research on the baby-schema is based on self-report only. To address this issue, we explored the effects of baby schema and child age on facial expressions (EMG), and eye-blink startle, in addition to self-reported liking and caring for 43 men and 48 women (39 parents). Further, basal testosterone was assessed. All groups responded with liking and caring to high baby schema, but only women also responded with more positive facial expressions. Caring and smiling towards infants compared to first graders depended on parenthood and testosterone levels. Basal testosterone levels were associated with overall reduced responsiveness to children in women and fathers, but positively in non-fathers. Whereas the baby schema overall lead to positive affect and caring, the scope of these responses and the processes underlying them, depended on gender, parenthood and hormonal status.
... Para a recepção, tabulação e tratamento de dados do rastreamento do olhar dos participantes foi usado o aplicativo Tobii Studio versão 3.3.2. Outros pesquisadores estudaram também essa ativação por estímulos de animais no homem com resultados positivos no sentido da existência desta ativação (Burnham, Kitamura, & Vollmer-Conna, 2002;Sanefuji, Ohgami, & Hashiya, 2007;Horn et al., 2013;Archer & Monton, 2011;e Golle et al., 2013). ...
Neoteny is an important biological-evolutionary process that retains phenotypic traits of the young in the adult individual of a species. Neoteny modifies the typical ontogeny velocity of the morphological characteristics shared with the ancestors. These changes may represent opportunities for dramatic phenotype modifications with few genetic changes, allowing for alterations in specialized states. The ethologist Konrad Lorenz has recognized neotenic characteristics in humans and some species of mammals in the structural formula of the body (mainly of the face) typical of infants. This body formula was named by Lorenz Kindchenschema. Typical humans respond when they observe infant traits by activating a response called the Kindchenschema Effect (KE). In this effect, there is a decrease in aggressiveness, stimulation of parental care and social engagement. There is a paucity of eye scanning in individuals with neurodevelopmental disorders such as Williams Syndrome (WS) and Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD). The present work is the first in the literature to investigate the eye scanning in WS and ASD patients using neotenic facial stimuli of humans and animals. In the present investigation, 21 WS and 25 ASD participants were studied. The control group (CG) had 33 participants. We found a correspondence between the stated results of the preferred stimulus and the fixation time. The results showed that all the participants fixed more the region of the eyes of humans and animals, and the CG fixed more time than the WS and ASD participants. It was possible to distinguish, using the fixation time in the eyes and Heat Maps, the three groups. The production of a rapid and non-invasive auxiliary clinical examination is feasible for individuals suspected in presenting a neurodevelopmental dysfunction. Perhaps the nose and mouth areas are less important, and the ears are more important than previously considered with respect. The more neotenic stimuli of human and animal infants produced a similar pattern of fixation time in the three groups studied. This may represent a greater adaptive value than we thought of those with WS and ASD. We suggest that the new investigations can also incorporate facial variables as ears, hair color and eyes, and facial symmetry.
... Natal attraction, an indiscriminate attraction towards infantile traits perceived to be 'cute', has been suggested to be a major driver of parental and prosocial behaviours in group-living animals (Silk, 1999;Archer & Monton, 2011;Stark et al., 2016). We found little support for natal attraction as a driver of allocare in belugas. ...
Allocare, investment in offspring from non-parents, poses an evolutionary enigma. While the fitness trade-offs driving parental care are universal, alloparents may be driven by kin selection, reciprocation, the need to acquire parenting skills (‘learning-to-parent’), an indiscriminate attraction towards infants (‘natal attraction’), or a combination of multiple drivers. Among belugas ( Delphinapterus leucas ), allocare has been reported in wild and captive populations, but its underlying mechanisms remain untested. Using over 1800 focal observations, we quantified alloparental associations in St. Lawrence Estuary (SLE) belugas to determine whether the learning-to-parent and natal attraction hypotheses are consistent with patterns of allocare in this population. We found that subadults showed little interest in providing allocare and that alloparental investment remained constant across offspring age classes. As the observed patterns of allocare are inconsistent with both the learning-to-parent and natal attraction hypotheses, allocare in SLE belugas is likely driven by kin selection, reciprocation, or a combination thereof.
... A specific set of infantile features, including a large head, round face and large, low-lying eyes, were described in classical ethology as evoking a nurturing response from human caregivers [25]. This human attraction to infant-like stimuli has been generalised to cats and dogs [26], with evidence suggesting that people demonstrate the same degree of empathy for a baby as for a puppy [27]. The ability of puppies to eclipse rational human thought, due to the "cute response" is suggested to be an important motivation to acquire a puppy [28]. ...
Understanding the factors that result in people becoming dog owners is key to developing messaging around responsible acquisition and providing appropriate support for prospective owners to ensure a strong dog–owner bond and optimise dog welfare. This qualitative study investigated factors that influence pet dog acquisition. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 142 sets of dog owners/caretakers at 23 Dogs Trust community events. Interviews focused on the motivations and influences that impacted how people acquired their dogs. Transcribed interviews and notes were thematically analysed. Two acquisition types were reported, that each accounted for half of our interviewees’ experiences: planned and unplanned. Whilst planned acquisitions involved an intentional search for a dog, unplanned acquisitions occurred following an unexpected and unsought opportunity to acquire one. Unplanned acquisitions frequently involved a participant’s family or friends, people happening upon a dog in need, or dogs received as gifts. Motivations for deciding to take the dog included emotional attachments and a desire to help a vulnerable animal. Many reported making the decision to acquire the dog without hesitation and without conducting any pre-acquisition research. These findings present valuable insights for designers of interventions promoting responsible acquisition and ownership, because there is minimal opportunity to deliver messaging with these unplanned acquisitions. Additionally, these findings may guide future research to develop more complete understandings of the acquisition process. Further studies are required to understand the prevalence of unplanned acquisitions.
... It is posited that the aesthetic appeal of brachycephalic breeds is driven by the "baby schema effect" whereby brachycephalic face shapes mimic human infantile features to arouse positive emotions and nurturing responses in human adults [23]. Empirical studies have demonstrated that infantile features in cats, dogs and teddy bears increase their attractiveness, and that women show higher ratings for pets with infantile features than men [24]. As well as being biologically rewarding, the attractiveness of the appearance of brachycephalic dogs may be also socially reinforced. ...
Brachycephalic breeds are proliferating internationally, with dramatic rises in popularity juxtaposed with common and severe breed-related health problems. Physical appearance is as a dominant factor attracting owners to brachycephalic breeds; however, whether these owners will choose their current breed for future ownership and develop ‘breed-loyalty’ in the face of health problems is not yet known. The aims of this study were (1) to quantify levels of, and explore factors associated with, brachycephalic dog owners’ intentions to: (i) reacquire and/or (ii) recommend their current breed to potential first-time dog owners, and (2) to use qualitative methods to explore why brachycephalic dog owners would or would not recommend their current breed. This large mixed methods study reports on 2168 owners of brachycephalic breeds (Pugs: n = 789; French Bulldog: n = 741; Bulldogs: n = 638). Owners were highly likely to want to own their breed again in the future (93.0%) and recommend their breed to other owners (65.5%). Statistical modelling identified that first-time ownership and increased strength of the dog-owner relationship increased the likelihood of reacquisition and/or recommendation. In contrast, an increased number of health problems, positive perception of their dog’s health compared with the rest of their breed, and dog behaviour being worse than expected decreased the likelihood of reacquisition and/or recommendation. Thematic analyses constructed three themes describing why owners recommend their breed: positive behavioural attributes for a companion dog, breed suited to a sedentary lifestyle with limited space, and suitability for households with children. Five themes described why owners recommended against their breed: high prevalence of health problems, expense of ownership, ethical and welfare issues associated with breeding brachycephalic dogs, negative effects upon owner lifestyle and negative behavioural attributes. Understanding how breed-loyalty develops, and whether it can be attenuated, will be key to controlling the current population boom in brachycephalic breeds in the long-term.
... Adults tend to perceive young children's faces as cuter or more attractive than older children's, but they find all juvenile faces cuter or more attractive than adult faces (Luo, Li, & Lee, 2011). Archer and Monton (2011) demonstrated faces with the infant features were rated as more attractive than those without. Adult women are more attentive to infants' faces-particularly expressive faces-than adult faces (Thompson-Booth et al., 2013), and adults tend to pay more attention to (Cardenas, Harris, & Becker, 2013) and devote more resources to infants (Brosch et al., 2007). ...
Effects of cuteness‐perception on individual cognition, emotion, behavior have significant implications for moral education. On the one hand, cuteness perception will make individuals think that moral violations are more serious and lead to tougher moral judgments; on the other hand, cuteness perception can activate moral emotions such as compassion and empathy, and induce to expand the scope of moral concern. Cuteness perception can also promote people to engage in altruistic moral behaviors such as donating, helping, etc. Based on these findings, we suggest to provide the lively content of moral education with diverse educational forms and take advantage of the anthropomorphic effect of cuteness while reduce the negative effects of cuteness. Lay abstract: Effects of cuteness perception on individual cognition, emotion, behavior have significant implications for moral education. Cuteness perception can activate moral emotions such as compassion and empathy, and induce to expand the scope of moral concern. It can also promote people to engage in altruistic moral behaviors such as donating, helping, etc. Based on these findings, we provide some suggestions to moral education.
Defining the ideal characteristics of canine companions is imperative to those seeking to improve human–dog relationships. Previous investigations into the preferred traits of companion dogs were conducted before substantial recent events, such as the rise of social media and the COVID-19 pandemic, which altered human lifestyles and potentially affected canine preferences and owner satisfaction. This study surveyed Australian adults (n = 337) online to assess these shifts. The ideal dog was characterised as medium-sized, with a short- low- or non-shedding coat, and acquired as a puppy from a shelter/rescue. Desired traits included being affectionate, healthy, non-aggressive, safe with children, housetrained, non-destructive when alone, and not prone to escaping. Principal Component Analysis identified five factors: ‘calm and obedient’, ‘inhibitory control’, ‘energy and drive’, ‘non-aggressive and safe’, and ‘affectionate and healthy’. Demographic variables of age, gender, perceived income, and household children influenced preferences. No significant differences in owner satisfaction with behaviour were observed between dogs acquired during versus outside the pandemic. The findings align with prior Australian research, suggesting enduring stability in preferences for the ideal companion dog. These insights offer valuable guidance for breeders, prospective owners, and policymakers to reduce dog relinquishment and improve human–dog relationships.
Pet parenting is part of the pet-guardian relationship and involves caring for companion animals by applying strategies and actions typically seen in the parent-child caregiving system. This phenomenon, which is becoming increasingly common in cultures experiencing the second demographic transition (marked by urbanization, increased educational attainment, and life orientation beyond reproduction), reflects a shift in the perception of companion animals, particularly dogs. Using the PRISMA method, we conducted a systematic review to provide a comprehensive overview of these emerging patterns of dog-directed parenting. We analyzed 15 scientific articles on pet parenting involving companion dogs, the results of which were thematically grouped into three sections. The first section, the use of parent-child terms related to companion animals and guardians, showed that familiar terms (e.g., father or the kid) are widely used within pet parenting and that factors such as familiarity with the conversational partner, culture, and the existence of children affect their usage. The second section, the influence of offspring, culture, and gender on pet parenting, included studies indicating that having children was negatively associated with attachment intensity and resource investment. We also described research pointing to common factors (e.g., the second demographic transition) and disparities (e.g., gender roles differentiation in traditional parenting) in cultures experiencing this phenomenon. The third section, pet parenting styles, discussed studies that identified traditional parenting styles and dimensions within the dog-guardian relationships (i.e., authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive), characterized by guardians’ level of demand and responsiveness towards their dogs. Moreover, we described findings regarding the impact of pet parenting styles and dimensions on dog’s health, attachment, sociability, and problem-solving behaviors. Results of the systematic review are discussed to comprehensively characterize the pet parenting phenomenon in relation to dogs; overall, they emphasize the relevance of adopting authoritative strategies to parent, educate, and train dogs, which directly impact on dog’s well-being.
Previous fMRI research found increased brain responses in men with pedophilic interest to non-sexual pictures of child and animal faces. This raised the question of whether an aberrant nurturing system could be linked to pedophilia. To further explore this hypothesis, 20 pedohebephilic and 23 teleiophilic men performed a target detection task with adult versus infant human and animal faces, which measured selective attention towards the baby schema by comparing reaction times to infant versus adult targets that were presented amongst distractors of the other category. Since the response to baby schema can be influenced by steroid hormones, saliva samples were additionally collected to determine endogenous testosterone, progesterone, estradiol and cortisol. Contrary to expectations, all men did not react faster to infant than adult faces. Yet, pedohebephilic men were more distracted by infant’s faces than teleiophilic men. Pedohebephilic men with higher testosterone were faster in orienting attention to infant targets in the context of adult distractors. This association was not observed in teleiophilic men. Our results support the idea of an overactive nurturing system in pedophilia, which may be influenced by the endogenous testosterone level.
Pet-directed speech (PDS) is often produced by humans when addressing dogs. Similar to infant-directed speech, PDS is marked by a relatively higher and more modulated fundamental frequency ( f 0 ) than is adult-directed speech. We tested the prediction that increasing eye size in dogs, one facial feature of neoteny (juvenilisation), would elicit exaggerated prosodic qualities or pet-directed speech. We experimentally manipulated eye size in photographs of twelve dog breeds by −15%, +15% and +30%. We first showed that dogs with larger eyes were indeed perceived as younger. We then recorded men and women speaking towards these photographs, who also rated these images for cuteness. Linear mixed-effects models demonstrated that increasing eye size by 15% significantly increased pitch range ( f 0 range) and variability ( f 0 CV) among women only. Cuteness ratings did not vary with eye size, due to a possible ceiling effect across eye sizes. Our results offer preliminary evidence that large eyes can elicit pet-directed speech and suggest that PDS may be modulated by perceived juvenility rather than cuteness. We discuss these findings in the context of inter-species vocal communication.
Brachycephalic dog breeds are highly popular, yet their conformation-related disorders represent a major welfare concern. It has been suggested that the current popularity of such breeds can be explained by their cute, infant-like facial appearances. The concept of ‘kindchenschema’ refers to the observation that certain physical features of infant humans and other animals can automatically stimulate positive and nurturant feelings in adult observers. But the proposal that brachycephalic dogs possess heightened ‘kindchenschema’ facial features, even into adulthood, has never been formally investigated. Here, we hypothesised that relative muzzle shortening across a range of breeds would be associated with known ‘kindchenschema’ facial features, including a relatively larger forehead, larger eyes and smaller nose. Relative fronto-facial feature sizes in exemplar photographs of adult dogs from 42 popular breeds were measured and associated with existing data on the relative muzzle length and height-at-withers of the same breeds. Our results show that, in adulthood, shorter-muzzled breeds have relatively larger (taller) foreheads and relatively larger eyes (i.e. area of exposed eyeball relative to overall face area) than longer-muzzled breeds, and that this effect is independent of breed size. In sum, brachycephalic dog breeds do show exaggeration of some, but not all, known fronto-facial ‘kindchenschema’ features, and this may well contribute to their apparently cute appearance and to their current popularity as companion animals. We conclude that the challenge of addressing conformation-related disorders in companion dogs needs to take account of the cute, ‘kindchenschema’ looks that many owners are likely to be attracted to.
The decision-making behavior of potential dog adopters remains a research gap that needs to be addressed to model the adoption decision-making process and understand how shelter and rescue strategies may increase adoption decisions. This study investigated decision considerations of potential adopters visiting eight Mid-Atlantic dog adoption sites. Surveys from potential adopters (N = 517) were examined for information about their search, adoption intent during visit, and the decision factor(s) under consideration. Findings showed dog behavior was the top decision factor that potential adopters considered (305; 58.9%), which was significantly greater than chance (χ² = 16.729, p < .01). Behavior was followed by dog’s age (χ² = 17.456, p < .01), size (χ² = 50.137, p < .01), and lifestyle fit (χ² = 57.89, p < .01). Overall findings suggest potential adopters consider similar sets of decision factors when heading into adoption site visits, independent of age group, type of household, or prior experience having pets.
Cuteness in the young has long been theorized to elicit care and protection. Most research on this topic has focused on human infants, despite theories suggesting that cuteness may elicit broader social interest that could support learning and development beyond infancy. In four experiments (N = 531 adults, 98 children), we tested whether ‘kindchenschema’—facial features associated with cuteness—and perceived cuteness elicit interest in playing with and caring for children, and whether masks disrupt these processes. Participants viewed images of children’s faces, masked or unmasked. Kindchenschema correlated with perceived cuteness and age, and these variables predicted adults’ interest in playing with and caring for children. Masks did not reduce cuteness ratings or interest in children, although they weakened relations between perceived cuteness and interest, and between perceived age and interest. Cuteness and related signals may guide adults’ interactions with children, fostering learning and development.
Animal-assisted therapy (AAT) is highly heterogeneous at many levels, for example with regards to the setting itself, recipients of the intervention, species involved as therapy animals and their therapeutic potential. Dogs are the most commonly involved species in this work, and there may be good reasons for this beyond their availability. Some specific characteristics such as their cognitive and emotional capacities and biases, their evolutionary connection with humans, as well as a natural attraction and emotional connection between both species make dogs particularly suitable for AAT and many other forms of AAI. In this chapter, we elaborate on the significance of these characteristics and discuss the attributes required of an ideal dog working in this sort of context. Furthermore, we provide suggestions for strategies and approaches to optimally prepare, help, and support therapy dogs for and during their work in order to minimise risks, maximise therapeutic potential, and secure the well-being of all involved parties.
Anthropomorphic figures of nonhuman animals are omnipresent in various forms of mass media (e.g., movies, books, and advertising). The depiction of companion and wild animals, including nonhuman primates (e.g., chimpanzees), as possessing human characteristics or behaviors can influence these animals’ desirability as companions. Ultimately, this can distort general public perception of what constitutes “normal” wild behavior, as well as the conservation status of these animals. Therefore, anthropomorphic animal representations can contribute to the spread of misleading messages that may have highly unpredictable effects. In the present review, we have highlighted various articles from the academic literature which focus on anthropomorphised animals, noting the main thematic issues. We suggest that further studies on this topic are needed to deepen such a complex and not yet clarified topic.
Los vínculos entre personas y otros animales se han convertido en área respetada de investigación dentro de la antrozoología. La Asociación Americana de Medicina Veterinaria los define como relaciones dinámicas y mutuamente beneficiosas que incluyen conductas que impactan en el bienestar de los humanos y animales implicados. Con el propósito de describir sus particularidades, se revisan las tres teorías más renombradas sobre la formación de vínculos humano-animal: Teoría del Apoyo Social, Teoría del Apego y Teoría de la Biofilia. Partiendo de un esquema propuesto por Fine (2014; 2019) se desarrollan los constructos conceptualizados como factores que motivan la formación de estos vínculos, proponiendo una redefinición y ampliación de estos factores. De este modo, se plantea un esquema integrado por: (1) antropomorfismo, (2) dependencia/cuidados nutricios, (3) integración en la vida familiar, (4) balance costo-beneficio, y (5) influencia sociocultural. Estos factores se fundamentan a su vez en el apoyo social, el apego y la biofilia. Finalmente, se discute la falta de mención del afecto implicado en la definición de vínculo. Se cuestiona el intento de adecuación conceptual del vínculo humano-animal a una definición de amistad, en tanto el primero cuenta diferencialmente con la asimetría dada por la dependencia y los cuidados, más bien, propios de una relación parental. Así, se desarrolla el concepto de amor familiar, como un afecto desinteresado y leal que permite que vínculos sociales externos a la familia puedan ser incorporados a esta, y se integra esta noción a la definición del vínculo.
Abstract: The bonds between people and other animals has become a respected research field within anthrozoology. The American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) considers them as dynamic and mutually beneficial relationships, which include actions that impact on the wellbeing of both parts. With the aim of describing their particular traits, we revisited the three most renowned theories on the human-animal bond formation: Social support theory, Attachment theory and Biophilia theory (hypothesis). As of a scheme proposed by Fine (2014; 2019) the conceptualized constructs as factors that motivate the formation of these bonds were developed, which led to their redefinition and extension. Hence, we pose a scheme compound of: (1) anthropomorphism, (2) dependence/nurturing, (3) integration in family life, (4) cost-benefit balance and (5) sociocultural influence. These factors are grounded, at the same time, on social support, attachment and biophilia. Finally, we discuss the omission of affection implied in the definition of bond. We question the intent of conceptual adequation of the human-animal bond into a friendship definition, as the former possesses a differential asymmetry given by the dependency and care, rather typical of a parental relationship. Thus, the concept of familial love is developed as a selfless and loyal kind of affection that allow external social bonds to be incorporated to the family and this notion is integrated in the bond definition.
Background
Visual atypicalities in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are a well documented phenomenon, beginning as early as 2–6 months of age and manifesting in a significantly decreased attention to the eyes, direct gaze and socially salient information. Early emerging neurobiological deficits in perceiving social stimuli as rewarding or its active avoidance due to the anxiety it entails have been widely purported as potential reasons for this atypicality. Parallel research evidence also points to the significant benefits of animal presence for reducing social anxiety and enhancing social interaction in children with autism. While atypicality in social attention in ASD has been widely substantiated, whether this atypicality persists equally across species types or is confined to humans has not been a key focus of research insofar.
Methods
We attempted a comprehensive examination of the differences in visual attention to static images of human and animal faces (40 images; 20 human faces and 20 animal faces) among children with ASD using an eye tracking paradigm. 44 children (ASD n = 21; TD n = 23) participated in the study (10,362 valid observations) across five regions of interest (left eye, right eye, eye region, face and screen).
Results
Results obtained revealed significantly greater social attention across human and animal stimuli in typical controls when compared to children with ASD. However in children with ASD, a significantly greater attention allocation was seen to animal faces and eye region and lesser attention to the animal mouth when compared to human faces, indicative of a clear attentional preference to socially salient regions of animal stimuli. The positive attentional bias toward animals was also seen in terms of a significantly greater visual attention to direct gaze in animal images.
Conclusion
Our results suggest the possibility that atypicalities in social attention in ASD may not be uniform across species. It adds to the current neural and biomarker evidence base of the potentially greater social reward processing and lesser social anxiety underlying animal stimuli as compared to human stimuli in children with ASD.
I review the direction and magnitude (effect sizes) of gender differences that have been reported in several areas of human-animal interactions. These include: attitudes toward the treatment of animals, attachment to pets, involvement in animal protectionism, animal hoarding, hunting, animal abuse, and bestiality. Women, on average, show higher levels of positive behaviors and attitudes toward animals (e.g., attitudes towards their use, involvement in animal protection), whereas men typically have higher levels of negative attitudes and behaviors (e.g., hunting, animal abuse, less favorable attitudes toward animal protection). The effect sizes of gender differences range from small (e.g., attachment), to medium size (e.g., attitudes toward animal use) to large (e.g., animal rights activism, animal abuse by adults.) In most areas, there is considerable overlap between men and women, with much greater within-sex than between-sex variation. Research on the roles of gender in human-animal relationships is hindered by the omission in many reports of gender difference effect sizes and basic descriptive statistics.
In Exps I and II, 25 undergraduates viewed drawings from 1 frontal and/or 2 profile series of heads produced by using a transformation that models the changes in cephalic morphology during growth. In Exps III and IV, 80 Ss viewed actual profile outlines of a girl's head at 4 different ages. Ss selected from pairs (Exps I and III), ranked (Exp II), or rated (Exp IV) the drawings according to how compelled they would feel to defend the depicted individuals if they saw someone striking them. In all 4 experiments the tendency to protect others decreased as the shape of the recipient's head changed due to simulated or actual growth. Results of 2 experiments indicate that being female or having more experience with children may increase the effect of age-related changes in head shape on the protective responses of Ss. Results are discussed from an ethological view of perception and adult–infant interactions. (47 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Although the literature on human-animal interactions has documented the physical, psychological, and social benefits resulting from positive relationships with dogs, cats, and other kinds of companion animals, many attachment instruments include items that pertain to specific kinds of interactions with dogs. For this reason, dog owners attain higher scores on these measures than owners of cats and other types of pets. This study introduces a scale for measuring attachment in terms of the perceived comfort received from a pet. A sample of 87 cat owners and 58 dog owners completed the Comfort from Companion Animals Scale. The results showed that, when two items pertaining to dogs were included, dog owners showed a significantly higher degree of attachment. When only the 11 items pertaining to the emotional nature of the relationship were included, however, there were no differences in the scores of the two groups. The results indicate the importance of clarifying both the commonalities and differences of human interactions with various companion animal species.
An alternative to the view that during evolution the human brain became specialized to preferentially attend to threat-related stimuli is to assume that all classes of stimuli that have high biological significance are prioritized by the attention system. Newborns are highly biologically relevant stimuli for members of a species, as their survival is important for reproductive success. The authors examined whether the Kindchenschema (baby schema) as described by Lorenz (1943) captures attention in the dot probe task. The results confirm attentional capture by photos of human infants presented to the left visual field, suggesting right hemisphere advantage. The magnitude of the attentional modulation was highly correlated with subjective arousal ratings of the photos. The findings show that biologically significant positive stimuli are prioritized by the attention system.
"(Tuan) does a masterful job exploring the condescending human treatment of animals as 'playthings' that exist only for our entertainment. He charts the malevolent history of male domination over women and children and the sad chronicle of slaves, dwarfs and other 'freaks' treated as human appliances or toys. This provocative study of power in the world of pleasure, play and art is a tour de force." -Cultural Information Service "A brilliant book that will appeal to a wide audience. The volume provides excellent material for school and college seminar debates on humankind's place in nature and attitudes toward other living things. . . . (A) penetrating analysis. . . . Readable at all levels."-Choice.
The problem addressed in this paper is variability in the quality of parental care. Situational determinants of this variability are considered within the framework of evolutionary theory. Parental behavior in people and animals is discussed from this perspective, with attention to parental attachment, child abuse and neglect, parental sex differences, adoption, and differential treatment of one's children.
Neonatal features in the newborn are thought to trigger parental care, the most fundamental prosocial behaviour. The underlying mechanisms that release parental care have not yet been resolved. Here we report sex differences in the ability to discriminate cues to cuteness despite equivalence in the capability to discriminate age and facial expression. These differences become apparent in a task where adults were asked to choose the cuter of two babies. While women could reliably choose the cuter infant, men had more difficulty in doing so. When showing the exact same face pairs but asking to choose the younger or the happier baby, there was no sex difference. These results suggest that the sex difference in the ability to discriminate cues to cuteness in infants underlies female-specific emotive responses. We argue that this reactivity expressed by women evolved to ensure that a female allocates her caretaking resources to her youngest offspring while it needs mothering care.
The evidence that people form strong attachments with their pets is briefly reviewed before identifying the characteristics of such relationships, which include pets being a source of security as well as the objects of caregiving. In evolutionary terms, pet ownership poses a problem, since attachment and devoting resources to another species are, in theory, fitness-reducing. Three attempts to account for pet keeping are discussed, as are the problems with these views. Pet keeping is placed into the context of other forms of interspecific associations. From this, an alternative Darwinian explanation is proposed: pets are viewed as manipulating human responses that had evolved to facilitate human relationships, primarily (but not exclusively) those between parent and child. The precise mechanisms that enable pets to elicit caregiving from humans are elaborated. They involve features that provide the initial attraction, such as neotenous characteristics, and those that enable the human owner to derive continuing satisfaction from interacting with the pet, such as the attribution of mental processes to human-like organisms. These mechanisms can, in some circumstances, cause pet owners to derive more satisfaction from their pet relationship than those with humans, because they supply a type of unconditional relationship that is usually absent from those with other human beings.
Lorenz's concept of "babyness" as an innate releaser for infant caretaking behavior was investigated in relation to its developmental aspects. 20 males and 20 females at grade levels 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, and adults were presented with pairs of slides depicting human adults, human infants, animal adults, and animal infants and asked for their preference. Results indicated that for females there was a striking change in preference from adults to infants occurring between grades 6 and 8. Males also showed a significant increase in infant preference, but it was not so dramatic and occurred at least 2 years later. There was no difference in preference for animal versus human slides.
Do we read character in faces? What information do faces actually provide? Why do we associate certain facial qualities with particular character traits? What are the social and psychological consequences of reading character in faces? Zebrowitz unmasks the face and provides the first systematic, scientific account of our tendency to judge people by their appearance. Offering an in-depth analysis of two appearance qualities that influence our impressions of others, babyfaceness" and attractiveness", and an account of these impressions, Zebrowitz has written an accessible and valuable book for professionals and general readers alike.The assumption that people's faces provide a window to their inner nature has a long and distinguished history, eloquently expressed in the works of ancient philosophers, like Aristotle, and great writers, like Shakespeare. Zebrowitz examines this assumption, focusing on four central points. She shows that facial appearance, particularly babyfaceness and attractiveness, has a strong impact on how we perceive an individual's character traits and on social outcomes in the workplace, in the criminal justice system, and in other settings. She proposes that facial stereotypes derive from evolutionarily adaptive reactions to useful information that faces can provide. She assesses the accuracy of facial stereotypes in light of plausible links between appearance and character. Finally, Zebrowitz suggests ways to counteract the consequences of reading faces.
A 35-item questionnaire (DAQ: Dog Attachment Questionnaire) involving 5-point Likert responses to items designed to measure aspects of attachment to a pet/companion animal dog was constructed. The content was derived from theoretical treatments of adult human attachment, used in a broad sense as equivalent to an affectional bond. Items based on four groupings were modified for a pet dog. Two samples of dog owners (n = 112 and 306, respectively) were used to investigate the factor structure of the questionnaire, using first exploratory and then confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The questionnaire showed high overall internal consistency, it indicated a high level of attachment to the pets, and factor analysis indicated a four-factor solution, which was replicated using CFA in Sample 2. Three of these factors produced reliable subscales, indicating (1) degree of closeness with the pet; (2) caring and protecting the pet, and companionship; (3) as a secure base and a source of emotional comfort and well-being. In sample 2, Total DAQ scores were positively related to a single-item pictorial measure of attachment to the dog, and were higher for women than men but not associated with age or duration of ownership.
Discusses the role of selection based on particular human propensities in the evolution of artifacts. Changes in teddy bear appearance since 1903 are related to K. Lorenz's (1950) suggestion that certain key features elicit nurturance and affection and that dolls and cartoon characters are influenced by this dynamic. (5 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Relationships whose loss triggers grief are termed “relationships of attachment.” These relationships are pair-bond relationships, parental attachments to children, transference relationships to helpers, and persisting childlike attachments to parents. Because these relationships share significant characteristics, it is proposed that they are developments of a single socio-emotional system—the attachment system of children. This point of view permits a unified treatment of a number of topics, including the threats that elicit attachment emotions and behaviors, the impact of loss, the nature and course of recovery from loss, impediments to recovery, and the forms taken by failures to recover.
A clearly written and detailed survey of the area where psychology, physiology, and ethology overlap. Harvard Book List (edited) 1971 #219 (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Natural selection leads to maladaptive behavior through several interrelated means. New adaptations may be constrained by designs resulting from past adaptations, there may be maladaptive by-products of adaptive responses, and environments may change faster than the capacity to respond to them. The behavior of hosts of avian brood parasites provides an example, and it is argued that human pet keeping is another, involving the manipulation of human responses that evolved for other purposes. This leads to strong attachments by humans to their pets, which are underpinned by the following: (a) infant schema, which may be maintained in adult pets; (b) anthropomorphism; (c) motherese or infant-directed speech, which further facilitates the development of the human-pet bond; and (d) the ability to regard attachments to pets more favorably than those to humans. Adaptations by pet species facilitate human attachments, and support the view that pets manipulate the human owners.
In 1943 Konrad Lorenz postulated that certain infantile cues served as releasers for caretaking behaviour in human adults. This study is an attempt to confirm this hypothesis and to identify relevant cues. The stimuli studied were variations in facial features, and the responses were ratings of the attractiveness of the resultant infant faces. Parametric variations of eye height, eye width, eye height and width, iris size, and vertical variations in feature position (all presented in full-face drawings) were tested for their effect on the ratings, and highly significant preferences for particular stimuli were found. In general these preferences are consistent across a wide variety of environmental factors such as social class and experience with children. These findings are consistent with an ethological interpretation of the data.
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